What we have said already makes it further clear that a poet’s object is not to tell what actually happened but what could and would happen either probably or inevitably.

The difference between a historian and a poet is not that one writes in prose and the other in verse— 1451b 1 indeed the writings of Herodotus could be put into verse and yet would still be a kind of history, whether written in metre or not. The real difference is this, that one tells what happened and the other what might happen.

For this reason poetry is something more scientific and serious than history, because poetry tends to give general truths while history gives particular facts.

By a general truth I mean the sort of thing that a certain type of man will do or say either probably or necessarily. That is what poetry aims at in giving names to the characters. ¹ A particular fact is what Alcibiades did or what was done to him.

In the case of comedy this has now become obvious, for comedians construct their plots out of probable incidents and then put in any names that occur to them. They do not, like the iambic satirists, write about individuals. ²

In tragedy, on the other hand, they keep to real names. The reason is that what is possible carries conviction. If a thing has not happened, we do not yet believe in its possibility, but what has happened is obviously possible. Had it been impossible, it would not have happened.

20 It is true that in some tragedies one or two of the names are familiar and the rest invented; indeed in some they are all invented, as for instance in Agathon’s Antheus, ³ where both the incidents and the names are invented and yet it is none the less a favourite.

One need not therefore endeavor invariably to keep to the traditional stories with which our tragedies deal. Indeed it would be absurd to do that, seeing that the familiar themes are familiar only to a few and yet please all. ⁴

It is clear, then, from what we have said that the poet must be a maker not of verses but of stories, since he is a poet in virtue of his representation, and what he represents is action.

Even supposing he represents what has actually happened, he is none the less a poet, for there is nothing to prevent some actual occurrences being the sort of thing that would probably or inevitably happen, and it is in virtue of that that he is their maker.

Of simple ⁵ plots and actions the worst are those which are episodic. By this I mean a plot in which the episodes do not follow each other probably or inevitably.

Bad poets write such plays because they cannot help it, and good poets write them to please the actors. Writing as they do for competition, they often strain a plot beyond its capacity and are thus obliged to sacrifice continuity. ⁶

But this is bad work, 1452a 1 since tragedy represents not only a complete action but also incidents that cause fear and pity, and this happens most of all when the incidents are unexpected and yet one is a consequence of the other. ⁷

For in that way the incidents will cause more amazement than if they happened mechanically and accidentally, since the most amazing accidental occurrences are those which seem to have been providential, for instance when the statue of Mitys at Argos killed the man who caused Mitys’s death by falling on him at a festival. Such events do not seem to be mere accidents.

So such plots as these must necessarily be the best.

It is, moreover, evident from what has been said,
that it is not the function of the poet to relate what
has happened, but what may happen, — what is possible
according to the law of probability or necessity.

The
poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or
in prose. The work of Herodotus might be put into
verse, and it would still be a species of history, with
metre no less than without it. The true difference is
that one relates what has happened, the other what may
happen.

Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and
a higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express
the universal, history the particular.

By the universal
I mean how a person of a certain type will on occasion
speak or act, according to the law of probability or
necessity; and it is this universality at which poetry
aims in the names she attaches to the personages.

The
particular is — for example — what Alcibiades did or
suffered. In Comedy this is already apparent: for here
the poet first constructs the plot on the lines of prob-
ability, and then inserts characteristic names; — unlike
the lampooners who write about particular individuals.

But tragedians still keep to real names, the reason being
that what is possible is credible: what has not happened
we do not at once feel sure to be possible: but what has
happened is manifestly possible: otherwise it would not
have happened.

Still there are even some tragedies in
which there are only one or two well known names, the rest
being fictitious. In others, none are well known, — as
in Agathon's Antheus, where incidents and names alike
are fictitious, and yet they give none the less pleasure.

We must not, therefore, at all costs keep to the received
legends, which are the usual subjects of Tragedy.

Indeed,
it would be absurd to attempt it; for even subjects that
are known are known only to a few, and yet give pleasure
to all. It clearly follows that the poet or 'maker'
should be the maker of plots rather than of verses;
since he is a poet because he imitates, and what he
imitates are actions.

And even if he chances to take
an historical subject, he is none the less a poet; for
there is no reason why some events that have actually
happened should not conform to the law of the probable
and possible, and in virtue of that quality in them he is
their poet or maker.

Of all plots and actions the epeisodic
are the worst. I call a plot 'epeisodic' in which the episodes or
acts succeed one another without probable or necessary sequence.

Bad poets compose such pieces by their own fault, good
poets, to please the players; for, as they write show
pieces for competition, they stretch the plot beyond its
capacity, and are often forced to break the natural con-
tinuity.

But again, Tragedy is an imitation not only of a
complete action, but of events inspiring fear or pity.
Such an effect is best produced when the events come on
us by surprise; and the effect is heightened when, at the
same time, they follow as cause and effect.

The tragic
wonder will then be greater than if they happened of
themselves or by accident; for even coincidences are most
striking when they have an air of design. We may
instance the statue of Mitys at Argos, which fell upon his
murderer while he was a spectator at a festival, and killed
him. Such events seem not to be due to mere chance.

