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A verb is a composite sound, significant with time, 01 which no part is of itself significant, in the same manner also as in nouns. For man or white does not signify time; but he walks, or he did walk, signify, the former indeed the present, and the latter the past time. ¹ But case pertains to noun or verb. And one case, indeed, [in nouns] signifies that something is said of this thing, or is attributed to this thing, and the like; ²³ but another is that which pertains to one thing or many things; as men, or man.

Poetics. Aristotle. Theodore Alois Buckley (Translator). London. 1857.

Current edition Experimental

The Poetic of Aristotle (Theodore Alois Buckley) (OCR draft) (English) (Theodore Alois Buckley's English translation, first published in 1850 and represented from the Henry G. Bohn 1857 printing; corrected against a second OCR and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.)

Provisional text from uncorrected OCR; expect errors.

Editions (4)

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) (Aristotle, Poetics. Immanuel Bekker, editor, Aristotelis Opera, volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1837.) — 20 focus

Τῆς δὲ λέξεως ἁπάσης τάδ᾿ ἐστὶ τὰ μέρη, στοιχεῖον, συλλαβή, σύνδεσμος, ὄνομα, ῥῆμα, ἄρθρον, πτῶσις, λόγος.

Στοιχεῖον μὲν οὖν ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἀδιαίρετος, οὐ πᾶσα δέ, ἀλλ᾿ ἐξ ἧς πέφυκε συνετὴ γίνεσθαι φωνή· καὶ γὰρ τῶν θηρίων εἰσὶν ἀδιαίρετοι φωναί, ὦν οὐδεμίαν λέγω στοιχεῖον.

Ταύτης δὲ μέρη τό τε φωνῆεν καὶ τὸ ἡμίφωνον καὶ ἄφωνον. Ἔστι δὲ φωνῆεν μὲν ἄνευ προσβολῆς ἔχον φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, οἷον τὸ Α καὶ τὸ Ω, ἡμίφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ προσβολῆς ἔχον φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, οἷον τὸ Σ καὶ τὸ Ρ, ἄφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ προσβολῆς καθ᾿ αὑτὸ μὲν οὐδεμίαν ἔχον φωνήν, μετὰ δὲ τῶν ἐχόντων τινὰ φωνὴν γινόμενον ἀκουστόν, οἷον τὸ Γ καὶ τὸ Δ.

Ταῦτα δὲ διαφέρει σχήμασί τε τοῦ στόματος καὶ τόποις καὶ δασύτητι καὶ ψιλότητι καὶ μήκει καὶ βραχύτητι, ἔτι δὲ ὀξύτητι καὶ βαρύτητι καὶ τῷ μέσῳ· περὶ ὦν καθ᾿ ἕκαστον ἐν τοῖς μετρικοῖς προσήκει θεωρεῖν.

Συλλαβὴ δ᾿ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος, συνθετὴ ἐξ ἀφώνου καὶ φωνὴν ἔχοντος· καὶ γὰρ τὸ ΓΡ ἄνευ τοῦ Α συλλαβή, καὶ μετὰ τοῦ Α, οἷον τὸ ΓΡΑ. Ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων θεωρῆσαι τὰς διαφορὰς τῆς μετρικῆς ἐστίν.

Σύνδεσμος δ᾿ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος, ἣ οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικήν, ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν πεφυκυῖαν συντίθεσθαι, καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου, ἢν μὴ ἁρμόττῃ ἐν ἀρχῇ λόγου τιθέναι καθ᾿ αὑτόν, οἷον μέν, ἤτοι, δή. Ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἐκ πλειόνων μὲν φωνῶν μιᾶς, σημαντικῶν δέ, ποιεῖν πεφυκυῖα μίαν σημαντικὴν φωνήν.

Ἄρθρον δ᾿ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος, ἣ λόγου ἀρχὴν ἢ τέλος ἢ διορισμὸν δηλοῖ, οἷον τὸ φημί καὶ τὸ περί καὶ τὰ ἄλλα. Ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος, ἣ οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν, πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου.

Ὄνομα δ᾿ ἐστὶ φωνὴ συνθετή, σημαντικὴ ἄνευ χρόνου, ἧς μέρος οὐδέν ἐστι καθ᾿ αὑτὸ σημαντικόν· ἐν γὰρ τοῖς διπλοῖς οὐ χρώμεθα, ὡς καὶ αὐτὸ καθ᾿ αὑτὸ σημαῖνον, οἷον ἐν τῷ Θεοδώρῳ τὸ δῶρον οὐ σημαίνει.

Ῥῆμα δὲ φωνὴ συνθετή, σημαντικὴ μετὰ χρόνου, ἧς οὐδὲν μέρος σημαίνει καθ᾿ αὑτό, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ὀνομάτων· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ἢ λευκὸν οὐ σημαίνει τὸ πότε, τὸ δὲ βαδίζει ἢ βεβάδικε προσσημαίνει τὸ μὲν τὸν παρόντα χρόνον τὸ δὲ τὸν παρεληλυθότα.

Πτῶσις δ᾿ ἐστὶν ὀνόματος ἢ ῥήματος ἡ μὲν τὸ κατὰ τούτου ἢ τούτῳ σημαίνουσα καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, ἡ δὲ τὸ κατὰ τὸ ἑνὶ ἢ πολλοῖς, οἷον ἄνθρωποι ἢ ἄνθρωπος, ἡ δὲ κατὰ τὰ ὑποκριτικά, οἷον κατ᾿ ἐρώτησιν ἢ ἐπίταξιν· τὸ γὰρ ἐβάδισεν ἢ βάδιζε πτῶσις ῥήματος κατὰ ταῦτα τὰ εἴδη ἐστίν.

Λόγος δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ σημαντική, ἧς ἔνια μέρη καθ᾿ αὑτὰ σημαίνει τι·

οὐ γὰρ ἅπας λόγος ἐκ ῥημάτων καὶ ὀνομάτων σύγκειται, οἷον ὁ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ὁρισμός, ἀλλ᾿ ἐνδέχεται ἄνευ ῥημάτων εἶναι λόγον. Μέρος μέντοι ἀεί τι σημαῖνον ἕξει, οἷον ἐν τῷ βαδίζει Κλέων ὁ Κλέων.

Εἷς δ᾿ ἐστὶ λόγος διχῶς· ἢ γὰρ ὁ ἓν σημαίνων, ἢ ὁ ἐκ πλειόνων συνδέσμων, οἷον ἡ Ἰλιὰς μὲν συνδέσμῳ εἷς, ὁ δὲ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου τῷ ἓν σημαίνειν.

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) Perseus (Aristotle, De arte poetica liber. Rudolf Kassel, editor. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965. Reference edition for passage alignment.) — 20 focus

20 τῆς δὲ λέξεως ἁπάσης τάδ’ ἐστὶ τὰ μέρη, στοιχεῖον συλλαβὴ σύνδεσμος ὄνομα ῥῆμα ἄρθρον πτῶσις λόγος.

στοιχεῖον μὲν οὖν ἐστιν φωνὴ ἀδιαίρετος, οὐ πᾶσα δὲ ἀλλ’ ἐξ ἧς πέφυκε συνθετὴ γίγνεσθαι φωνή· καὶ γὰρ τῶν θηρίων εἰσὶν ἀδιαίρετοι φωναί, ὧν οὐδεμίαν λέγω στοιχεῖον.

ταύτης 25 δὲ μέρη τό τε φωνῆεν καὶ τὸ ἡμίφωνον καὶ ἄφωνον. ἔστιν δὲ ταῦτα φωνῆεν μὲν τὸ ἄνευ προσβολῆς ἔχον φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, ἡμίφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ προσβολῆς ἔχον φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, οἷον τὸ Σ καὶ τὸ Ρ, ἄφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ προσβολῆς καθ’ αὑτὸ μὲν οὐδεμίαν ἔχον φωνήν, μετὰ δὲ 30 τῶν ἐχόντων τινὰ φωνὴν γινόμενον ἀκουστόν, οἷον τὸ Γ καὶ τὸ Δ.

ταῦτα δὲ διαφέρει σχήμασίν τε τοῦ στόματος καὶ τόποις καὶ δασύτητι καὶ ψιλότητι καὶ μήκει καὶ βραχύτητι ἔτι δὲ ὀξύτητι καὶ βαρύτητι καὶ τῷ μέσῳ· περὶ ὧν καθ’ ἕκαστον ἐν τοῖς μετρικοῖς προσήκει θεωρεῖν.

συλλαβὴ 35 δέ ἐστιν φωνὴ ἄσημος συνθετὴ ἐξ ἀφώνου καὶ φωνὴν ἔχοντος· καὶ γὰρ τὸ ΓΡ ἄνευ τοῦ Α † συλλαβὴ καὶ † μετὰ τοῦ Α, οἷον τὸ ΓΡΑ. ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων θεωρῆσαι τὰς διαφορὰς τῆς μετρικῆς ἐστιν.

σύνδεσμος δέ ἐστιν φωνὴ ἄσημος ἣ οὔτε 1457a 1 κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν πεφυκυῖα συντίθεσθαι καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου ἣν μὴ ἁρμόττει ἐν ἀρχῇ λόγου τιθέναι καθ’ αὑτήν, οἷον μέν ἤτοι δέ. ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἣ ἐκ πλειόνων μὲν 5 φωνῶν μιᾶς σημαντικῶν δὲ ποιεῖν πέφυκεν μίαν σημαντικὴν φωνήν.

ἄρθρον δ’ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἣ λόγου ἀρχὴν ἢ τέλος ἢ διορισμὸν δηλοῖ. οἷον τὸ ἀμφί καὶ τὸ περί καὶ τὰ ἄλλα. ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἣ οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι 10 καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου.

ὄνομα δέ ἐστι φωνὴ συνθετὴ σημαντικὴ ἄνευ χρόνου ἧς μέρος οὐδέν ἐστι καθ’ αὑτὸ σημαντικόν· ἐν γὰρ τοῖς διπλοῖς οὐ χρώμεθα ὡς καὶ αὐτὸ καθ’ αὑτὸ σημαῖνον, οἷον ἐν τῷ Θεόδωρος τὸ δωρος οὐ σημαίνει.

ῥῆμα δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ σημαντικὴ μετὰ 15 χρόνου ἧς οὐδὲν μέρος σημαίνει καθ’ αὑτό, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ὀνομάτων· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ἢ λευκόν οὐ σημαίνει τὸ πότε, τὸ δὲ βαδίζει ἢ βεβάδικεν προσσημαίνει τὸ μὲν τὸν παρόντα χρόνον τὸ δὲ τὸν παρεληλυθότα.

πτῶσις δ’ ἐστὶν ὀνόματος ἢ ῥήματος ἡ μὲν κατὰ τὸ τούτου ἢ τούτῳ 20 σημαῖνον καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, ἡ δὲ κατὰ τὸ ἑνὶ ἢ πολλοῖς, οἷον ἄνθρωποι ἢ ἄνθρωπος, ἡ δὲ κατὰ τὰ ὑποκριτικά, οἷον κατ’ ἐρώτησιν ἐπίταξιν· τὸ γὰρ ἐβάδισεν; ἢ βάδιζε πτῶσις ῥήματος κατὰ ταῦτα τὰ εἴδη ἐστίν.

λόγος δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ σημαντικὴ ἧς ἔνια μέρη καθ’ αὑτὰ σημαίνει τι

(οὐ γὰρ ἅπας λόγος ἐκ ῥημάτων καὶ ὀνομάτων σύγκειται, οἷον ὁ 25 τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ὁρισμός, ἀλλ’ ἐνδέχεται ἄνευ ῥημάτων εἶναι λόγον, μέρος μέντοι ἀεί τι σημαῖνον ἕξει) οἷον ἐν τῷ βαδίζει Κλέων ὁ Κλέων.

εἷς δέ ἐστι λόγος διχῶς, ἢ γὰρ ὁ ἓν σημαίνων, ἢ ὁ ἐκ πλειόνων συνδέσμῳ, οἷον ἡ Ἰλιὰς μὲν 30 συνδέσμῳ εἷς, ὁ δὲ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου τῷ ἓν σημαίνειν.

Poetics, Greek text (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's Greek text of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 20 focus

Τῆς δὲ λέξεως ἁπάσης τάδ᾽ ἐστὶ τὰ μέρη, στοιχεῖον
συλλαβὴ σύνδεσμος ἄρθρον ὄνομα ῥῆμα πτῶσις λόγος.

στοιχεῖον μὲν οὖν ἐστιν φωνὴ ἀδιαίρετος, οὐ πᾶσα δὲ
ἀλλ᾽ ἐξ ἧς πέφυκε συνετὴ γίγνεσθαι φωνή· καὶ γὰρ τῶν
θηρίων εἰσὶν ἀδιαίρετοι φωναί, ὧν οὐδεμίαν λέγω στοιχεῖον.