Plots, therefore, constructed on these principles are
necessarily the best.

From what we have said it will be seen that the poet's
function is to describe, not the thing that has happened, but
a kind of thing that might happen, i. e. what is possible as
being probable or necessary.

The distinction between his-
torian and poet is not in the one writing prose and the
other verse-you might put the work of Herodotus into
verse, and it would still be a species of history; it consists
really in this, that the one describes the thing that has been,
and the other a kind of thing that might be.

Hence poetry
is something more philosophic and of graver import than
history, since its statements are of the nature rather of
universals, whereas those of history are singulars.

By a
universal statement I mean one as to what such or such
a kind of man will probably or necessarily say or do-which
is the aim of poetry, though it affixes proper names to the
characters; by a singular statement, one as to what, say,
Alcibiades did or had done to him.

In Comedy this has
become clear by this time; it is only when their plot is
already made up of probable incidents that they give it
a basis of proper names, choosing for the purpose any names
that may occur to them, instead of writing like the old
iambic poets about particular persons.

In Tragedy, how-
ever, they still adhere to the historic names; and for this
reason: what convinces is the possible; now whereas we are
not yet sure as to the possibility of that which has not hap-
pened, that which has happened is manifestly possible, else
it would not have come to pass.

Nevertheless even in
Tragedy there are some plays with but one or two known
names in them, the rest being inventions; and there are
some without a single known name, e. g. Agathon's Antheus,
in which both incidents and names are of the poet's inven-
tion; and it is no less delightful on that account.

So that one
must not aim at a rigid adherence to the traditional stories
on which tragedies are based. It would be absurd, in fact,
to do so, as even the known stories are only known to a few,
though they are a delight none the less to all.

It is evident from the above that the poet must be more
the poet of his stories or Plots than of his verses, inasmuch
as he is a poet by virtue of the imitative element in his work,
and it is actions that he imitates.

And if he should come
to take a subject from actual history, he is none the less
a poet for that; since some historic occurrences may very
well be in the probable and possible order of things; and
it is in that aspect of them that he is their poet.

Of simple Plots and actions the episodic are the worst.
I call a Plot episodic when there is neither probability nor
necessity in the sequence of its episodes.

Actions of this
sort bad poets construct through their own fault, and good
ones on account of the players. His work being for public
performance, a good poet often stretches out a Plot beyond
its capabilities, and is thus obliged to twist the sequence
of incident.

Tragedy, however, is an imitation not only of a complete
action, but also of incidents arousing pity and fear.

Such
incidents have the very greatest effect on the mind when
they occur unexpectedly and at the same time in consequence
of one another; there is more of the marvellous in them
then than if they happened of themselves or by mere chance.
Even matters of chance seem most marvellous if there is
an appearance of design as it were in them; as for instance
the statue of Mitys at Argos killed the author of Mitys'
death by falling down on him when a looker-on at a public
spectacle; for incidents like that we think to be not without
a meaning.

A Plot, therefore, of this sort is necessarily
finer than others.

[1] ¹ 9.1 BUT it is evident from what has been said, that it is not the province of a poet to relate things which have happened, but such as might have happened, and such things as are possible according to probability, or which would necessarily have happened1. ² For an historian and a poet do not differ from each other, because the one writes in verse and the other in prose; 9.2 for the history of Herodotus might be written in verse, and yet it would be no less a history ^{3 4 5} with metre, than without metre. But they differ in this, that the one speaks of things which have happened, and the other of such as might have happened. ^{6 7} 9.3 Hence, poetry is more philosophic, and more deserving of attention, than history. For poetry speaks more of universals, 9.4 but history of particulars. But universal consists indeed in relating or performing certain things which happen to a man of a certain description, either probably or necessarily, [to which the aim of poetry is directed in giving names 2;] but particular consists in narrating what, [for example,] ⁸ Alci blades did, or what he suffered. in comedy, therefore, this is now become evident. For [comic poets] having composed a fable through things of a probable nature, they thus give whatever names they please to their characters, 9.5 and do not, like Iambic poets, write poems about particular persons. ⁹ 9.6 But in tragedy they cling to real names. The cause, however, of this is that the possible is credible. Things, therefore, which have not yet been done, we do not yet believe to be possible; but it is evident that things which have been done are possible; for they would not have been done, if they were impossible. ¹⁰ Not, indeed, 9.7 but that in some tragedies there are one or two of known names, and the rest are feigned; but in others there is no known name; as, for instance, in the Flower of Agatho. For in this tragedy, the things and the names are alike feigned, and yet it delights no less. ¹¹ 9.8 Hence, one must not seek to adhere entirely to traditional fables, which are the subjects of tragedy. For it is ridiculous to make this the object of search, because even known subjects are known but to a few, though at the same time they ^{12 13} delight all men. ¹⁴ 9.9 From these things, therefore, it is evident that a poet ought rather to be the author of fables than of metres, inasmuch as he is a poet from imitation, and he imitates actions. Hence, though it should happen that he relates things which have happened, he is no less a poet. 9.10 For nothing hinders but that some actions which have happened, are such as might both probably and possibly have happened, and by [the narration of] such he is a poet.

¹⁵ 9.11 But of simple plots and actions, the episodic are the worst. But I call the plot episodic, in which it is neither probable nor necessary that the episodes follow each other. Such plots, however, are com- ^{16 17} posed by bad poets indeed, through their own want of ability5; but by good poets, on account of the players 6. For, introducing [dramatic] contests, and extending the plot beyond its capabilities, they are frequently compelled to distort the connexion of the parts. ¹⁸ But, since tragedy is not only an imitation of a perfect action, but also of actions which are terrible and piteous, and actions principally become such, [and in a greater degree, when they happen contrary to opinion, 7] on account of each other. ¹⁹ * * * * For thus they will possess more of the marvellous, than if they happened from chance and fortune; since, also, of things which are from fortune, those appear to be most admirable, which seem to happen as it were by design. 9.12 Thus the statue of Mityus at Argos, killed him who was the cause of the death of Mityus by falling as he was surveying it. 9.13 For such events as these seem not to take place casually. Hence it is necessary that fables of this kind should be more beautiful.

Manifestum vero ex iis quae disputavimus simul est non quae facta sunt dicere, id poetae officium esse, sed quae fieri possint, eaque quomodo fieri aut probabile sit aut necessarium.

nam rerum scriptor et poeta non metricae et prosae orationis usu differunt: : possent enim quae Herodotus scripsit metris adstricta esse, nec minus foret historia quaedam cum metro atque sine metris: sed hoc differunt, quod hic quae facta sunt dicit, ille quae possunt fieri.

quamobrem et magis philosophicum et gravius est poesis quam historia: nam poesis potius quae generalia, historia autem singularia dicit.

sunt autem generalia, qualem qualia conveniat dicere vel facere secundum verisimilitudinem vel necessitatem [, cui studet poesis nomina imponens], singularia autem, quid Alcibiades fecerit aut quid passus sit.

in comoedia quidem hoc iam perspicuum factum est: nam fabulam e probabilibus posteaquam componere coeperunt, iam nomina pro arbitrio subiiciunt, neque ut iamborum scriptores circa singularia versantur.

in tragoedia vero propriorum hominum nomina tenent. causa est quod credibile videtur quod fieri potest: atqui quae facta non sunt nondum confidimus fieri posse, quae autem facta sunt fieri posse liquet: non enim facta essent, si fieri non possent.

verum tamen etiam in tragoediis, in quibusdam unum vel duo ex notis nominibus sunt, cetera autem ficta, in quibusdam nullum, velut in Agathonis Flore: pariter enim in hoc et facta et nomina ficta sunt, et nihilo minus oblectant.

quare non utique contendendum eo ut traditas fabulas, in quibus tragoediae versantur, teneamus. etenim ridiculum eo contendere, siquidem etiam quae nota paucis nota sunt, et tamen oblectant omnes.

perspicuum igitur ex his poetam potius fabulas pangere quam metra, quatenus poeta est secundum imitationem, imitando autem actiones exprimit.

quamvis igitur eveniat eum pangere quae facta sunt, nihilo minus pocta est: nam quae facta sunt, eorum nonnulla nihil obstat quo minus talia sint, qualia facta esse verisimile sit et quae facta esse possint, quo nomine ille haec pangit.

sed ex meris fabulis actionibusque pessimae sunt quae episodicae. dico autem episodicam fabulam, in qua episodia neque verisimiliter neque necessario sese subsequuntur.

tales vero panguntur a malis quidem poetis sua ipsorum culpa, a bonis autem propter histriones: concertationes enim dum faciunt et ultra modum extendunt fabulam, saepe distorquere coguntur rerum consecutionem.

sed quoniam non solum absolutae actionis est imitatio sed etiam metuendorum et miserandorum, haec autem accidunt [et maxime et magis, si fiant contra exspectationem] propter sese in vicem * * *.

admirabile enim sic habebit magis quam si sua sponte et casu, quandoquidem etiam eorum quae casu eveniunt ea maxime admirabilia videntur, quae quasi consilio videntur facta esse, veluti cum statua Mityis Argis occidit eum qui caedis causa Mityi fuerat, incidens spectanti:

talia enim non temere vi dentur fieri, ut tales fabulas esse pulchriores oporteat.

I.

9.1 PAr ce que nous venons de dire, il eſt aiſe de voir que ce n'eſt pas le propre du Poëte, de dire les choſes, comme elles ſont arrivées ; mais de les dire, comme elles ont pû ou dû arriver, neceſſairement ou vray-ſemblablement.

2.