ταύτης δὲ μέρη τό τε φωνῆεν καὶ τὸ ἡμίφωνον καὶ
ἄφωνον. ἔστιν δὲ φωνῆεν μὲν τὸ ἄνευ προσβολῆς ἔχον
φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, ἡμίφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ προσβολῆς ἔχον
φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, οἷον τὸ Σ καὶ τὸ Ρ, ἄφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ
προσβολῆς καθ᾽ αὑτὸ μὲν οὐδεμίαν ἔχον φωνήν, μετὰ δὲ
τῶν ἐχόντων τινὰ φωνὴν γινόμενον ἀκουστόν, οἷον τὸ Γ καὶ
τὸ Δ.

ταῦτα δὲ διαφέρει σχήμασίν τε τοῦ στόματος καὶ
τόποις καὶ δασύτητι καὶ ψιλότητι καὶ μήκει καὶ βραχύ-
τητι ἔτι δὲ ὀξύτητι καὶ βαρύτητι καὶ τῷ μέσῳ· περὶ ὧν
καθ᾽ ἕκαστον ἐν τοῖς μετρικοῖς προσήκει θεωρεῖν.

συλλαβὴ
δέ ἐστιν φωνὴ ἄσημος συνθετὴ ἐξ ἀφώνου καὶ φωνὴν ἔχοντος·
καὶ γὰρ τὸ ΓΡ ἄνευ τοῦ Α συλλαβὴ καὶ μετὰ τοῦ
Α, οἷον τὸ ΓΡΑ. ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων θεωρῆσαι τὰς διαφορὰς
τῆς μετρικῆς ἐστιν.

σύνδεσμος δέ ἐστιν φωνὴ ἄσημος ἢ οὔτε
κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειόνων
φωνῶν πεφυκυῖαν συντίθεσθαι, ἣν μὴ ἁρμόττει ἐν ἀρχῇ λόγου
τιθέναι καθ᾽ αὑτόν, οἷον μέν δή τοί δέ· ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἢ ἐκ
πλειόνων μὲν φωνῶν μιᾶς σημαντικῶν δὲ ποιεῖν πέφυκεν μίαν σημαντικὴν
φωνήν,

ἄρθρον δ᾽ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἢ λόγου ἀρχὴν ἢ
τέλος ἢ διορισμὸν δηλοῖ οἷον τὸ ἀμφί καὶ τὸ περί καὶ
τὰ ἄλλα. ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἢ οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν
μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι καὶ
ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου.

ὄνομα δέ ἐστι φωνὴ
συνθετὴ σημαντικὴ ἄνευ χρόνου ἧς μέρος οὐδέν ἐστι καθ᾽
αὑτὸ σημαντικόν· ἐν γὰρ τοῖς διπλοῖς οὐ χρώμεθα ὡς καὶ
αὐτὸ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ σημαῖνον, οἷον ἐν τῷ Θεοδώρῳ τὸ δῶρον
οὐ σημαίνει.

ῥῆμα δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ σημαντικὴ μετὰ χρόνου
ἧς οὐδὲν μέρος σημαίνει καθ᾽ αὑτό, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν
ὀνομάτων· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ἢ λευκόν οὐ σημαίνει τὸ
πότε, τὸ δὲ βαδίζει ἢ βεβάδικεν προσσημαίνει τὸ μὲν τὸν
παρόντα χρόνον τὸ δὲ τὸν παρεληλυθότα.

πτῶσις δ᾽ ἐστὶν
ὀνόματος ἢ ῥήματος ἡ μὲν κατὰ τὸ τούτου ἢ τούτῳ σημαῖνον
καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, ἡ δὲ κατὰ τὸ ἑνὶ ἢ πολλοῖς, οἷον
ἄνθρωποι ἢ ἄνθρωπος, ἡ δὲ κατὰ τὰ ὑποκριτικά, οἷον κατ᾽
ἐρώτησιν ἐπίταξιν· τὸ γὰρ ἐβάδισεν; ἢ βάδιζε πτῶσις ῥήματος
κατὰ ταῦτα τὰ εἴδη ἐστίν.

λόγος δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ
σημαντικὴ ἧς ἔνια μέρη καθ᾽ αὑτὰ σημαίνει τι

(οὐ γὰρ
ἅπας λόγος ἐκ ῥημάτων καὶ ὀνομάτων σύγκειται, οἷον ὁ
τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ὁρισμός, ἀλλ᾽ ἐνδέχεται ἄνευ ῥημάτων εἶναι
λόγον, μέρος μέντοι ἀεί τι σημαῖνον ἕξει) οἷον ἐν τῷ βαδίζει
Κλέων ὁ Κλέων.

εἷς δέ ἐστι λόγος διχῶς, ἢ γὰρ ὁ ἓν
σημαίνων, ἢ ὁ ἐκ πλειόνων συνδέσμῳ, οἷον ἡ Ἰλιὰς μὲν
συνδέσμῳ εἰς, ὁ δὲ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου τῷ ἓν σημαίνειν.

Poetics, Greek text (Franz Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's 1839 Greek edition, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 20 focus

Τῆς δὲ λέξεως ἁπάσης τάδ᾽ ἐστὶ τὰ μέρη, στοιχεῖον,20 συλλαβή, σύνδεσμος, ὄνομα, ῥῆμα, ἄρθρον, πτῶσις, λόγος.

στοιχεῖον μὲν οὖν ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἀδιαίρετος, οὐ πᾶσα δέ, ἀλλ᾽ ἐξ ἧς πέφυκε συνετὴ γίνεσθαι φωνή· καὶ γὰρ τῶν θηρίων εἰσὶν ἀδιαίρετοι φωναί, ὧν οὐδεμίαν λέγω στοιχεῖον.

ταύ της δὲ μέρη τό τε φωνῆεν καὶ τὸ ἡμίφωνον καὶ ἄφωνον. ἔστι δὲ φωνῆεν μὲν ἄνευ προσβολῆς ἔχον φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, οἷον τὸ Α καὶ τὸ Ω, ἡμίφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ προσβολῆς ἔχον φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, οἷον τὸ Σ καὶ τὸ Ρ, ἄφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ προσβολῆς καθ᾽ αὑτὸ μὲν οὐδεμίαν ἔχον φωνήν, μετὰ δὲ τῶν ἐχόντων τινὰ φωνὴν γινόμενον ἀκουστόν, οἷον τὸ Γ καὶ τὸ Δ.

ταῦτα δὲ διαφέρει σχήμασί τε τοῦ στόματος καὶ τόποις καὶ δασύτητι καὶ ψιλότητι καὶ μήκει καὶ βραχύτητι, ἔτι δὲ ὀξύτητι καὶ βαρύτητι καὶ τῷ μέσῳ· περὶ ὧν καθ᾽ ἕκα- - στον ἐν τοῖς μετρικοῖς προσήκει θεωρεῖν.

συλλαβὴ δ᾽ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος, συνθετὴ ἐξ ἀφώνου καὶ φωνὴν ἔχοντος· καὶ ιογὰρ τὸ ΓΡ ἄνευ τοῦ Α συλλαβή, καὶ μετὰ τοῦ Α, οἷον τὸ ΓΡΑ. ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων θεωρῆσαι τὰς διαφορὰς τῆς μετρικῆς ἐστίν.

σύνδεσμος δ᾽ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος, ἣ οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικήν, ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν πεφυκυῖαν συντίθεσθαι, καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου, ἢν μὴ ἁρμόττῃ ἐν ἀρχῇ λόγου τιθέναι καθ᾽ αὑτόν, οἷον μέν, ἤτοι, δή. ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἐκ πλειόνων μὲν φωνῶν μιᾶς,¹ σημαντικῶν δέ, ποιεῖν πεφυκυῖα μίαν σημαντικὴν φωνήν.

ἄρθρον δ᾽ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος, ἣ λόγου ἀρχὴν ἢ τέλος ἢ διορισμὸν δηλοῖ, οἷον τὸ φημί καὶ τὸ περὶ καὶ τὰ ἄλλα. ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος, ἣ οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν, πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου.

ὄνομα δ᾽ ἐστὶ φωνὴ συνθετή, σημαντικὴ ἄνευ χρόνου, ἧς μέρος οὐδέν ἐστι καθ᾽ αὑτὸ σημαντικόν· ἐν γὰρ τοῖς διπλοῖς οὐ χρώμεθα, ὡς καὶ αὐτὸ καθ' αὑτὸ σημαῖνον, οἷον ἐν τῷ Θεοδώρῳ τὸ δῶρον οὐ σημαίνει.

ῥῆμα δὲ φωνὴ συνθετή, σημαντικὴ μετὰ χρόνου, ἧς οὐδὲν μέρος σημαίνει καθ᾽ αὑτό, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ὀνομάτων· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ἢ λευκὸν οὐ σημαίνει τὸ πότε, τὸ δὲ βαδίζει ἢ βεβάδικε προσσημαίνει τὸ μὲν τὸν παρόντα χρόνον τὸ δὲ τὸν παρεληλυθότα.

πτῶσις δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὀνόματος ἢ² ῥήματος ἡ μὲν τὸ κατὰ τὸ τούτου ἢ τούτῳ σημαίνουσα καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, ἡ δὲ τὸ κατὰ τὸ ἑνὶ ἢ πολλοῖς, οἷον ἄνθρωποι ἢ ἄνθρωπος, ἡ δὲ κατὰ τὰ ὑποκριτικά, οἷον κατ' ἐρώτησιν ἢ ἐπίταξιν· τὸ γὰρ ἐβάδισεν ἢ βάδιζε πτῶσις ῥήματος κατὰ ταῦτα τὰ εἴδη ἐστίν.

λόγος δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ σημαντική, ἧς ἔνια μέρη καθ᾽ αὑτὰ σημαίνει τι·

οὐ γὰρ ἅπας λόγος ἐκ ῥημάτων καὶ ὀνομάτων σύγκειται, οἷον ὁ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ὁρισμός, ἀλλ' ἐνδέχεται ἄνευ ῥημάτων εἶναι λόγον. μέρος μέντοι ἀεί τι σημαῖνον ἕξει, οἷον ἐν τῷ βαδίζει Κλέων ὁ Κλέων.

εἷς δ᾽ ἐστὶ λόγος διχῶς· ἢ γὰρ ὁ ἓν σημαίνων, ἢ ὁ ἐκ πλειόνων συνδέσμῳ, οἷον ἡ Ἰλιὰς μὲν συνδέσμῳ εἷς, ὁ δὲ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου τῷ ἓν σημαίνειν.]

Translations (13)

Poetics (W. H. Fyfe) (OCR draft) Perseus (William Hamilton Fyfe's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, Loeb Classical Library, 1939 printing.) — 20 focus

20 Diction as a whole¹ is made up of these parts: letter, syllable, conjunction, joint,² noun, verb, case, phrase.

A letter is an indivisible sound, not every such sound but one of which an intelligible sound can be formed. Animals utter indivisible sounds but none that I should call a letter.

Such sounds may be subdivided into vowel, semi-vowel, and mute. A vowel is that which without any addition has an audible sound; a semivowel needs the addition of another letter to give it audible sound, for instance S and R; a mute is that which with addition has no sound of its own but becomes audible when combined with some of the letters which have a sound. Examples of mutes are G and D.

Letters differ according to the shape of the mouth and the place at which they are sounded; in being with or without aspiration; in being long and short; and lastly in having an acute, grave, or intermediate accent. But the detailed study of these matters properly concerns students of metre.

A syllable is a sound without meaning, composed of a mute and a letter that has a sound. GR, for example, without A is a syllable just as much as GRA with an A. But these distinctions also belong to the theory of metre.

A conjunction is a sound without meaning, 1457a 1 which neither hinders nor causes the formation of a single significant sound or phrase out of several sounds, and which, if the phrase stands by itself, cannot properly stand at the beginning of it, e.g. μέν, δή, τοί, δέ; or else it is a sound without meaning capable of forming one significant sound or phrase out of several sounds having each a meaning of their own, e.g. ἀμφί, περί.

A joint is a sound without meaning which marks the beginning or end of a phrase or a division in it, and naturally stands at either end or in the middle.³

A noun is a composite sound with a meaning, not indicative of time, no part of which has a meaning by itself; for in compounds we do not use each part as having a meaning of its own, for instance, in Theodorus, there is no meaning of δῶρον (gift).

A verb is a composite sound with a meaning, indicative of time, no part of which has a meaning by itself—just as in nouns. Man or white does not signify time, but walks and has walked connote present and past time respectively.

A case (or inflection) of a noun or verb is that which signifies either of or to a thing and the like; 20 or gives the sense of one or many e.g. men and man; or else it may depend on the delivery, for example question and command. Walked? and Walk! are verbal cases of this kind.

A phrase⁴ is a composite sound with a meaning, some parts of which mean something by themselves.

It is not true to say that every phrase is made up of nouns and verbs, e.g. the definition of man⁵; but although it is possible to have a phrase without verbs, yet some part of it will always have a meaning of its own, for example, Cleon in Cleon walks.

A phrase may be a unit in two ways; either it signifies one thing or it is a combination of several phrases. The unity of the Iliad, for instance, is due to such combination, but the definition of man is one phrase because it signifies one thing.