9.2 Car l'Hiſtorien & le Poëte ne different pas entr'eux, en ce que l'un écrit en profe, & l'autre en vers. En effet on pourroit fort bien mettre en vers, l'Histoire d'Herodote, & elle ne ſeroit pas moins une Hiſtoire en vers, qu'elle l'eſt en proſe; mais ils different en ce que l'Hiſtorien écrit ce qui eſt arrivé, & le Poëte ce qui a pû ou dû arriver. 9.3 C'eſt pourquoy la Poëſie eſt plus grave & plus morale que l'Hiſtoire, parce que la Poëſie dit les choſes generales, & l'Hiſtoire raporte les choſes particu-lieres. 9.4 Une choſe generale, c'eſt ce que tout homme d'un tel ou d'un tel caractére, a dû dire, ou faire vray-ſemblablement ou neceſſairement, ce qui est le but de la Poëſie, lors même, qu'elle impoſe les noms à ſes perſonnages. Une choſe particuliere; c'eſt ce qu'Alcibiade, par exemple, a fait, ou ſouffert.

3.

9.5 C'eſt ce qui est déja rendu ſenſible dans la Comedie, car les Poëtes comiques, aprés avoir dreſſé leur ſujet ſur la vray-ſemblance, impoſent aprés cela à leurs perſonnages tels noms qu'il leur plaît, & n'imitent pas les Poëtes ſatyriques, qui ne s'attachent qu'aux choſes particulieres.

4.

9.6 Il eſt vray que les Poëtes Tragiques ſe ſervent de véritables noms, mais la raiſon de cela eſt, que tout ce qui eſt poſſible eft croyable, car ce qui n'eſt pas arrivé, ne nous paroît pas toûjours poſſible; au lieu que nous ne ſçaurions douter, que ce qui a déja été fait, ne ſoit poſſible ſans difficulté, puiſqu'il n'auroit pas été, s'il n'eût été poſſible.

5.

9.7 Il arrive neanmoins fort ſouvent, que dans les Tragedies, on ſe contente d'un ou de deux noms connus, & que tous les autres font inventez. Il y a même des pieces où pas un mot n'eſt connu, comme dans la Tragedie d'Agathon, qu'il a appellée la Fleur, car dans cette piece, tous les noms ſont feints, comme les choſes, & elle ne laiſſe pas de plaire.

6.

9.8 C'eſt pourquoy il n'eſt pas neceſſaire de s'attacher ſcrupuleuſement à ſuivre toûjours les fables receuës, d'où l'on tire ordinairement les ſujets des Tragedies. Cela ſeroit ridicule, car ce qui eſt connû, l'eſt ordinairement de peu de perſonnes, & cependant il divertit tout le monde également.

7.

9.9 Il eſt donc évident par là, que le Poëte doit être l'Auteur de ſon ſujet, encore plus que de ſes vers. Sur tout, puiſqu'il n'eſt Poëte que par l'imitation, & qu'il imite des actions. 9.10 Et quand même il luy arriveroit d'étaler ſur la Scene des incidens véritables, il n'en meriteroit pas moins le nom de Poëte, car rien n'empêche que les incidens, qui font arrivez véritablement, n'ayent toute la vray-ſemblance & toute la poſſibilité que l'art demande, & qui font qu'il en peut être regardé comme l'Auteur & le Poëte.

8.

9.11 De toutes les fables & actions ſimples, les Epiſodiques font les plus imparfaites. J'appelle Epiſodique, une fable qui a des Epiſodes, qui ne font liez les uns avec les autres, ny vray-ſemblablement ny neceſſairement. 9.11b Les méchans Poëtes tombent dans ce défaut par ignorance, & les bons y tombent par trop de complaiſance pour les Acteurs, car, comme il y a toûjours des jalouſies, entre les differentes Troupes de Comediens qui diſputent le prix, les Poëtes, pour faire paroître leurs Acteurs, allongent & violentent leur ſujet, & par conſequent ils font tres ſouvent forcez de corrompre la liaiſon de ſes parties.

9.

9.11c La Tragedie n'eſt pas ſeulement l'imitation d'une action entiere; mais encore d'une action qui excite la terreur & la compaſſion. Or ces deux paſſions viennent de la ſurpriſe, quand les choſes naiſſent les unes des autres contre nôtre attente. 9.12 Car le merveilleux ſe trouve bien plus dans celles là, que dans celles qui arrivent ſans deſſein & à l'avanture, puiſque même de toutes les occaſions que la fortune conduit, celles qui paroiſſent arriver à deſſein, & par une conduite particuliere, ſont toûjours plus ſurprenantes & plus merveilleuſes, comme ce qui arriva à Argos par la Statuë de Mitys, qui tomba ſur ſon meurtrier, & le tua ſur la place au milieu d'une grande Fête, car il ſemble que cela n'arrive point du tout par accident. 9.13 Il s'enfuit donc de là neceſſairement, que les fables, où l'on obſervera cette conduite, feront toûjours les plus belles.

Et dalle cofe dette fia manifeſto non effer' l'uffitio del Poeta il raccontar'le coſe fatte, come elle furon' fatte; ma come elle douereb bono eſſere ſtate fatte. Et parimente effer ſuo vfficio di direle coſe poſsibili ad effere, ſecondo che le com porta il verifimile, òilineceſſario.

Che non già fta la dif ferenza intral Poeta,& lo Hiſtoriografo, perchè l'uno parli in verfi, & l'altro in proſa. Conciofia che 'Hiſtoria d'Herodoto ſi poſſa mettere in verſi; nè per queſto debba meno effer chiamata Hiftoria in verfi, o nón in verſiche ella ſi ſia ſcritta. Ma fono differenti l'uno, & Paltro per queſta cagione; perchè l'uno cioè dice le co fe feguite: & l'altro le dice come elle douerebbono ef fere ſeguite.

Onde nuuiene, che la Poeſia ha più del fi lofofo,& più del virtuoſo, che non ha l'Hiſtoria; con ciofia che la Poefia dica più l'uniuerfale, & l'Hiftoria più il particulare.

Dicefi vniuerfalmente, quando e fi dicono le cofe, che conuenientemente interuengono diqueſti, & à quegli, o che fi operano nel modo che fia, è verifimile, o neceffario. Ilche la Poefia va conietturan do,& mette i nomi per queſta cagione. Particularmen te fi dice, quando e'ſi raccontano le cofe, che fece Alci biade;ò quelle, che gli incontrarono.

Nella Commedia adunche queſto, che io ho detto, manifeftamente ſi ve de; perche eſſendo in eſſa la Fauola intrecciataui per via del verifimile, vi ſono nel medesimo modo poſtii nomi, che ha dato la forte; & non vi è finto il particu Jare: ficome fingeuono gli antichi Poeti Manella.

Tra gedia s'è vſato conferuare iverinomi. Et di ciò è ſtato cagione il perfuafibile, che non è ſenon quello, che può effere. Maleicofe, che non ſono ſtate, non fi crede, che poſsino effeve. Et allincontro le cofe ſtate è manifeſto,chwefelle poſſono eſſere ſtate, perchè, altrimenti ef fendo, elle non mai farebbono ſtate.

Contuttociò fi tro uano certe Tragedie, doue non è meſſo altro ch'un'no me folosò due de'veni; & gli altri tutti vi ſono finti. Ec certé n'è, doue no e alcuno vero; come in quella di Aga tone intitolata Il Fiore: che quiui fi linuentione, fi li nomi fon' finti, & non dimanco diletta affai.

Onde non fi debbe sforzare il Poeta nelle fue inuentioni da Tragedie di mantenere à punto il caſo come egli è diuulgato. Che queſto inuero farebbe coſa ridicula, concio fia che quello, che in eſsi è cognito, à pochifia cognito; & nondimeno diletti tutti gli Spettatori.

Manifeftafi adunche per le cofe dette, che più propio vifitio del Poeta è il comporre l'inuentione, che comporre i veri; inquanto dico al riſpetto, che il Poeta è detto tale per cagione della imitatione: & che egli imita l'attioni. ¹

Et febene e mette nel Poema talhora caſi, che ſieno ſegui ti; non è per queſto, che e' fi debba chiamare manco Poeta. Imperochè niente prohibiſce, che certe cofe fe guite non pofsino eſſere in quel modo ſeguite, che il.

verifimile, & il poſsibile comporti; ſecondo i quai termini il Poeta è di tai coſe Poeta A INfra le Fauole, & le Attioni ſcempie, quelle che han no affai Epiſodii, ſon' cattiuiſsime. Io chiamo Fauo la Epiſodiaca quella, doue gli Epiſodii vi ſono ſcambie uolmete meſsi ſenza offeruatione di verifimile, ò di ne ceffario.

Et tali fi fatte naſcono da' Poeti cattiui per vi tio d'eſsi Poetiset da Poeti buoni per vitio d'eſsi Iſtrio ni; perchè in quei lor' gareggiamenti, mentre che eſsi più del giusto l'allungano: ſon' conſtretti perciò molteuolte à ſtorcere l'ordine d'eſſe.

Ma perchè la Fauola è vna imitatione no pur' d'attione perfetta, ma anchora di caſi ſpauentofi, & compassioneuoli;& tali maſsimaméte, & più allhora interuengono, quando egli accag giono l'uno doppo l'altro fuori della oppinione:perchè il caſo in tal modo ſucceſſo dà maggior marauiglia, che fe e' fuccedeſſe in quel modo medeſimo per via del ca- 10,ò della fortuna.

Che certamente ſi vede in eſsi cafi fortuiti quegli porger grandifsima marauiglia, che ap pariſchino d'effer venuti à poſta; ſicome interuenne nella ſtatua di Mite nella Città d'Argo, che caduta addoflo à vno, che la riguardaua, ammazzò chı era ſtato cagione della morte d'eſſo Mite: perchè e' pare iuuero, che tal fatto non veniffe à cafſo.

Onde di neceſsità fi con chiude, che le Fauole in queſta maniera cópoſte ſieno maggiormente belle.