Arabic Poetics (Badawī edition, 1953) (OCR draft) (The ancient Arabic translation of Aristotle's Poetics in ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Badawī's 1953 edition.) — 20 focus

〈أجزاء المقولة〉

عماد المقولة بأسرها وأجزاء الاسطقسات هى هذه: الاقتضاب، الرباط، الفاصلة، الاسم، الكلمة، التصريف، القول.

فأما الاسطقس فهو غير مقسوم، وليس كله لكن ما كان منه من شأن الصوت المركب أن يتركب ويكون منه؛ وذلك أن أصوات البهائم هى غير مفصلة، وليس ولا واحد منها صوت مركب، وليس ولا واحد من أجزاء الأصوات ما أقول إنه للاسطقسات.

وأما هذا الصوت المركب فأجزاؤه جزءان: أعنى المصوت، ولا مصوت، ونصف المصوت. غير أن الصوت الذى يكون من غير القرع الكائن عند الشفتين أو الأسنان هو صوت غير مفصل. وأما نصف الصوت الذى يكون مع القرع فليس له على انفراده صوت مسموع إذا ما حرك السين والراء. وأما لا مصوت فهو الذى مع القرع؛ أما على انفراده فليس له ولا صوت واحد مركب مسموع؛ وأما مع التى لها صوت مركب 〈فـ〉ـقد يكون مسموعاً بمنزلة الجيم والدال.

وهو بعينه مختلف بشكل الأفواه والمواضع، وبالاتصال والمرسل، وبالطول والانقباض، وأيضاً بالحدة والصلابة، وبالتى هى موضوعة فى وسط كل واحد واحد فى جميع الأوزان، وينبغى أن ندانيها.

وأما الاقتضاب 〈فهو〉 صوت [مركب] 〈غير〉 مدلول، مركب من اسطقس مصوت ولا مصوت؛ وذلك أن الجيم والراء بلا ألف ليسا اقتضاباً، إذا كان إنما يكون اقتضاب مع ألف، لكن الجيم والراء والألف هى اقتضاب — إلا أنه ينبغى أن ننظر فى اختلاف هذه، أعنى هذه الوزنية.

وأما الرباط فهو صوت مركب غير مدلول، بمنزلة: «أما»، وواليس (!) — وذلك أن ما يسمع منها هو غير مدلول مركب ا من أصوات كثيرة، وهى دالة على صوت لفظة واحد مركب غير مدلول.

وأما الواصلة فهى صوت مركب غير مدلول، إما الابتداء القول وإما لآخره، أو حد ذاك بمنزلة فاو (!) أو «من أجل» أو «إلا»، ويقال صوت مركب غير مدلول الذى لا يمنع ولا يفعل الصوت الواحد المدلول الذى من شأنه أن يركب من أصوات كثيرة، وعلى الرؤوس، وعلى الوسط.

وأما الاسم فهو لفظة أو صوت مركب دالة أو دال، خلو من الزمان، جزء من أجزائه لا يدل على انفراده؛ وليس تستعمل الأسماء المركبة على أن جزءاً من أجزائها يدل على انفراده، وذلك أن «دورس» من «تاودورس» ليس يدل على شىء.

وأما الكلمة فهى صوت دال أو لفظة دالة تدل — مع ما تدل عليه — على الزمان، جزء من أجزائه لا يدل على انفراده، كما يدل جزء من أجزاء الأسماء على انفراده. وذلك أن قولنا: «إنسان» أو «أبيض» ليس يدلان على الزمان — أما ذاك فعلى الزمان الحاضر، وأما هذا فعلى الزمان الماضى.

وأما التصريف فهو للاسم أو للقول إما دال على أن لهذا وهذا وما أشبه ذلك، بعضه يدل على واحد أو على كثير، بمنزلة الناس أو الانسان؛ وأما ذاك فعلى هذه التى هى والأقاويل بمنزلة ما فى السؤال، وفى الأمر. وذلك أن قولنا: «مشى» أو «يمشى» إذا دللنا به على الزمان المستقبل هما تصاريف الكلمة — وهذه هى أنواعها أيضاً.

والقول هو لفظ دال أو صوت دال مركب، الواحد من أجزائه يدل على انفراده (وليس كل قول مركباً من الكلمة بمنزلة حد الانسان، لكن قد يمكن أن يكون القول من كلم جزء من القول الدال على ما هوالشىء). بمنزلة (أن يكون له بمنزلة (قولنا: «قالياس» فى قولنا: «قالياس يمشى» والقول يكون واحداً على ضربين: وذلك أنه إما أن يكون القول واحداً بأن يدل على واحد، وإما أن يكون واحداً برباطات كثيرة، بمنزلة قولنا 〈إن〉 شعر [أو] أوميروس 〈و〉هو المعروف «بايلياس» هو واحد، وذلك أن هذا هو واحد برباط، وأما قولنا: «إنسان يمشى» فهو واحد من قبل أنه يدل على واحد.

Poetics (S. H. Butcher, 1911) (OCR draft) Experimental (S. H. Butcher's English translation from Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, fourth edition, 1911.) — 20 focus

[Language in general includes the following parts :-
Letter, Syllable, Connecting word, Noun, Verb, Inflexion
or Case, Sentence or Phrase.]

A Letter is an indivisible sound, yet not every such
sound, but only one which can form part of a group of
sounds.
For even brutes utter indivisible sounds, none
of which I call a letter.

The sound I mean may be
either a vowel, a semi-vowel, or a mute.
A vowel is
that which without impact of tongue or
lip has an
audible sound.
A semi-vowel, that which
with such
impact has an audible sound, as S and R. A mute,
that which with such impact has by itself no sound,
but joined to a vowel sound becomes audible, as G and
D.

These are distinguished according to the form
assumed by the mouth and the place where they are
produced;
according as they are aspirated or smooth,
long or short;
as they are acute, grave, or of an inter-
mediate tone;
which inquiry belongs in detail to the
writers on metre.

A Syllable is a non-significant sound, composed of a
mute and a vowel:
for GR without A is a syllable, as
also with A, GRA.

A Connecting word is a non-significant sound, which
neither causes nor hinders the union of many sounds
into one significant sound;
it may be placed at either
end or in the middle of a sentence.

Or, a non-significant
sound, which out of several sounds, each of them signi-
ficant, is capable of forming one significant sound, as
ἀμφί, περί, and the like.
Or, a non-significant sound,
which marks the beginning, end, or division of a sentence;
such, however, that it cannot correctly stand by itself at
the beginning of a sentence, -as μέν, ἤτοι, δέ.

A Noun is a composite significant sound, not marking
time, of which no part is in itself significant:
for in
double or compound words we do not employ the
separate parts as if each were in itself significant. Thus
in Theodorus, 'god-given,' the δῶρον or 'gift' is not in
itself significant.

A Verb is a composite significant sound, marking
time, in which, as in the noun, no part is in itself signi-
ficant.
For 'man,' or 'white' does not express the idea
of 'when';
but 'he walks,' or 'he has walked' does
connote time, present or past.

Inflexion belongs both to the noun and verb, and
expresses either the relation 'of,' 'to,' or the like;
or
that of number, whether one or many, as 'man' or
'men';
or the modes or tones in actual delivery, e.g. a
question or a command. 'Did he go?'
and 'go' are
verbal inflexions of this kind.

A Sentence or Phrase is a composite significant
sound, some at least of whose parts are in themselves
significant;

for not every such group of words consists
of verbs and nouns—the definition of man,' for example
—but it may dispense even with the verb.
Still it will
always have some significant part, as 'in walking,' or
'Cleon son of Cleon'.

A sentence or phrase may form
a unity in two ways, either as signifying one thing, or
as consisting of several parts linked together.
Thus the
Iliad is one by the linking together of parts, the definition
of man by the unity of the thing signified.]

Aristotle on the Art of Poetry (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 20 focus

The Diction viewed as a whole is made up of the following
parts: the Letter (or ultimate element), the Syllable, the
Conjunction, the Article, the Noun, the Verb, the Case, and
the Speech.

The Letter is an indivisible sound of a par-
ticular kind, one that may become a factor in an intelligible
sound. Indivisible sounds are uttered by the brutes also,
but no one of these is a Letter in our sense of the term.

These elementary sounds are either vowels, semivowels, or
mutes. A vowel is a Letter having an audible sound without
the addition of another Letter. A semivowel, one having
an audible sound by the addition of another Letter; e. g.
S and R. A mute, one having no sound at all by itself,
but becoming audible by an addition, that of one of the
Letters which have a sound of some sort of their own;
e.g. D and G.

The Letters differ in various ways: as
produced by different conformations or in different regions
of the mouth; as aspirated, not aspirated, or sometimes one
and sometimes the other; as long, short, or of variable
quantity; and further as having an acute, grave, or inter-
mediate accent. The details of these matters we must leave
to the metricians.

(2) A Syllable is a non-significant composite
sound, made up of a mute and a Letter having a sound
(a vowel or semivowel); for GR, without an A, is just as
much a Syllable as GRA, with an A. The various forms
of the Syllable also belong to the theory of metre.

(3) A Conjunction is (a) a non-significant sound which,
when one significant sound is formable out of several, neither
hinders nor aids the union, and which, if the Speech thus
formed stands by itself (apart from other Speeches) must
not be inserted at the beginning of it; e. g. μέν,
δή, τοί, δέ. Or (b) a non-significant sound capable of
combining two or more significant sounds into one; e. g.
ἀμφί, περί, etc.

(4) An Article is a non-significant sound marking the
beginning, end, or dividing-point of a Speech, its natural
place being either at the extremities or in the middle.

(5) A Noun or name is a composite significant sound not
involving the idea of time, with parts which have no signi-
ficance by themselves in it. It is to be remembered that in
a compound we do not think of the parts as having a signifi-
cance also by themselves; in the name 'Theodorus,' for
instance, the δῶρον means nothing to us.

(6) A Verb is a composite significant sound involving the
idea of time, with parts which (just as in the Noun) have
no significance by themselves in it. Whereas the word
'man' or 'white' does not imply when, 'walks' and 'has
walked' involve in addition to the idea of walking that
of time present or time past.

(7) A Case of a Noun or Verb is when the word means
'of' or 'to' a thing, and so forth, or for one or many
(e.g. 'man' and 'men'); or it may consist merely in the
mode of utterance, e.g. in question, command, etc.
'Walked?' and 'Walk!' are Cases of the verb 'to walk'
of this last kind.

(8) A Speech is a composite significant sound, some of
the parts of which have a certain significance by themselves.

It may be observed that a Speech is not always made up of
Noun and Verb; it may be without a Verb, like the
definition of man; but it will always have some part with
a certain significance by itself. In the Speech 'Cleon
walks,' 'Cleon' is an instance of such a part.

A Speech is
said to be one in two ways, either as signifying one thing,
or as a union of several Speeches made into one by
conjunction. Thus the Iliad is one Speech by conjunction
of several; and the definition of man is one through its
signifying one thing.

Poetics (Thomas Twining, 1789) (OCR draft) Experimental (Thomas Twining's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1789 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 20.9 focus

A verb, is a sound composed of other sounds;-significant-with expression of time: and of which, as of the noun, no part is by itself significant. Thus, in the words, man, white, indication of time is not included: in the words, he walks, he walked, &c. it is included; the one expressing the present time, the other the past.

[24] 7.

The Poetic of Aristotle (Henry James Pye, revised 1792) (OCR draft) Experimental (Henry James Pye's revised 1792 English translation, corrected against the 1788 first edition, aligned to the Kassel reference edition, and supplied with a selective apparatus of substantive 1788 readings.) — 20.9 focus

but HE WALKS and HE WALKED, do, one a present, the other a past time. A case is incident both to the noun and the verb and either marks such relations as of or from or to, a thing; or shews the number, whether it be one or many as MAN or MEN;

Poetica Latine conversa (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's Latin translation, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 20 focus

[Totius autem sermonis hae sunt partes, elementum, syllaba, convinctio, nomen, verbum, articulus, casus, oratio.

elementum est vox indivisa, non quidem omnis, sed ex qua potest intelligibilis fieri vox: nam bestiarum quoque sunt indivisae voces, quarum nullam dico elementum. huius autem partes sunt vocale et semivocale et mutum.

est autem vocale quod sine allisu. vocem habet quae audiri potest, ut A et O, semivocale autem quod cum allisu vocem habet quae audiri potest, ut S et R, mutum autem quod cum allisu per se quidem nullam habet vocem, sed coniunctum iis quae habent vocem quandam audiri potest, ut G et D.

haec autem differunt et oris habitu et locis et densitate et tenuitate et longitudine et brevitate, praeterea acuto accentu et gravi et medio: de quibus singulis in metricis dispicere convenit.

syllaba autem est vox significationis expers, componenda ex consonante et vocali: nam etiam GR sine A syllaba, et cum A, ut GRA. sed horum quoque discrepantias considerare metricae doctrinae est.

convinctio autem est vox significationis expers, quae neque impedit neque facit vocem unam significativam, ex pluribus vocibus componi aptam, et in extremitatibus et in medio, si non conveniat in principio enuntiati ponere per se, ut μέν, ἤτοι, δή. vel vox significationis expers, ex pluribus quidem vocibus quam una, sed significativis, facere apta unam significativam vocem.

articulus autem est vox significationis expers, quae enuntiati principium vel finem vel distinctionem declarat, ut τὸ φημί et τὸ περί et cetera. sive vox significationis expers, quae neque impedit neque facit vocem unam significativam ex pluribus vocibus, apta ut ponatur et in extremitatibus et in medio.

nomen autem est vox componenda, significativa sine tempore, cuius pars nulla per se est significativa: nam in duplicibus non ita utimur, ut ipsa per se significet, velut in Theodoro illud δῶρον non significat.

verbum autem vox componenda, significativa cum tempore, cuius nulla pars significat per se, ut etiam in nominibus. nomen enim homo vel album non significat quando, sed ambulat vel ambulavit simul significat, illud praesens tempus, hoc praeteritum.

casus autem est nominis vel verbi, alius quod huius vel huic est significans et quae sunt eiusmodi, alius quod unius est vel multorum, ut homo vel homines, alius qui pertinet ad pronuntiationem, ut ad interrogationem vel mandatum: nam ambulavit vel am - bula casus verbi secundum has formas est.

oratio autem vox componenda significativa, cuius nonnullae partes per se significant aliquid:

non enim omnis oratio ex verbis et nominibus constat, ut hominis definitio, sed potest sine verbis esse oratio. partem tamen semper aliquam significantem habebit, quemadmodum in illo Cleo ambulat Cleo.

una autem est oratio dupliciter, aut quae unum significat, aut quae ex pluribus per coniunctionem, velut Ilias per coniunctionem una, sed hominis notio eo quod unum significat.]

La poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) Experimental (André Dacier's French translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1692.) — 20.9 focus

Le verbe eſt un ſon compoſé, qui ſignifie quelque choſe, & dont les parties ſeparées ne ſignifient rien non plus que dans les noms. Mais le verbe a cet avantage ſur le nom qu'il marque le temps, ce que le nom ne fait pas. Par exemple, quand je dis homme, ou blanc, je ne marque aucun temps; mais ſi je dis, il marche, il a marché, je marque un preſent, ou un preterit.

10.

Poetica d'Aristotile (Bernardo Segni, 1549) (OCR draft) Experimental (Bernardo Segni's 1549 Florentine Italian translation, aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 20 focus

Ma le parti di tutta la Locutione ſono queſte, Lettera,ò Elemeto, Sillaba, Coniuntione,Nome, Verbo, Articolo, Cafo, & Oratione.

A Lettera e'vna voce indiuifibile, ma nó già ogni voce indiuifibile, è lettera:ma quella fola, onde fi può di ſua natura cõſtituire voce intelligibile cociofia che le fiere ſteſſe mandino fuori molte voci indiuifibili, che non mai debbono effer chiamate lettere.

Diurdonſi le lettere in vocali, in mezze vocali, & in mute. Lettera vocale è quella, che ſenza percufsione alcuna fa ſuono, che ſi può vdire. Meza vocale à quella, che fa vn' cotal fuono con la percuſsione, come è il o. & il g. Muta è quella, che con la percuſsione da ſe ſteſſa non fa vn' cotal ſuono; ma aggiunta à quelle, che l'hanno, diuenta in modo ch'ella s'ode:& tale è il y. & il d.

Sono dipiù tutte le lettere differenti per la figura d'eſſe, per i luoghi, per lo afpirato, & per il tenue, pel lungo, & per il breue, & anchora per lo acuto,& per il graue;& dipiù per quello, che è inquel mezo. Delle quali tutte coſe ſta bene confiderarne all'arte verificatoria. Della Della Sillaba.

A Sillaba è voce no fignificatiua cõpoſta & di let tere mute, & di lettere, che habbino ſuonoscócio fia che il y.& il e.non faccia Sillaba ſenza l'ama ſi in ſua compagnia:come dire. yea. Ma la confideratione di tali differenze s'appartiene all'Arte detta diſopra. Della Coniuntione.

A Coniűtione è voce no fignificate, laquale non atta ad effer copoſta di piu voci;& è quella, che ſta ben' collocata nell'ultimo, & nel mezo dell'Oratione, ſe gia ella non s'accomodaſſe per ſe ſteſſa nel principio del parlare;com'è dire. ἤτοι δή. O vero è voce non ſignificante, ma atta di piu voci ſignificanti a fare vna fola vo ce fignificatiua. L Dello Articolo 'Articolo è voce fignificatiua, la quale dimoſtra ò il principio,ò il fine, ò la ſeparatione del parlare come è τὸ φήμι. & τὸ πέρι. & altri fimili.

O vero è voce non fignificatiua, che non impediſce, & non fa fignificare alcuna voce, che ſia atta ad eſſere compoſta di piu voci;& che ſi adatta ſi nell'ultimo, quanto nel mezo, t N Del Nome.

Ome è voce compoſta ſignificatiua, e ST ma fenza tempo, delquale non è parte alcuna, che per fe e ſteffa fignifichi; conciofia che ne Nomi doppi s'offerui anchora, chele parti da perloro non ui figni fichino nulla: come è in queſto nome. κολώρω. doue Αύρω non vi fignifica cofa alcuna.

monologus ni Del Verbo e TL verbo è vna voce compoſta ſignificatiua col tempo, del quale non è parte alcuna, che per le ſtellaf TT $30 gnifichi; ſicome ne Nomis'e detto; ma l'huomo, o il bianco non ſignificano inſieme tempo.

Ma queſta voce, che dice, Và, Andò inſieme ſignificano tempo ; l'uno, dico, il preſente & l'altro il paſſato. I Del Cafo. Caſi s'appartengono ſi al Nome ch'al verbo & certi ne ſono che ſignificano d'alcuno con la fleſsione, com'e dire Di coſtui, A coſtui; o in altro ſimil' modo. Et certi n'è, che ſignificano col moſtrare il numero ſin gulare, o'l plurale;come e dire l'huomo, ò gli huomini.

Et certi s'appartegono agli Iſtrioni, nel modo cioe da interrogare, ò da comadare, Perche andò?Quà.

Et que Ai coſi fatti nomi ſon' caſi del verbom คงรวมกลอง Della Oratione Digiboas Oratione è vna voce Lioratio compoſta ſignificatiua,del certe parti fono, che per loro ſteſſe ſignificano qualche coſa. Nè già è vero, che ogni oratione fſia compoſta di Nome, & di verbo, come e la diffinitio ne dell'huomo, ma daſsi dell'Orationi, che ſono ſenza verbo; nondimanco elle haranno qualche parte fignifi cante, come è in queſta, che dice, Cleone và:doue quel nome Cleone vi è ſignificante, In due modi fi dice l'Oratione eſſere vna.

In vno, quando ella ſignifica vna ſola coſa. Nell'altro,quádo ella, eſſendo compoſta di piu coſe, per uia delle cõiuntioni ella diuenta vna;come è 'Iliade, che per via di coniuntione ſarà una fola Oratione:ma la diffinitione dell'huomo è vna, perche ella fignifica vna fola coſa.

De poetica (Antonio Riccobono, 1587) (OCR draft) Experimental (Antonio Riccobono's Latin translation, first published in 1587; text represented from Immanuel Bekker's 1831 edition.) — 20 focus

Iam vero elocutionis omnis hae sunt partes, elementum, syllaba, coniunctio, nomen, verbum, articulus, casus, oratio.

ac elementum quidem est vox individua, non omnis, sed ex qua naturaliter vox fit, quae intelligi possit: etenim beluarum sunt voces individuae, quarum nullam elementum voco.

huius autem partes sunt tum vocale tum semivocale tum mutum. atque vocale est, quod sine ictu vocem habet quae audiri potest, ut a et w; semivocale, quod cum ictu vocem habet quae audiri potest, ut σ et p; mutum, quod cum ictu per se quidem nullam habet vocem, sed cum habentibus aliquam vocem fit huiusmodi ut audiri possit, ut y et.

atque haec inter se differunt tum figuris oris tum locis tum crassitudine tum tenuitate tum longitudine tum brevitate, praeterea vero acumine et gravitate et medio, de quibus singulis in metricis convenit contemplari.

syllaba est vox significationis expers, composita ex muto et vocem habente: etenim yp sine a syllaba est, et cum a, ut ypa. sed et horum intueri differentias metricae est. coniunctio est vox significationis expers,

quae neque impedit neque facit vocem unam significativam, quae ex pluribus vocibus componatur, tam in extremis quam in medio, nisi congruerit in principio orationis ponere per se, ut µáv, to, dn. vel vox non significativa ex pluribus quidem vocibus una sed significativis, idonea quae faciat unam vocem. articulus est vox significationis expers, orationis initium aut Gnem aut distinctionem indicans, ut τὸ φημί, τὸ περί et alia.

vel vox significationis expers, quae neque impedit neque facit vocem unam significativam ex pluribus vocibus, idoneam quae com ponatur et in extremis et in medio.

nomen est vox composita significativa sine tempore, cuius pars nulla est per se significativa: nam in duplicibus non utimur ut etiam ipsum per se significet, veluti in Theodoro illud Supov non significat.

verbum est vox composita significativa cum tempore, cuius per se pars nulla significat, ut etiam in nominibus.

illud enim homo vel album non adsignificat quando: at illud ambulat vel ambulavit adsignificat, alterum quidem praesens tempus, alterum vero praeteritum. casus est nominis aut verbi, nnus quidem secundum id quod est huius vel huic significans, et quaecunque talia; alter vero secundum id quod uni vel multis, vel homines vel homo;

alius autem secundum ea quae ad gestum pertinent, ut per interrogationem vel praeceptionem.

nam ambulavit vel ambulat casus verbi secundum has species est. oratio est vox composita significativa, cuius aliquae partes per se significant aliquid: nec enim omnis oratio ex verbis constat et nominibus, quemadmodum hominis definitio, sed contingit sine verbis esse orationem. atqui partem semper quampiam significantem habebit, ut in illo ambulat Cleon" id ipsum Cleon.

una autem est oratio duobus modis: aut enim quae unum significat, aut quae ex pluribus coniunctionibus est, ut Ilias quidem est coniunctione una, hominis vero definitio eo quod unum significet.

De arte poetica liber (William of Moerbeke, ca. 1277) (OCR draft) Experimental (William of Moerbeke's medieval Latin translation, represented by the 1953 Aristoteles Latinus edition.) — 20 focus

Locutionis autem omnis hee sunt partes' elementum, sillaba, coniunctio, nomen, verbum, articulus, casus, oratio. —

Elementum quidem igitur vox indivisibilis, non omnis autem sed ex qua nata est fieri intelligibilis vox (et enim bestiarum sunt indivisibiles voces, quarum nullam dico elementum),

huius autem partes vocalis et semivocalis et muta. Est autem vocalis quidem sine adiectione habens vocem audibilem ; semivocalis autem cum adiectione habens vocem audibilem, velut 's' et 'b'; muta autem que cum adiectione secundum se quidem nullam habet vocem, cum habentibus autem aliquam vocem facta audibilis, velut 'g' et 'd'.

Hec autem differunt figurisque oris et locis, et asperitate et lenitate, et longitudine et brevitate, adhuc autem acuitate et gravitate et medio; de quibus per singula in metricis congruit speculari. —

Sillaba autem est vox non significativa composita ex non vocali et vocem habente ; et enim ipsius 'gr' sine ipso 'a' sillaba et cum 'a', puta 'gra'. Sed horum considerare differentias metrice est. —

Coniunctio autem est vox non significativa que neque prohibet neque facit vocem unam significativam ex pluribus vocibus, natam componi et in extremis et in medio, quam non congruit in principio sermonis poni secundum se ipsam, velut 'quidem', 'vel', 'autem' ; vox non significativa, aut ex pluribus quidem vocibus una significativam facere nata est unam significativam vocem. —

Articulus autem est vox non significativa aut orationis principium aut finem aut determinationem palificat, puta 'f.m.i' et 'p.e.r.i' et alia. Vox non significativa aut neque prohibet neque facit vocem unam significativam ex pluribus vocibus, natam poni et in extremis et in medio. —

Nomen autem est vox conficta significativa sine tempore, cuius pars nulla est secundum se significativa ; in duplicibus enim non utimur tamquam et ipsa secundum se significet, puta in 'Theodoro' 'doron' (idest donum) non significat. —

Verbum autem vox conficta significativa cum tempore cuius nulla pars significat secundum se, sicut et in nominibus; 'homo' quidem enim aut 'album' non significat quando, *ambulat' autem aut 'ambulavit' consignificat, hoc quidem presens tempus, hoc autem preteritum. —

Casus autem est nominis aut verbi, hic quidem secundum 'huius' aut *huic' significans et quecumque talia, hic autem secundum quod uni aut multis, puta ' homines? aut 'homo', hic autem secundum ypocritica, puta secundum interrogationem, iussionem. Nam 'ambulavit' aut *ambulabat' casus verbi secundum has species sunt. —

Oratio autem vox significativa composita cuius quedam quidem secundum se significant aliquid ;

non enim omnis oratio ex verbis et nominibus componitur, puta hominis diffinitio, sed contingit sine verbis esse orationem, partem tamen semper aliquid significantem habebit, puta, in hac 'ambulat Kleon', 'Kleon'.