Manifestum autem est ex iis quae dicta sunt, non esse poetae munus facta dicere, sed qualia fieri debent et qua fieri possunt, secundum verisimile vel necessarium.

nam historicus et poeta non a eo quod aut cum metro dicant aut sine metro, inter se "differunt: liceret enim, quae Herodoti, in metris ponere, et nihilo minus esset historia quaedam cum metro quam sine metris. sed in hoc est differentia, quod unus quidem facta dicit, alter vero qualia fieri debent.

quamobrem et res magis philosophica et melior poësis est quam historia: nam poësis magis universalia, historia magis singularia dicit.

est autem universale, cum exponitur quemadmodum tali talia contingat dicere aut facere secundum verisimile aut necessarium; id quod spectat poesis, nomina imponens. singulare vero, quid Alcibiades fecerit aut passus sit.

ac in comoedia quidem iam hoc manifestum factum est: nam cum constituerint fabulam per verisimilia, sic quaelibet nomina imponunt, et non ut iambici circa aliquem singularem faciunt.

in tragoedia autem factis nominibus haerent. causa vero est, quod persuasibile est possibile; ac non facta quidem non credimus esse possibilia, facta vero manifestum est possibilia esse: non enim facta essent, si impossibilia essent.

nec tamen non in aliquibus tragoediis unum aut duo sunt ex notis nominibus, alia vero ficta. in quibusdam autem nullum, ut in Agathonis Flore: similiter enim in hoc et res et nomina ficta sunt, et nihilo minus delectat.

quare non omnino quaerendum est ut traditis fabulis, in quibus tragoediae versantur, haereamus: nam est ridiculum hoc quaerere, quoniam et nota paucis nota sunt, et tamen delectant omnes.

manifestum igitur ex his poetam esse oportere magis fabularum effectorem quam metrorum, quatenus poeta secundum imitationem est, imitatur autem actiones.

quamvis igitur contigerit facta pangere, nihilo minus poeta est. factorum enim nonnulla nihil prohibet talia esse qualia verisimile est fieri et possibilia esse,

secundum quod ille ipsorum poeta est. simplicium autem fabularum et actionum episodicae sunt pessimae. dico episodicam fabulam, in qua episodia altera post altera esse neque verisimile neque necesse est.

ac tales efficiuntur a malis quidem poetis propter ipsos, a bonis vero propter histriones: certamina enim facientes, et supra facultatem fabulam extendentes, distorquere sae- penumero saepenumero coguntur quod ex ordine est.

quoniam autem non solum est perfectae actionis imitatio sed etiam terribilium et miserabilium, atque haec fiunt maxime talia, et magis, cum fiant praeter opinionem inter se (nam admirabile sic habebunt magis quam si a casu et fortuna,

quoniam et eorum quae a fortuna sunt, haec maxime admirabilia videntur quaecunque tanquam ex industria apparent facta fuisse, sicuti statua Mityi Argis interfecit eum qui fuit causa interitus Mityi, cum in eius caput incidisset, dum ipse spectaret:

videntur enim talia non temere facta esse), iccirco necesse est tales fabulas pulchriores esse.

Manifestum autem ex dictis et quod non gesta dicere poete opus est, sed qualia utique fierent et possibilia secundum verisimile aut necessarium.

Hystoricus enim et poeta non per metrizata dicere aut sine metro differunt (esset enim utique que Herodoti in metra poni, et nichil minus utique hystoria cum metro aut sine metris), sed hoc differt, scilicet hunc quidem gesta dicere, hunc autem qualia utique fierent. —

Propter quod et magis philosophicum et studiosius poesis quam hystoria est ; poesis quidem enim magis que universaliter, hystoria autem particularia dicit.

Est autem universaliter quidem, quali qualia quedam accidit dicere aut agere secundum verisimile aut necessarium, quod coniecturat poesis nomina imponens, particulare autem quid Alkibiades egit aut quid passus est. —

In komodia quidem igitur iam hoc palam factum est ; constituentes enim fabulam per verisimilia, sic contingentia nomina supponunt, et non sicut iambofici circa particulare faciunt.

In tragodia autem facta nomina attendunt; causa autem quia probabile est quod possibile. Non gesta quidem igitur nondum credimus esse possibilia, gesta autem manifestum quod possibilia; non enim utique ro gesta essent si erant inpossibilia. —

Quin immo et in tragodiis quibusdam quidem unum aut duo sunt notorum nominum, alia autem poetizata, in quibusdam autem nullum, puta in Agathonis Anthe ; similiter enim in hoc et res et nomina poetizata sunt, et nichil minus letificant ;

quare non omnino esse querendum traditas fabulas, circa quas tragodie sunt, attendere. Et enim ridiculum hoc querere, quoniam et nota paucis nota sunt, sed tamen letificant omnes. —

Palam igitur ex hiis, quod poetam magis oportet esse fabularum factorem quam metrorum, tamquam poeta secundum imitationem est, imitatur autem actiones.

Quamvis ergo accidat gesta poetizare, nichil minus poeta est; gestorum enim quedam nichil prohibet esse talia qualia utique verisimile facta esse et possibilia fieri, secundum quod ille ipsorum poeta est. —

Simplicibus autem fabulis et actionibus que episodiodees sunt pessime. Dico autem episodiodeam (idest superadventitiam) fabulam in qua superadvenientia post invicem neque verisimile neque necesse esse.

Tales autem poetizantur a pravis quidem poetis propter ipsos, a bonis autem propter ypocritas; agonismata enim facientes et preter potentiam protendentes fabulam, sepe pervertere 3o coguntur quod consequenter. —

Quoniam autem non solum perfecte actionis est imitatio, sed et terribilis et miserabilis, hec autem fiunt et maxime et magis quando facta fuerunt preter opinionem secus invicem.