Una autem est oratio dupliciter, aut enim que unum significat aut que ex pluribus coniunctionibus, puta Ilias quidem coniunctionibus una, hominis autem diffinitio per unum significare.

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition) (OCR draft) Experimental (The Arabic translation attributed to Abū Bishr Mattā, edited by Jaroslaus Tkatsch in 1928 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 20 focus

‏ويتول من غماٮ المقولة باسرها واحز الاسطقسات هى هذه الاقتضاب الرباط الفاصلة الاسم الكلمة التصريف القول

‏فاما الاسطقس فهو غير مقسوم وليس كله لكن ما كان منه من شان الصوت المركب ان يتركب ويكون منه وذلك ان اصوات اليهايم هى غير مفصلة وليس ولا واحد منها صوت مركب وليس ولا واحد من اجزا الاصوات ما اقول انه للاسطقسات

‏واما هذا الصوت المركب فاجزاه جزوان اعنى المصوت ولا مصوت ونصف المصوت غير ان الصوت الذى يكون من غير القرع الكاين عند الشفتين او الاسنان هو صوت غير مفصل واما نصف الصوت الذى يكون مع القرع فليس له على انفراده صوت مسموع اذا ما حرك الس والر واما لا مصوت فهو الذى مع القرع اما على انفراده فليس له ولا صوت واحد مركب مسموع واما مع التى لها صوت مركب قد يكون مسموعا بمنزلة الى والد

‏وهو بعينه مختلف بشكل الافواع والمواضع وبالاتصال والمرسل وبالطول والانقباض وايضا بالحدة والصلابة وبالتى هى موضوعة فى وسط كل واحد واحد فى جميع الاوزان وينبغى ان ٮداينها

‏واما الاقتضاب صوت مركب مدلول مركب من اسطقس مصوت ولا مصوت وذلك ان الح والر بلا ا ليسا اقتضاب اذا كان انما يكون اقتضاب مع ا لكن الح والر وا هى اقتضاب الا انه ينبغى ان ننظر فى اختلاف هذه اعنى هذه الوزنية

‏واما الرباط فهو صوت مركب غير مدلول بمنزلة اما ووالسيں وذلك ان ما يسمع منها هو غير مدلول مركب ا من اصوات كثيرة وهى دالة على صوت لفظة واحد مركب غير مدلول

‏واما الواصلة فهى صوت مركب غير مدلول اما لابتدا القول واما لاخره او حد دال بمنزلة فاواو من اجل او الا يقال صوت مركب غير مدلول الذى لا يمنع ولا يفعل الصوت والواحد المدلول الذى من شانه ان يركب من اصوات كثيرة وعلى الروس وعلى الوسط

‏واما الاسم فهو لفظة او صوت مركب دالة او دال خلو من الزمان جزو من اجزايه لا يدل على انفراده وليس يستعمل الاسما المركبة على ان جزو من اجزايها بدل على انفراده وذلك ان دورس من ثاودوس ليس يدل على شى

‏واما الكلمة فهى صوت دال او لفظة دالة تدل معما تدل عليه على الزمان جزو من اجزايه لا يدل على انفراده كما لا يدل جزو من اجزا الاسما على انفراده وذلك ان قولنا انسان او ابيض ليس يدلان على الزمان واما قولنا يمشى او مشى فقد يدلان على الزمان اما ذاك فعلى الزمان الحاضر واما هذا فعلى الزمان الماضى

‏واما التصريف فهو للاسم او للقول اما ذاك على ان لهذا وهذا وما اشبه ذلك بعضه يدل على واحد او على كثير بمنزلة الناس او الانسان واما ذاك فعلى هذه التى هى والاقاويل بمنزلة ما فى السوال وفى الامر وذلك ان قولنا مشى او يمشى [اذا دللنا به على الزمان المستقبل] هما تصاريف الكلمة وهذه هى انواعها ايضا

‏والقول هو لفظ دال او صوت دال مركب الواحد من اجزايه يدل على انفراده

‏وليس كل قول مركب من الكلمة بمنزلة حد الانسان لكن قد يمكن ان يكون القول من كلم جزو من القول الدال على ما هو الشى بمنزلة ان يكون له بمنزلة قولنا قاللناس فى قولنا قاللناس يمشى

‏والقول يكون واحدا على ضربين وذلك انه اما ان يكون القول واحدا بان يدل على واحد واما ان يكون واحدا برباطات كثيرة بمنزلة قولنا سفر او اوميروس هو المعروف بايلياس هو واحد وذلك ان هذا هو واحد برباط واما قولنا انسان يمشى فهو واحد من قبل انه يدل على واحد

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition, unaligned) (OCR draft) Experimental (Tkatsch's edition of the medieval Arabic translation in its original, unaligned segmentation.) — 20 focus

‏ويتول من غماٮ المقولة باسرها واحز الاسطقسات هى هذه الاقتضاب الرباط الفاصلة الاسم الكلمة التصريف القول

‏واما هذا الصوت المركب فاجزاه جزوان اعنى المصوت ولا مصوت ونصف المصوت

‏غير ان الصوت الذى يكون من غير القرع الكاين عند الشفتين او الاسنان هو صوت غير مفصل واما نصف الصوت الذى يكون مع القرع فليس له على انفراده صوت مسموع اذا ما حرك الس والر واما لا مصوت فهو الذى مع القرع اما على انفراده فليس له ولا صوت واحد مركب مسموع واما مع التى لها صوت مركب قد يكون مسموعا بمنزلة الى والد

‏واما الاقتضاب صوت مركب مدلول مركب من اسطقس مصوت ولا مصوت وذلك ان الح والر بلا ا ليسا اقتضاب اذا كان انما يكون اقتضاب مع ا لكن الح والر وا هى اقتضاب

‏الا انه ينبغى ان ننظر فى اختلاف هذه اعنى هذه الوزنية

—

‏واما الواصلة فهى صوت مركب غير مدلول اما لابتدا القول واما لاخره او حد دال بمنزلة فاواو من اجل او

‏الا يقال صوت مركب غير مدلول الذى لا يمنع ولا يفعل الصوت والواحد المدلول الذى من شانه ان يركب من اصوات كثيرة وعلى الروس وعلى الوسط

‏والقول هو لفظ دال او صوت دال مركب الواحد من اجزايه يدل على انفراده وليس كل قول مركب من الكلمة بمنزلة حد الانسان لكن قد يمكن ان يكون القول من كلم

‏جزو من القول الدال على ما هو الشى بمنزلة ان يكون له بمنزلة قولنا قاللناس فى قولنا قاللناس يمشى

Notes on the current edition

Poetics

1. 10. Case.

2. This description is most obscure ; but the sense seems to be, that an article is a sound which of itself does not signify any thing definite, but merely serves to indicate a significant sound, before or after which it is placed, or which it distinguishes from other words. Taylor. Ritter denies that there is any sense at all, an opinion in which the reader will probably acquiesce.

3. These only, in modern grammar, are called cases: in Aristotle, number, whether in noun or verb, and the tenses, and modes, (or moods,) of verbs, are comprehended under that term; because cases ( πτωσεις—cases) are endings, terminations, inflections, etc., and, in the learned languages, all the above-mentioned differences of meaning are expressed by different terminations. The French use chute, the literal translation of casus, in the sense of termination—" La chute d'une periode," etc. And fall is used, in our poetical language, for a close, or cadence, in music. That strain again—it had a dying FALL. Merch. of Venice. And so Milton in Comus, v. 251. Twining.

Commentary

Commentary on the Poetics (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) (Ingram Bywater's English commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.) focus

11. mvp-aristotle-comment-723

μήκει καὶ βραχύτητι. The intermediates ( μέσα) in quantity are the three dichronous vowels , , : Dion. Thrax p. 10

τῶν δὲ φωνηέντων μακρὰ μὲν ἐστι δύο, \overline{\eta} καὶ ῶ, βραχέα δὲ δύο, καὶ , δίχρονα δὲ τρία, δίχρονα δὲ λέγεται, ἐπεὶ ἐκτείνεται καὶ συστέλλεται.

- Sextus Emp. Adv. math. 1. 100

τῶν δὲ φωνηέντων τρεῖς λέγουσι διαφοράς· δύο μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν φύσει μακρὰ λέγουσι τυγ- χάνειν, τὸ \overline{\eta} καὶ τὸ ῶ, ἰσάριθμα δὲ βραχέα, τὸ καὶ τὸ , τρία δὲ κοινὰ μήκους τε καὶ βραχύτητος, , ἅπερ δίχρονα καὶ ὑγρὰ καὶ ἀμφίβολα καὶ μεταβολικά καλοῦσιν· ἕκαστον γὰρ αὐτῶν πέφυκεν ὁτὲ μὲν ἐκτείνεσθαι ὀτὲ δὲ συστέλλεσθαι

(comp. Dion. Hal. 5 p. 74 R. , and Aulus Gellius 16. 18.5 ).

7. mvp-aristotle-comment-731

φωνῶν: 1.e. φωνῶν σημαντικῶν.

7. mvp-aristotle-comment-732

λόγου. The term is explained in 23. Aristotle is using it without explanation, as though it were a familiar and well-understood word. Just before this (in 1) he employed the periphrasis φωνὴ μία σημαντική in lieu of it. καθ᾽ αὑτόν is to be taken with λόγου (comp. Top. 8. 11, 161 b 19 ). The λόγος as such is tacitly distinguished from the λόγος as brought into relation with some other λόγος by the insertion of a word which is no integral part of it per se. καθ᾽ αὑτό is the opposite of πρὸς ἕτερον ἢ κατὰ συμβεβηκός ( Bon. Ind. 212 a 3 ).

7. mvp-aristotle-comment-733

διορισμός seems to mean here 'separation' or 'disjunction', a metaphorical extension of the sense it has in the De Partibus: 3. 10, 672 a 14

τοῦ διορισμοῦ χάριν ἐστὶ (scil. τὸ διάζωμα) τοῦ τε περὶ τὴν κοιλίαν τόπου καὶ τοῦ περὶ τὴν καρδίαν

7. mvp-aristotle-comment-734

πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου does not necessarily mean any more than this, that some of the ἄρθρα have one and others another of these three possible places in the complex form of λόγος. πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι implies that the rule is general and not always observed in practice.

8. mvp-aristotle-comment-735

ὄνομα. In this definition συνθετή differentiates the ὄνομα from the στοιχεῖον, σημαντική from the ἄρθρον and σύνδεσμος, ἄνευ χρόνου from the ῥῆμα, and what remains ( ἧς μέρος οὐδὲν κτέ.) from the λόγος. In a λόγος ( . 8. ζῷον πεζὸν δίπουν, οι Κλέων βαδίζει) the parts retain their several meanings; whereas in an ὄνομα, if the parts happen to have a meaning, it is lost in the word into which they enter; Θεόδωρος for instance denotes a certain man, not a kind of gift: De interpr. 2, 16 b 19

ὄνομα μὲν οὖν ἐστι φωνὴ σημαντικὴ κατὰ συνθήκην ἄνευ χρόνου, ἧς μηδὲν μέρος ἐστὶ σημαντικὸν κεχωρισμένον· ἐν γὰρ τῷ Κάλλιππος τὸ ἵππος οὐδὲν αὐτὸ καθ᾽ ἑαυτὸ σημαίνει, ὥσπερ ἐν τῷ λόγῳ τῷ καλὸς ἵππος

. The general term ὄνομα must be taken to include not only the nouns, but also the adjectives, the personal and demonstrative pronouns, and possibly even the article as a kind of pronoun—in fact all the declinable parts of speech except perhaps the relatives, which may have been classed among the ἄρθρα A verb also apart from a subject, as a mere name for an action, may be called an ὄνομα, as it is for instance in 21, 1457 a 25; 22, 1458 b20; 25, 1461 b 31; comp. De interpr. 3, 16 b 19

αὐτὰ μὲν οὖν καθ᾽ ἑαυτὰ λεγόμενα ὀνόματά ἐστι [scil. τὰ ῥήματα] καὶ σημαίνει τι (ἵστησι γὰρ ὁ λέγων τὴν διάνοιαν καὶ ὁ ἀκούσας ἠρέμησεν), ἀλλ᾽ εἰ ἔστιν ἢ μὴ οὔπω σημαίνει

. It is a ῥῆμα proper only when actually said of a subject, as the predicate of a proposition.

8. mvp-aristotle-comment-736

οὐ χρώμεθα: comp. 21, 1457 a 33 πλὴν οὐκ ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι σημαίνοντος. The construction in the clause may be seen from Vahlen's paraphrase, εν τοῖς διπλοῖς οὐ χρώμεθα τῷ μέρει ἡγούμενοι καὶ αὐτὸ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ σημαίνειν. The participial ὡς καὶ αὐτὸ καθ᾽ αὐτὸ σημαῖνον is an acc. absolute like those in 3, 1448 a 37 and 26, 1462 10.

8. mvp-aristotle-comment-737

τῷ Θεοδώρῳ: i.e. 'the word Θεόδωρος'; comp. infra 28 ὁ Κλέων, ' the word Κλέων'. — Plato Crat. 392 D

τὸν Ἀστυάνακτα

, ' the name Astyanax'; for the similar Latin usage v. Wilkins on Cicero De Oratore 2, 193 . In the De interpr. we have the more scholastic form of expression with a nominative, ἐν τῷ Κάλλιππος. τὸ δῶρον: i. e. the word δῶρον implied in Θεόδωρος. As the parallel in the De interpr. is ἐν τῷ Κάλλιππος τὸ ἵππος οὐδὲν αὐτὸ καθ ἑαυτὸ σημαίνει, it has been proposed to restore here τὸ δωρος for τὸ δῶρον. The two cases, however, as Düntzer reminds us, are not quite similar, since δωρος does not exist as a separate word, as ἵππος does, and there would therefore be no point in saying of it that it is without meaning ( οὐ σημαίνει).

9. mvp-aristotle-comment-738

ῥῆμα: De interpr. 3, 16b 6

ῥῆμα δέ ἐστι τὸ προσσημαῖνον χρόνον, οὐ μέρος οὐδὲν σημαίνει χωρίς, καὶ ἔστιν ἀεὶ τῶν καθ᾽ ἑτέρου λεγομένων σημεῖον. λέγω δ᾽ ὅτι προσσημαίνει χρόνον, οἷον ὑγίεια μὲν ὄνομα, τὸ δὲ ὑγιαίνει ῥῆμα προσσημαίνει γὰρ τὸ νῦν ὑπάρχειν ... 16 τὸ ὑγίανεν ἢ τὸ ὑγιανεῖ οὐ ῥῆμα ἀλλὰ πτώσεις ῥήματος διαφέρει δὲ τοῦ ῥήματος, ὅτι τὸ μὲν τὸν παρόντα προσσημαίνει χρόνον, τὰ δὲ τὸν πέριξ

. In this passage (though not in De interpr. 10, 19b 13 ) the past and future tenses of the verb are set aside as πτώσεις, the verb in the logical theory of predication being always in the present (comp. Mansel, Prolegomena Logica p. 273). It is to be noted that in these instances of verbs, the verb is in the third person singular of the present; the reason for this is that a proper name like Κλέων οι Κορίσκος is tacitly assumed to be its subject. With Plato, it may be observed, the ῥῆμα includes the predicative adjective as well as the verb (v. Crat. 399 A ).

9. mvp-aristotle-comment-739

προσσημαίνει. Boethius, In Aristot. de Interpr. 2 p. 66 Meiser , translates this by

consignificat

, thus identifying its sense with that of the later word συσσημαίνειν.

9. mvp-aristotle-comment-741

ἄνθρωπος: Phys. 3. 7, 207 b 34

ἄνθρωπος εἷς ἄνθρωπος καὶ οὐ πολλοί

10. mvp-aristotle-comment-742

τὰ ὑποκριτικά: see on 19, 1456 b 10.

ἐπίταξιν:

see on 19, 1456b 16 .

10. mvp-aristotle-comment-743

βάδιζε: to be read as βάδιζε , i. e. as a dictatorial imperative.

11. mvp-aristotle-comment-744

λόγος. The definition is framed to distinguish a λόγος from an ὄνομα; see above on 10, and comp. De interpr. 4, 16 b 26

λόγος δέ ἐστι φωνὴ σημαντικὴ κατὰ συνθήκην, ἧς τῶν μερῶν τι σημαντικόν ἐστι κεχωρισμένον, ὡς φάσις, ἀλλ᾽ οὐχ ὡς κατάφασις ἢ ἀπόφασις

λέγω δέ, οἷον ἄνθρωπος σημαίνει μέν τι, ἀλλ᾽ οὐχ ὅτι ἔστιν ἢ οὐκ ἔστιν ἀλλ᾽ ἔσται κατάφασις ἢ ἀπόφασις, ἐάν τι προστεθῇ

. The clause ἧς ἔνια μέρη καθ᾽ αὑτὰ σημαίνει τι refers to the nouns and verbs (with their πτώσεις) as the significant parts of all λόγοι; the σύνδεσμοι and ἄρθρα are φωναὶ ἄσημοι. For the meaning of λόγος and the various forms of λόγοι see on 20, 1456 b 38 (also Bon. Ind. 433 b 48 ).

12. mvp-aristotle-comment-745

οὐ γὰρ ἅπας, κτέ. An indirect reproof, perhaps, to Plato, who seems to speak as though a λόγος were always in the form of a proposition: Soph. 262 Α

οὐκοῦν ἐξ ὀνομάτων μὲν μόνων συνεχώς λεγομένων οὐκ ἔστι ποτὲ λόγος, οὐδ᾽ αὖ ῥημάτων χωρὶς ὀνομάτων λεχθέντων

12. mvp-aristotle-comment-746

ὁ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ὁρισμός: e.g. ζῷον πεζὸν δίπουν ( Top. 1. 7, 103 a 27 ) οἱ ζῷον ἐπιστήμης δεκτικόν ( Top. 5. 2, 130 b8 ).

12. mvp-aristotle-comment-747

ἐνδέχεται ἄνευ ῥημάτων εἶναι λόγον. This is the λόγος ὀνοματώδης of An. post. 2. 10, 93b31 —a combination of words that may serve as an equivalent for a name, and take the place of one as a term in a proposition (comp. De interpr. 11, 21 a 29 ). It may be a more or a less exact equivalent; the most exact is what Aristotle calls a definition (comp. Metaph. Z 4, 1030 a 14 ).

11. mvp-aristotle-comment-748

εἷς δὲ ἐστι λόγος διχῶς. That a λόγος, in spite of its composite nature, has a certain unity in it is tacitly assumed in the definition in a 23 λόγος δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ κτέ. This unity, as the text implies, is not of the same order in all kinds of λόγοι. A definition (a λόγος without predication) is one, because the combination of terms in it signifies and stands for one thing ( ἓν σημαίνει), just in the same way as a name may do. The proposition also, e. g. Κλέων βαδίζει, is one because the combination of terms describes a single act or fact (comp. De interpr. 5, 17 a 16

ὁ ἓν δηλῶν λόγος

), and admits of only one assertion or denial. On the other hand in a composite λόγος consisting of two or more propositions with copulative or other coordinating conjunctions to connect them together, the formal unity of the whole is due to this conjunction of the parts, the several propositions which compose it. The Iliad is an extreme instance of such a λόγος. This point, the difference in the unity in these two kinds of λόγοι, is more than once noticed by Aristotle elsewhere in very similar terms: De interpr. 5, 17 a 8

ἔστι δὲ εἰς πρῶτος [? πρώτως] λόγος ἀποφαντικὸς κατάφασις, εἶτα ἀπόφασις· οἱ δ᾽ ἄλλοι [scil. λόγοι ἀποφαντικοί] πάντες συνδέσμῳ εἷς ἔστι δὲ εἷς λόγος ἀποφαντικὸς ἢ ὁ ἓν δηλῶν ἢ ὁ συνδέσμῳ εἷς, ... πολλοὶ δὲ οἱ πολλὰ καὶ μὴ ἓν ἢ οἱ ἀσύνδετοι

. An. post. 2. 10, 93 b 35

λόγος δ᾽ εἷς ἐστι διχῶς, ὁ μὲν συνδέσμῳ, ὥσπερ ἡ Ἰλιάς, ὁ δὲ τῷ ἓν καθ᾽ ἓν δηλοῦν μὴ κατὰ συμβεβηκός

. — Metaph. Η 6, 1045 a 12 :

ὁ δ᾽ ὁρισμὸς λόγος ἐστὶν εἷς οὐ συνδέσμῳ καθάπερ ἡ Ἰλιάς, ἀλλὰ τῷ ἑνὸς εἶναι

(comp. also Metaph. Z 4, 1030 b 9 ).

13. mvp-aristotle-comment-749

ἐκ πλειόνων , scil. λόγων.

Remarques sur la poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) (André Dacier's French commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.) focus

12. mvp-aristotle-comment-477

20.7 12. L'article est un ſon, qui ne ſignifiant rien par luy-mème, ſert ſeulement à montrer le commencement ou la fin du discours]¹

13. mvp-aristotle-comment-478

20.8 13. Le nom est un ſon composé, qui fignifie quelque choſe ſans marquer le temps, & dont les parties qui le compoſent ne fignifient rien ſeules.]²

14. mvp-aristotle-comment-479

20.8 14. Car même dans les noms doubles, chaque nom ſeparé n'a aucune fignification, comme Theodore.]³

15. mvp-aristotle-comment-480

20.9 15. Mais le verbe a cet avantage ſur le nom qu'il marque le temps, ce que le nom ne fait pas.]⁴

16. mvp-aristotle-comment-481

20.10 16. Le cas est dans les noms & dans les verbes.]⁵

17. mvp-aristotle-comment-482

20.11 17. L'oraiſon, ou le diſcours, eſt un ſon compoſe qui fignifie, & dont quelques parties ſeparées ont leur ſignification.]⁶

18. mvp-aristotle-comment-483

20.12 18. Car il ne faut pas s'imaginer que l'oraiſon ſoit toujours un composé de noms & de verbes, comme la définition de l'homme.]⁷

19. mvp-aristotle-comment-484

20.13 19. On appelle l'oraiſon, une, en deux manières.]⁸

Commentary on the Poetics (Thomas Twining, 1789) (OCR draft) (Thomas Twining's notes on Aristotle's Poetics, aligned to the Kassel reference edition.) focus

171. mvp-aristotle-comment-171

NOTE 171. P. 105.

20.7 AN ARTICLE MARKS THE BEGINNING OR THE END OF A SENTENCE.The commentators all tell us, that this means the prepositive, and the subjunctive article; but none of them have clearly and fairly shewn us, how the one, because it is placed before a word, marks the beginning of a sentence or discourse, (

ΛΟΓΟΥ ἀρχην

;) or, how the other marks the end of it, because it follows the word to which it belongs. In the very sentence before us, for example,

Αρθρον δε ἐστι φωνη άσημα Ἡ λογου άρχην ἢ τελος, ἢ διορισμον, δηλοι

—in what sense does the subjunctive article,

Ἡ

, mark the end of the sentence—

τελος λογου

"L'article subjonctif,"

says Dacier ,

"est celui qui marque la fin du discours: c'est-à-dire, qu'il suit la chose qu'il designe, comme, qui, lequel."

—It is easy to explain things in this manner.

For my part, I see not what is to be made of this, unless we may understand Aristotle to mean only that power of the article, by which, in the Greek language, it distinguishes the subject from the predicate, in certain propositions, and determines the order of construction. See Hermes, II. 1. p. 230. —But, then, this is no other than a species of

διορισμα

, and is, indeed, given by Mr. Harris as one example of the definitive or ascertaining power of the article.

The second definition of the article, (

—φωνη άσημα —— to συντίθεσθαι

) I have omitted. It is the first definition of the conjunction repeated verbatim. It may, indeed, be true of both; but if so, it must inevitably follow, I think, either that the two things must be the same, or, that the words are not truly a definition of either. Yet this passes smoothly with all the commentators I have seen, except Madius and Piccolomini .

172. mvp-aristotle-comment-172

NOTE 172. P. 105.

20.8 FOR EVEN IN DOUBLE WORDS, &C.Compare cap. ii. and iv. of Aristotle's treatise Περι Ερμηνειας . This is rendered by Piccolomini , with his usual accuracy,

"perochè nei nomi doppij [ò ver composti] non usiamo le parti d'essi, secondo che, da per se prese, hanno significatione: come, (per essempio) in questo nome Theodoro, quella parte (doro) non é significante."

173. mvp-aristotle-comment-173

NOTE 173. P. 106.

20.9 INDICATION OF TIME IS NOT INCLUDED, &c. —

Ου ΠΡΟΣΣΗΜΑΙΝΕΙ το ποτε

. See Hermes, I. 6, note (d), p. 96 . Aristotle has given a fuller definition of the verb, in the book περι Ἑρμ. cap. iii.

174. mvp-aristotle-comment-174

NOTE 174. P. 106.

20.10 OTHERS RELATE TO ACTION OR PRONUNCIATION —

Ἡ δε, κατα τα ὑποκριτικα

— sc.

σχηματα

: meaning the

σχηματα λεξεως

mentioned just before, cap. xix. with which these modes plainly coincide; for the

πτώσεις ῥηματων

here mentioned are no other than the

Ἐγκλισεις

, modes, or moods, of the Grammarians. — [See Hermes, I. 8, p. 144 , and particularly the notes there.]

Και κατα ποιας ἐγκλισεις, ὡς δη τινες ΠΤΩΣΕΙΣ ΡΗΜΑΤΙΚΑΣ καλεσι.