Nam quod mirabile sic habebit magis quam si a casu et fortuna, hec mirabilissima videntur, quecumque tamquam idonee videntur facta esse, puta ut statua Mityos in Argo, occidit causam mortis Mityo, incidens consideranti; videntur enim que talia non vane facta esse.

Quare necesse tales esse pulcriores fabulas.

‏وظاهر مما قيل ان التى كانت مثلا ليست من فعل الشاعر لكن ذلك انما فى مثل اى شى يكون اما ما هو الممكن من ذلك على الحقيقة واما التى تدعوا الضرورة اليه

‏وذلك ان الذى يثبت الاحاديث والقصص والشاعر ايضا وان كانا يتكلمان هكذى بالوزن وبغير وزن هما مختلفان وذلك ان لايرودوطس ان يكون بالوزن وليس لما يدون ويكتب ان يكون مع الوزن او بغير وزن باقل لكن هذا يخالف بان ذاك يقول الى تقال واما هذا فاى الاشيا كانت

‏ولذلك صارت صناعة الشعر هى اكثر فلسفية واكثر فى باب ما هى حريصة من ايسطوريا الامور من قبل ان صناعة الشعر هى كلية اكثر واما ايسطوريا فانما تقول وتخبر بالجزويات

‏وهى بالكلية والتى فى الكيفية والمكيفيات كل التى كانها تعرض ان تقال او تعمل اما التى بالحقيقة واما التى هى ضرورية كالتوهم الذى يكون فى صناعة الشعر عند ما تكون صناعة الشعر نفسها تضع الاسما [فى] فالوحيدات والجزويات مثلا هى ان يقال ماذا فعل الفسادس اما الذى انفعل

‏ففى التى تقال بصناعة الهجا فهذا قد ظهر هذا وذلك انه عند ما ركبوا الخرافة بالتى كانت تجب ليس اى الاسما التى كانوا وضعوا ولا كما يعملون عند الوحيدات والجزويات الذى فى ايامبو

‏من قبل ان فى صناعة المديح كانوا يتمسكون بالاسما التى كانت والسبب فى هذا هو ان الحال الممكنة هى مقنعة والتى لم تكن بعد فلسنا نصدق انها يمكن ان تكون واما التى قد كانت توجد ان كان قد كانت موجودة فلا يمكن الا تكون

‏وليس ذلك الا فى المدايح الافراد والبعض وهى التى منها فى الواحدة اثنتين من التى هى من الذين هم معروفون هو لهذه التى فعل لاشيا اخر اسم واحد واما فى الافراد والبعض فولا شى بمنزلة من يضع ان الخير هو واحد وان فى ذلك الامر والاسم انفعالا او فعلا على مثال واحـ*و*ٮس الانتفاع بهما بالاقل

‏حتى لا ينبغى ان نطلب لا محالة المفيد للخرافات التى تكون نحوها المدايح ان يوجد بها وذلك ان الطلب لهذا هو مما يضحك منه من قبل ان الدلايل موجودة غير ان تسر الكل

‏فظاهر من هذه ان شاعر خاصة يكون شاعر الخرافات والاوزان بمبلغ ما يكون شاعرا بالتشبيه والمحاكاة وهو يشبه ويحاكى الاعمال والافعال الارادية

‏وان عرض ان يعمل شى فى التى قد كانت فليس هو فى ذلك شاعرا بالدون من قبل ان التى كانت منها ما لا مانع يمنع يكون حالها فى ذلك مثلا كالتى هى موضوعة بان توجد كحال ذاك الذى هو شاعرها

‏واما للخرافات المعلولة فالافعال الارادية ايضا معلولة واعنى بالخرافة المدخولة المعلولة تلك التى المعلولين على الاضطرار واحد بعد اخر ليس يكون من الضرورة ولا على طريق الحق

‏ومثل بعمل اما من الشعر فمن المزورين المزيفين منهم بسببها واما الشعر الاخيار فبسبب المنافقين والمرايين واما وعند ما يعملون الجهادات فليس يمتدون بالخرافة فوق الطاقة واحيانا وكثير ما قد يضطرون الى ان يردوا ويعدوا الخرافة التى ٮٮـقا من ان قبل

‏التشبيه والمحاكاة انما هى لعمل مستكمل فقل لكنها للاشيا المخوفة المهولة وللاشيا لحرٮٯه الٮوحيد وهذه تكون خاصية اكثر مما تكون من الٮنا وبعض بالبعض

‏وذلك ان التى هى عجيبة فهكذى فليكن حالها خاصة اكثر من تلك التى هى من تلقا نفسها ومن ما يتفق من قبل ان التى هى من الاتفاق قد يظن بها هى ايضا انها عجيبة اكثر بمبلغ ما ترى انها تكون دفعة بمنزلة حال التى لاندراس بن ميطياوس وهى انه كان قتل فى ارغوس لذلك الذى كان سبب مومٮٮه مياطياس عند ما راه وقد سقط وذلك انه يشتبه هى هذه الاشيا التى تجرى هذا المجرى انها ليس تكون باطلا ولا خرافا