Dion. Hal. de Struct. &c. Sect. 6. — But he speaks of the term as applied only to the modes; for the tenses,

διαφοραι χρονων

, are immediately after mentioned by him, as not included in that term. But Aristotle, in the περι ἐρμην. expressly mentions the tenses also, as

πτωσεις ῥηματων

. See cap. iii. Sect. 5.

175. mvp-aristotle-comment-175

NOTE 175. P. 106.

20.12 FOR ALL DISCOURSE IS NOT COMPOSED OF VERBS AND NOUNS: THE DEFINITION OF MAN, FOR INSTANCE —

Ου γαρ άπας λογος ἐκ ῥηματων και ὀνοματων συγκειται· διον, ὁ του ἀνθρωπου ὁρισμος· ἀλλ᾽ ἐνδεχεται άνευ ῥηματων είναι λογον.

This is very ambiguously expressed. We are left to make out, as well as we can, whether the "definition of man," is referred to as an instance of a sentence without a verb, or of a sentence with both noun and verb. The construction seems, indeed, to lead more naturally to the latter interpretation. But the other, I think, is more to Aristotle's purpose, (for, an example of a sentence with both noun and verb, it was hardly necessary to produce,) and is confirmed by the following passage in his book περι Ἑρμηνειας :

Αναγκη δε παντα λογον ἀποφαντικον

(every assertive sentence or speech)

ἐκ ῥηματος είναι, ἢ ἐκ πτωσεως ῥηματος· και γαρ ὁ του ἀνθρωπου λογος

(i. e.

ὁρισμος

, definition; for so

λογος

is continually used by Aristotle,)

ἐαν μη το, ἐστιν, ἢ, ην, ἢ, ἐσται, ἢ τι τοιουτον ΠΡΟΣΤΕΘΗι, ουπω λογος ἀποφαντικος

. ² The definition itself, (the same, probably, to which he alludes in the passage before us,) follows; it is,

ζωον πεζον διπουν

. ³ Now these three words alone constitute the definition, and it is of this only that Aristotle here speaks. In the full, assertive sentence, Anthropos esti zoon pezon dipoun, the two first words are no part of the definition itself, but, as Victorius has well observed, only indicate the thing defined. And accordingly, the philosopher, we see, in the above quotation, considers the verb as superadded to the definition.

However, this sense would be so much more clearly expressed, if the words —

διον, ὁ του ἀνθρωπου ὁρισμος

followed, instead of preceding, the words

ἀλλ' ἐνδεχεται άνευ ῥηματων είναι λογον

, that I should hardly doubt of their being misplaced, if this sort of embarrassment were less frequent than it is in Aristotle's writings. This whole passage receives much illustration from that part of the treatise περι ἐρμ. to which I have referred. ⁴ A sentence without a verb is what Aristotle calls a significant sentence, but not an assertive sentence, or proposition; i. e. that affirms or denies something, and of which it may be predicated, that it is true, or false. Such only, in that logical work, it was to his purpose to consider; the other, the merely significant sentence, ⁵ he dismisses, as belonging rather to rhetoric and POETRY.

Οι μεν ουν άλλοι [λογοι], ἀφεισθωσαν· ρητορικης γαρ, ἢ ΠΟΙΗΤΙΚΗΣ, οικειοτερα ἡ σκεψις· ὁ δε ἀποφαντικος της νυν θεωριας.

⁶

176. mvp-aristotle-comment-176

NOTE 176. P. 106.

20.12 SIGNIFICANT, AS THE WORD CLEON IS, &C.It has been observed, that the sense seemed to require an instance of a sentence with only one significant word; at least, not composed of both verb and noun, as

βαδίζει Κλεων

is. But I rather believe, that Aristotle did not intend this as an instance of such a sentence, but merely as an explanation of the

σημαινει

, and

καθ' άυτα σημαινει τι

, that precede. "It is not," says he, "essential to what I call

λογος

oratio

, that it should contain both a noun and a verb, i. e. that it should be a complete proposition: but some significant part it must have; significant, I mean, as a whole word, separately taken, as Cleon is, for example, in the sentence, Cleon walks; not as making a part of a word, like

δωρον

in the compound name

Θεοδωρος

, which has, indeed, a meaning, but not

καθ' αυτο κεχωρισμενον

— by itself as a word in the sentence."

That this is the meaning, seems probable from the chapter in which

λογος

is defined in the book περι Ερμηνειας . For there, as soon as he has given the definition, (

Λογου δε ἐσι φωνη σημαντικη ἧς των μερων τι σημαντικον ἐσι ΚΕΧΩΡΙΣΜΕΝΟΝ

,) he immediately proceeds to explain the expressions; declaring what fort of significant part he means. "Significant," he says, "as the word

ανθρωπος

is; that is,

κεχωρισμενον

, by itself; not as, syn-anthropos is, or uk esti, which signify as assertive sentences, nor yet, as a syllable, or part of a simple word, (like

υς

μυς

,) or, even as a word making part of a compound word." ⁷ Now, what Aristotle there expresses fully, he meant, I think, to say, more briefly, in the words,

ΜΕΡΟΣ μεντοι άει τι σημαινον ἐξει· διον ἐν τῷ, Βαδίζει Κλεων, ὁ Κλεων.

177. mvp-aristotle-comment-177

NOTE 177. P. 107.

20.13 A DISCOURSE MAY BE ONE, IN TWO SENSES, &C.Compare, περι Ερμην. cap. v. p. 38. — Analyt. Post. lib. ii. cap. 10. p. 169, E. Metaphys. VII. 4. p. 910, D. (where he uses

τῳ συνεχει

, as equivalent to

συνδεσμῳ

) and VIII. 6, p. 931, C.

Commentary on the Poetics (Henry James Pye, 1792) (OCR draft) (Henry James Pye's 1792 English commentary, aligned to the Kassel reference edition.) focus

20.3. mvp-aristotle-comment-83 20.7

AN ARTICLE IS AN UNMEANING SOUND WHICH MARKS THE BEGINNING, THE END, OR SOME PARTICULAR DISTINCTION OF A SENTENCE.

HOW an article can be said to mark the end of a fentence, is I own beyond my comprehenfion. By the distinction of a sentence I imagine Aristotle means such words or phrafes as are diftinguished by an article, and by that distinction feparated from the rest of the difscourse, and in fact made substantives; as when we say, the conjunction AND,' ' the article THE.' In this power 'the Latin, for want of an article, is greatly deficient; and the critical writers in that language are sometimes obliged to have recourse to the Greek article; as for inftance Goulston, in his paraphrase of a sentence in this treatise, uses rò prius, and τὸ pofterius. By means of the article in English a whole sentence is frequently made a substantive, as sometimes also a single gerund is. I say sometimes; as what Dr. Lowth has observed in his grammar, (p. 140) on the gerund being always a substantive when the article THE is prefixed to it, and requiring to be followed by the genitive cafe, I can by no means affent to. In some instances it certainly is so, but in nine out of

POETIC OF ARISTOTLE. of ten, when the article is prefixed, it is because the whole sentence, and not the gerund only, is the substantive. For instance, in the example in Lilly's Grammar of a fentence being the nominative case to a verb.

Ingenuas didiciffe fideliter artes • Emollit mores, nec finit esse feros.' If we translate as we may [L], • The having learned the liberal arts,' furely were we to alter the tense of the infinitive from the preterite to the present, we should retain the same general sense and say, 'The learning ' the liberal arts,' not • The learning of the liberal arts.' The gerund seems never to be properly a substantive but when the noun that it governs would be its nominative case if it continued a verb. To explain myself more clearly, were I to say, suppose speaking of a court of justice, such a thing happened before the swearing the evidence, meaning previous to the clerk of the court's adminiftering the oath, SWEARING is a gerund governing EVIDENCE, and THE makes a fubstantive of the whole sentence. But were I to say, before the swearing of the evidence,' I should conceive EVIDENCE as the governing cafe of the verb, which would not then be transative but neuter, and express the act of the evidence and not of the officer of the court, and in this case it would indeed be a substantive. In such expreffions as • the crowing of a cock,'' the neighing of a • horse,' the gerunds are compleatly changed into substantives, and as such will admit a plural. [L] There is no doubt but in this as in several other of the instances, the article may be more elegantly omitted, but it is equally clear that it may also be prefixed, and in some cafes - must be prefixed, which is quite sufficient for the purpose. • Steed

• Steed answers steed in high and boastful neighings.' Or the English genitive, as a horse's neighing. But whether I say ' eating bread,' or 'the eating of bread,' ' EATING' will neither admit the plural, nor the English genitive. The flying a kite' is the diversion of a boy or the experiment of an electrician. • The flying of a kite' is the motion of the machine, or the action of the bird from which it is named. • The carving a door' is the act of the artist; ' the carving of a door' the object of that act compleated. Another proof that the word still continues a gerund without assuming any of the characters of a substantive is the necessity of its being followed by an infinitive, and its incapacity to govern another gerund. We cannot say' the defiring of feeing' as we might the ' defire of feeing, we must say ' the defiring to see.' That the fentence and not the gerund is to be confidered as the fubstantive, will be further proved from instances where the gerund is preceded by a noun in the English genitive case, or a pronoun possessive, which equally with the article mark one or other of them to be a fubftantive. • Peter's denying Christ, would any correct writer say' of • Chrift?' • My reading a passage of Ariftotle;' Would you say' of a passage of Ariftotle ?" if you do you change the sense. Reading will indeed be a substantive, but will fignify some alteration affecting the fenfe, and not the pronunciation of the words.. Dr. Lowth mentions the use of CONTINUAL and CONTINUALLY, the adjective and adverb as a criterion in this cafe. By that criterion. I am

POETIC OF ARISTOTLE. am content that my hypothefis shall be tried. If the gerund can poffibly be connected with an adjective, I give up my cause. • He is continu- ، ally teaching Paul.' Is 'the continually teaching Paul laudable ?' Here the article is necessarily prefixed in the last member of the sentence; but it is said if THE is prefixed of must follow. Then must we fay • the continually teaching of Paul?' If we do the sense is entirely changed; of ceases to be a fign of the genitive case, and becomes a prepofition, and would be rendered in Latin by ' de Paulo,' concerning, about Paul. If the adverb CONTINUALLY is made an adjective, and we say' the continual teaching of Paul,' TEACHING will undoubtedly be a substantive, but Paul will be the teacher. Instead of • the soundly beating a man,' could we say the found beating of a • man? Or to take Dr. Lowth's own example, instead of by well • observing which,' could we say, ' by the good observing of which ?' for directly gaining wisdom,' could we say, • the direct gaining of • wisdom?' for ' easily supplying our wants,'' the easy supplying of our wants?' for ' quietly enjoying,'' the quiet enjoying?' It must be observed this is marked most strongly when WELL and Good are the examples, as in other cafes the adjective and adverb are sometimes confounded by incorrect speakers. I must however allow that the gerund, confidered merely as such, may sometimes be followed by a genitive case on the authority of the Latin, whose grammar in doubtful cases is generally allowed to be decifive as to our own. For example: ‘Aliquid fuit principium generandi ← animalium.' VARRO. • Fuit exemplorum legendi potestas.' CICERO. • Vestri adhortdi causa.' TACITUS. !.. • Generandi gloria mellis.' VIRGIL. NOTE

20.4. mvp-aristotle-comment-84 20.8

IN NAMES COMPOSED OF TWO WORDS WE NEVER CONCEIVE EITHER OF THE PARTS TAKEN SEPARATELY TO HAVE ANY MEANING.

THE same observation is just as to common nouns or names of things as well as persons if they are either of foreign or obsolete derivation [M]. And fometimes even if the words are compounded of terms in general use. This is well illustrated in Mr. Jackson's Letters. ، Perhaps,' (he says)' it may be imagined that those words which carry their fignification with them should be most expreffive, whether long or short; that is when they are compounded of known words which express that fignification. But this is not so; when we say " adieu," " farewell," we mean no more than a ceremony at parting. No one < confiders " adieu" as a recommendation to God, or "farewell" as a wish for happiness. Frequent use destroys all idea of derivation; • but if we speak a compound or self-fignificant word that is not common, we perceive the derivation of it. Thus if a Londoner says " butter-milk," he has an idea of something composed of " butter" " and " milk," but to an Irishman or Hollander it is as fimple an idea. as either of the words taken separately is to us.' LETTER III. [M] See for example what is said of Curfew, Note IV. Chap. XIV. NOTE

20.5. mvp-aristotle-comment-85 20.9

A CASE IS INCIDENT BOTH TO THE NOUN AND THE VERB.