‏حتى يلزم ضرورة ان تكون هذه التى على هذا النحو خرافات جيدة

‏وظاهر مما قيل ان التى كانت مثلا ليست من فعل الشاعر لكن ذلك انما فى مثل اى شى يكون اما ما هو الممكن من ذلك على الحقيقة واما التى تدعوا الضرورة اليه

‏وذلك ان الذى يثبت الاحاديث والقصص والشاعر ايضا وان كانا يتكلمان هكذى بالوزن وبغير وزن هما مختلفان وذلك ان لايرودوطس ان يكون بالوزن وليس لما يدون ويكتب ان يكون مع الوزن او بغير وزن باقل لكن هذا يخالف بان ذاك يقول الى تقال واما هذا فاى الاشيا كانت

‏ولذلك صارت صناعة الشعر هى اكثر فلسفية واكثر فى باب ما هى حريصة من ايسطوريا الامور من قبل ان صناعة الشعر هى كلية اكثر واما ايسطوريا فانما تقول وتخبر بالجزويات

‏وهى بالكلية والتى فى الكيفية والمكيفيات كل التى كانها تعرض ان تقال او تعمل اما التى بالحقيقة واما التى هى ضرورية كالتوهم الذى يكون فى صناعة الشعر عند ما تكون صناعة الشعر نفسها تضع الاسما [فى] فالوحيدات والجزويات مثلا هى ان يقال ماذا فعل الفسادس اما الذى انفعل

‏ففى التى تقال بصناعة الهجا فهذا قد ظهر هذا وذلك انه عند ما ركبوا الخرافة بالتى كانت تجب ليس اى الاسما التى كانوا وضعوا ولا كما يعملون عند الوحيدات والجزويات الذى فى ايامبو

‏من قبل ان فى صناعة المديح كانوا يتمسكون بالاسما التى كانت

‏والسبب فى هذا هو ان الحال الممكنة هى مقنعة والتى لم تكن بعد فلسنا نصدق انها يمكن ان تكون واما التى قد كانت توجد ان كان قد كانت موجودة فلا يمكن الا تكون

‏وليس ذلك الا فى المدايح الافراد والبعض وهى التى منها فى الواحدة اثنتين من التى هى من الذين هم معروفون هو لهذه التى فعل لاشيا اخر اسم واحد واما فى الافراد والبعض فولا شى

‏بمنزلة من يضع ان الخير هو واحد وان فى ذلك الامر والاسم انفعالا او فعلا على مثال واحـ*و*ٮس الانتفاع بهما بالاقل حتى لا ينبغى ان نطلب لا محالة المفيد للخرافات التى تكون نحوها المدايح ان يوجد بها

‏وذلك ان الطلب لهذا هو مما يضحك منه من قبل ان الدلايل موجودة غير ان تسر الكل

‏فظاهر من هذه ان شاعر خاصة يكون شاعر الخرافات والاوزان بمبلغ ما يكون شاعرا بالتشبيه والمحاكاة وهو يشبه ويحاكى الاعمال والافعال الارادية

‏وان عرض ان يعمل شى فى التى قد كانت فليس هو فى ذلك شاعرا بالدون من قبل ان التى كانت منها ما لا مانع يمنع يكون حالها فى ذلك مثلا كالتى هى موضوعة بان توجد كحال ذاك الذى هو شاعرها

‏واما للخرافات المعلولة فالافعال الارادية ايضا معلولة

‏واعنى بالخرافة المدخولة المعلولة تلك التى المعلولين على الاضطرار واحد بعد اخر ليس يكون من الضرورة ولا على طريق الحق

‏ومثل بعمل اما من الشعر فمن المزورين المزيفين منهم بسببها واما الشعر الاخيار فبسبب المنافقين والمرايين واما وعند ما يعملون الجهادات فليس يمتدون بالخرافة فوق الطاقة واحيانا وكثير ما قد يضطرون الى ان يردوا ويعدوا الخرافة التى ٮٮـقا من ان قبل

‏التشبيه والمحاكاة انما هى لعمل مستكمل فقل لكنها للاشيا المخوفة المهولة وللاشيا لحرٮٯه الٮوحيد وهذه تكون خاصية اكثر مما تكون من الٮنا وبعض بالبعض وذلك ان التى هى عجيبة فهكذى فليكن حالها خاصة اكثر من تلك التى هى من تلقا نفسها ومن ما يتفق من قبل ان التى هى من الاتفاق قد يظن بها هى ايضا انها عجيبة اكثر بمبلغ ما ترى انها تكون دفعة بمنزلة حال التى لاندراس بن ميطياوس وهى انه كان قتل فى ارغوس لذلك الذى كان سبب مومٮٮه مياطياس عند ما راه وقد سقط وذلك انه يشتبه هى هذه الاشيا التى تجرى هذا المجرى انها ليس تكون باطلا ولا خرافا حتى يلزم ضرورة ان تكون هذه التى على هذا النحو خرافات جيدة