AS much of the elegance and peculiarity of speech depends on the inflection of verbs, and as most languages in this respect deviate at times from what may be called the rules of universal grammar, I shall venture briefly to mention a few cursory observations that I have made on this point in the course of my reading. Dr. Lowth has mentioned the confufion frequently made even by good writers, of the participle and preterite of such verbs as form the participle in En, as 'wrote,' ' written,' ' rode,' ' ridden;' which has indeed been more carefully avoided, even in conversation by those who are tolerably accurate, since his admonition. But he has either overlooked, or neglected to mention the distinction custom has made as to the impropriety of using the preterite for the participle, in the different circumstance of its being connected with the auxiliary verb ' to have,' ' to be,' or being connected with a substantive as a verbal adjective. 'It is wrote' seems to convey a more ungrammatical found to the ear than ' I have ' wrote;' but no person whatever would say, ' wrote language' for • written language.' This appears even in cafes where the proper participle, as used with the auxiliary verbs, is nearly obsolete. It might favour a little of pedantry to say, in common conversation, ' I have beaten him,' ' I have • eaten it; but we always say 'weather-beaten,'' moth-eaten.' 3 G The

The two auxiliary verbs, ' shall' and 'will, which constitute the future tense in English, are perpetually confounded not only by foreigners, but by the Scotch and Irish. The proper fimple future is this, ' I shall,' 'Thou wilt,' or 'You will,' 'He will,' 'We shall,' 'You, or Ye ' will,'' They will.' Were I to say ' I will go,' or • You shall go,' it is no longer the simple future, but speaks determination in one instance, and command or compulfion in the other. What a difference between these expreffions, • I shall not succeed in this but you will,' and I will not fucceed in this but you shall.' The last part is nonsense, fince the verb 'fucceed' being accidental requires only the simple future; but for 'fucceed,' substitute ' attempt,' which is in the power of the agent, the fimple future will be the fame; but change the signs, say ' I will not attempt this, you shall ; and determination on one part, and command on the other are clearly expressed. On this principle it is that our neighbours often raise a laugh at their own expence, by telling us they will break their necks, and that their friends shall win a rubber at whift. It feems very wonderful that two languages so very different, and in all apparent circumstances fo entirely unconnected as the English and modern Greek, should unite in the fingular circumstance of using the verb ' I will' for a fign of the future tenfe, the latter ufing θέλω for this purpose. A fanciful writer might perhaps be tempted to impute this corruption of the Greek tongue to the conversation of the Barangi, a body of English guards, to whom the particular defence of the Grecian Emperor's person was entrusted, and who preferved the use of their native language to the last age of the empire [o]. [o] See a quotation from Codinus in Note 48, on Chap. LV. of Mr. Gibbon's History. Πολυχρονιζᾶσι ὁι Βάραγγοι καλὰ τῶν παλρίον γλῶσσαν ἀνθῶν, ἡτὸι Ιγκληνισὶ. There

POETIC OF ARISTOTLE. There is a distinction in the passive voice of the ancient languages to which all the modern ones I have any knowledge of are strangers, I mean the perfect and imperfect present, AMATUS SUM and AMOR. This is observed by the later editor of Lilly's grammar; but AMO being the example it is not so clear, it not being very easy in that verb to mark the distinction, though by accurate investigation it may be traced. AMOR means simply, that at the present time I am beloved; AMATUS SUM has in this verb a kind of retrospect. It is the word Prior's Henry would have used to express his situation. • When industry and time, (the mighty two • That bring our wishes nearer to our view,) • Made him perceive that the inclining fair • Received his vows with no reluctant ear.'- The distinction is more obvious in DOCEOR, which means ' I am now learning,' or ' in the act of being taught; whereas DOCTUS SUM fignifies the completion of my purpose, ' I am instructed.' The same advantage that the Latin has over the English in the passive, the English in its turn has over the Latin in the active voice, from using the auxiliary, 'I am,' with the participle, ' I think, I am thinking.' In verbs deponent in Latin, the active voice has also the same advantage and from the same cause. There is an anomaly in the Italian verb substantive exactly resembling the Latin deponent. It is conjugated by itself, assuming, as an auxiliary, the power of TO HAVE, SONO STATO, 'I have been.' The cause appears to be this. The Latin verb sum having nothing like the 3G 2 paffive

paffive participle, its derivative the Italian borrowed one for the verb STARE; and SONO STATO literally means ' I AM PLACED.' There is a remarkable nicety in Spanish between SER and ESTAR, the first always fignifying only fimple essence; as for instance, SER QUATRO LUGARES DI LONDRA, would not signify being four leagues distant from London; but being actually the four leagues, the proper verb here iS ESTAR. In fome languages, the Hebrew for instance, the genders of the perfons are fignified by the termination of the verb itself. At first sight this may appear an advantage, but in fact it is a defect, for it often enforces difcrimination where difcrimination cannot be really made. What happens from this to the Hebrew in all its persons, happens to the French, Italian, and Spanish in the third person of both numbers, from the use of the pronoun. Here Greek and Latin have manifeftly the advantage, as where discrimination is necessary they can employ the pronoun or nominative cafe, or otherwise, omit them. In the fingular pronoun the English is in the fame cafe with the other modern languages; and we feel an inconvenience when we wish to mention a circumstance relating to a person, whose sex we either do not know or wish to conceal; and we must either use a periphrafis, or have recourse to the colloquial barbarism of substituting the third person plural, ' They.' CHAP.

Commentarius in Aristotelis Poeticam (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) (Ritter's Latin commentary, extracted from the 1839 volume, divided by Ritter's chapters and sections, and linked to the corresponding Perseus reference subsections.) focus

7. mvp-aristotle-comment-141

Ritter, cap. 20 § 7

ἄρθρον δ' ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος-διορισμὸν δηλοῖ: quod articulus orationis sive enuntiati initium designare dicitur, hoc intelligi videtur, multa enuntiata ab articulo inchoari: quomodo idem τέλος indicet ego non expedio. exempla τὸ φημί et τὸ περί solam postremam articuli vim, ubi distinctionem denotat, respiciunt. sed ut quod deest virtuti definitionis, numero compensetur, iam altera articuli explicatio succedit, ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος, ἢ οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν, πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου. quae συνδέσμου definitio modo posita erat, eadem paucis omissis paucisque mutatis iam pro altera articuli definitione venditatur. num mirum hoc est? mihi secus videtur: nam quipaulo ante duas convinctionis definitiones non veras attulit, cur idem articuli duas non minus ineptas non producat? at haec nimium similis est illi convinctionis definitioni. est sane et esse potest. nam quemadmodum σύνδεσμος est (sic ille fere cogitavit) id quod convincit, ita ἄρθρον est quod iungit ( ἄρει) 1). quapropter indicare voluit quatenus vox illa non iungat, ne quis nomine ἄρθρον decipi se pateretur.

8. mvp-aristotle-comment-142

Ritter, cap. 20 § 8

ὄνομα δ᾽ ἐστὶ φωνὴ συνθετή - καθ' αὑτὸ σημαντικόν: haec omnia non bene repetita sunt ex libro Aristotelis de Interpretatione c. 2., ubi legimus ὄνομα μὲν οὖν φωνὴ σημαντική κατὰ συνθήκην ἄνευ χρόνου, ἧς μηδὲν μέρος ἐστὶ σημαντικόν κεχωρισμένον. pro κατὰ συνθήκην (ex consensu, ex instituto) falsus Aristoteles dedit συθετήν, h. e. componendam, vocem ambiguam atque eo magis ambiguam, quod eandem in syllabae definitione posuit §. 5. οἷον ἐν τῷ Θεοδώρῳ τὸ δῶρον οὐ σημαίνει: debuit οἷον ἐν τῷ Θεόδωρος τὸ δῶρος οὐ σημαίνει. male imitatus est verum Aristolelem qui scribit de Interp. c. 2. ἐν γὰρ τῷ Κάλλιππος τὸ ἵππος οὐδὲν αὐτὸ καθ' ἑαυτὸ σημαίνει.

9. mvp-aristotle-comment-143

Ritter, cap. 20 § 9

ῥῆμα δὲ φωνὴ συνθετή, σημαντική μετὰ χρόνου: melius verus Aristoteles de Interpr. c. 3. ῥῆμα δὲ ἐστι τὸ προσσημαῖνον χρόνον, οὗ μέρος οὐδὲν σημαίνει χωρίς, καὶ ἔστιν ἀεὶ τῶν καθ' ἑτέρου λεγομένων σημεῖον. exempla quae definitionem sequuntur hominem male sedulum lectoribusque non multum tribuentem produnt.

10. mvp-aristotle-comment-144

Ritter, cap. 20 § 10

πτῶσις - εἴδη ἐστίν: πτῶσιν (casum) Graeci tam nominum quam verborum terminationum affectiones appellant. vid. Aristotel. de Interpr. c. 2 et 3. Latini quoque varias verborum positiones casuum nomine interdum denotaverunt. statim in illis ἡ μὲν τὸ κατὰ τὸ τούτου alterum τὸ accepi a Robortello sustentandae structurae plane necessarium. 1) Ego non is sum qui illam nominis ἄρθρον explicandi rationem veram esse contendam, immo ἄρθρον passivo intellectu dictum existimo.

11. mvp-aristotle-comment-145

Ritter, cap. 20 § 11

λόγος δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ σημαντική, ἧς ἔνια μέρη καθ' αὑτὰ σημαίνει τι: exprimere voluit locum ex libro de Interpretatione c. 4. λόγος δὲ ἐστι φωνὴ σημαντική κατὰ συνθήκην, ἧς τῶν μερῶν τι σημαντικὸν κεχωρισμένον. sed male admisit συνθετή pro κατὰ συνθήκην, male quoque ἧς ἔνια μέρη pro ἧς τῶν μερῶν τι κεχωρισμένον, quae sequuntur οὐ γὰρ ἅπας λόγος ἐκ ῥημάτων καὶ ὀνομάτων σύγκειται, οἷον ὁ ἀνθρώπου ὁρισμός, haec saltem hoc loco supervacanea sunt. λόγον Aristoteles dixit non modo enuntiatum (Satz) sed etiam quamcumque significantium vocum copulationem, v. c. ζῷον ἄπτερον, ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός. interpolator quaerenti τί ἄνθρωπος respondentem aliquem cogitat ζῷον πεζὸν δίπουν 2), non ζῷον πεζὸν δίπουν ἐστίν, qui est λόγος ἀποφαντικός. vid. de Interpr. ἀνάγκη δὲ πάντα λόγον ἀποφαντικὸν ἐκ ῥήματος εἶναι ἢ πτώσεως ῥήματος· καὶ * γὰρ ὁ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου λόγος, ἐὰν μὴ τὸ ἔστιν ἢ ἦν ἢ ἔσται ἤ τι τοιοῦτον προσθετῇ, οὔπω λόγος ἀποφαντικός. sed plane absurda et falsa quae post haec allata legimus, μέρος μέντοι ἀεί τι σημαῖνον ἕξει ( ὁ λόγος), οἷον ἐν τῷ “ βαδίζει Κλέων” ὁ Κλέων. hic homo Aristotelis sententiam in libro de Interpretatione propositam adeo non intellexit, ut βαδίζει pro voce non significante habuerit.

12. mvp-aristotle-comment-146

Ritter, cap. 20 § 12

εἷς δ᾽ ἐστὶ λόγος διχῶς- τῷ ἓν σημαί νειν: imitatus est sed non intellexit illa de Interpr. ἔστι δὲ εἷς λόγος ἀποφαντικὸς ἢ ὁ ἓν δηλῶν ἢ ὁ συνδέσμῳ εἷς 3). λόγος ὁ ἓν δηλῶν v. gr. est “ ζῷον πεζὸν δίπουν," quippe qui pluribus verbis unum quid (hominem) denotet. λόγος συνδέσμῳ εἷς est “ εἰ ὁ θεὸς ἀγαθός, ἀἴδιον τὸ πᾶν.” vid. quae Ammonius ad 1. c. copiose disputavit in Scholiis in Aristotelem I. p. 110 a 31 - 111 a 9. ed. Brandis. falsus Aristoteles τὸν λόγον qui est oratio vel enuntiatum commutavit cum τῷ λόγῳ qui est notio, quasi adhuc de notionibus locu- 2) Conf. de Interpr. c. 5. Metaphys. Z. 12 init. 3) Codices in Poeticae loco συνδέσμων exhibent, quod librarii vitio irrepsisse pro συνδέσμῳ liquet.tus esset. itaque pro notione multa in unum comprehendente nomen collectivum Ἰλιάδα posuit. - sapienti sat. qui haec partim perobscura partim falsa partim absurda et inutilia Aristoteli, acutissimo homini prudentissimoque harum rerum arbitro tribuere potest, is suo iudicio fruatur: ego non potui.

Aristotle Poetics 20.9

Theodore Alois Buckley (Translator)

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NOTE 171. P. 105.

NOTE 172. P. 105.

NOTE 173. P. 106.

NOTE 174. P. 106.

NOTE 175. P. 106.

NOTE 176. P. 106.

NOTE 177. P. 107.

AN ARTICLE IS AN UNMEANING SOUND WHICH MARKS THE BEGINNING, THE END, OR SOME PARTICULAR DISTINCTION OF A SENTENCE.

IN NAMES COMPOSED OF TWO WORDS WE NEVER CONCEIVE EITHER OF THE PARTS TAKEN SEPARATELY TO HAVE ANY MEANING.

A CASE IS INCIDENT BOTH TO THE NOUN AND THE VERB.

Ritter, cap. 20 § 7

Ritter, cap. 20 § 8

Ritter, cap. 20 § 9

Ritter, cap. 20 § 10

Ritter, cap. 20 § 11

Ritter, cap. 20 § 12

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