Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War 3.45

[1] "I say, therefore, that death hath been in states ordained for a punishment of many offences, and those not so great but far less than this. Yet encouraged by hope, men hazard themselves; nor did any man ever yet enter into a practice which he knew he could not go through with.

[2] And a city when it revolteth, supposeth itself to be better furnished, either of themselves or by their confederates, than it is, or else it would never take the enterprise in hand.

[3] They have it by nature, both men and cities, to commit offences; nor is there any law that can prevent it. For men have gone over all degrees of punishment, augmenting them still, in hope to be less annoyed by malefactors. And it is likely that gentler punishments were inflicted of old even upon the most heinous crimes; but that in tract of time, men continuing to transgress, they were extended afterwards to the taking away of life;

[4] and yet they still transgress. And therefore, either some greater terror than death must be devised, or death will not be enough for coercion. For poverty will always add boldness to necessity; and wealth, covetousness to pride and contempt. And the other [middle] fortunes, they also through human passion, according as they are severally subject to some insuperable one or other, impel men to danger.

[5] But hope and desire work this effect in all estates. And this as the leader, that as the companion; this contriving the enterprise, that suggesting the success are the cause of most crimes that are committed, and being least discerned, are more mischievous than evils seen.

[6] Besides these two, fortune also puts men forward as much as anything else. For presenting herself sometimes unlooked for, she provoketh some to adventure, though not provided as they ought for the purpose, and especially cities because they venture for the greatest matters, as liberty and dominion over others; and amongst a generality, everyone, though without reason, somewhat the more magnifies himself in particular.

[7] In a word, it is a thing impossible and of great simplicity to believe when human nature is earnestly bent to do a thing that by force of law or any other danger it can be diverted.

[1] Now of course communities have enacted the penalty of death for many offences far lighter than this: still hope leads men to venture; and no one ever yet put himself in peril without the inward conviction that he would succeed in his design.

[2] Again, was there ever city rebelling that did not believe that it possessed either in itself or in its alliances resources adequate to the enterprise?

[3] All, states and individuals, are alike prone to err, and there is no law that will prevent them; or why should men have exhausted the list of punishments in search of enactments to protect them from evil-doers? It is probable that in early times the penalties for the greatest offences were less severe, and that, as these were disregarded, the penalty of death has been by degrees in most cases arrived at, which is itself disregarded in like manner.

[4] Either then some means of terror more terrible than this must be discovered, or it must be owned that this restraint is useless; and that as long as poverty gives men the courage of necessity, or plenty fills them with the ambition which belongs to insolence and pride, and the other conditions of life remain each under the thraldom of some fatal and master passion, so long will the impulse never be wanting to drive men into danger.

[5] Hope also and cupidity, the one leading and the other following, the one conceiving the attempt, the other suggesting the facility of succeeding, cause the widest ruin, and, although invisible agents, are far stronger than the dangers that are seen.

[6] Fortune, too, powerfully helps the delusion, and by the unexpected aid that she sometimes lends, tempts men to venture with inferior means; and this is especially the case with communities, because the stakes played for are the highest, freedom or empire, and, when all are acting together, each man irrationally magnifies his own capacity.

[7] In fine, it is impossible to prevent, and only great simplicity can hope to prevent, human nature doing what it has once set its mind upon, by force of law or by any other deterrent force whatsoever.

„In den Staatsverfassungen ist ans vielerlei Dinge die
Todesstrafe gesetzt, auch auf solche, die dem vorliegenden Verbrechen
nicht gleichkommen, sondern dahinter zurückbleiben. Gleichwohl lassen
sich die Menschen durch die Hoffnung anreizen, es immerhin zu
wagen ; und nie hat sich Einer in diese Gefahr begeben, der sich nicht
getraut hätte, mit seinem schlimmen Wagniß durchzudringen. Und ist
jemals eine abtrünnige Stadt an die Ausführung gegangen, welche
die Zurüstung, sei es nun eigene oder durch Anderer Kampfgenossenis
schaft dargebotene, nach eigener Schätzung für unzureichend hielt? Es ¹
liegt in aller Menschen Natur, daß sie sowohl in Privatverhältnissen,
als auch gegen den Staat sündigen, und es gibt kein Gesetz, das sie
davon zurückhalten kann. Sind ja die Menschen bereits durch alle
Abstufungen der Strafen, sie immer steigernd, hindurchgegangen, um
so vielleicht die Zahl der Verbrechen und die Menge des Uebels zu
mindern. Denn gewiß standen vormals auf den größten Verbrechen
mildere Strafen; da aber immerfort Uebertretungen Statt fanden, so
verschärften sich die meisten im Laufe der Zeit bis zur Todesstrafe,
und trotzdem achtet man auch dieser nicht. Entweder also muß man
etwas noch Abschreckenderes ausfindig machen als diese, oder es gibt
überhaupt nichts, was da Einhalt thun kann. Und so ist es in der
That; denn einmal ist's die Armuth, 5ie durch Noth Kühnheit gebiert
und zum Wagniß treibt, das andere Mal der Reichthum, der in
Uebermuth und Hochmuth Habsucht erzeugt, und so auch die andern
durch Leidenschaft herbeigeführten menschlichen Zustände, die alle unter
dem Einfluß irgend einer unwiderstehlichen höhern Macht stehen, überall
aber die Hoffnung, die Begierde. Diese macht die Führerin,
jene geht mit. Diese sinnt den Anschlag aus, jene spiegelt den
Beistand eines freundlichen Glückes vor, und so richten beide den größten
Schaden an, und obwohl unsichtbar, sind sie doch mächtiger als
Martern, die mit Augen zu sehen sind. Dazu kommt noch das Glück,
das auch nicht weniger aufmunternd mitwirkt. Denn wider
Erwarten gesellt es sich manchmal zu der geringeren Kraft und verleitet
Einen zum Wagniß, und mehr noch ganze Staaten, da es sich da ja
um die größten Dinge handelt, um Freiheit und Herrschaft über Andere,
und weil jeder Einzelne, wenn er im großen Haufen mitläuft, seine
eigene Kraft blindlings überschätzt. Kurz, wer mit der Gewalt der
Gesetze oder durch sonst ein anderes Schreckmittel die Menschen hindern
zu können glaubt, wenn die eigene Natur sie zu irgend einer That
fortreißt, der glaubt das Unmögliche und beweist große Einfalt."

XLV. « Dans les États, la peine de mort est établie contre un grand nombre de crimes qui, loin d’égaler le leur, n’en approchent même pas ; cependant l’espérance donne l’audace d’affronter ce péril, et tout homme qui court un pareil risque compte sur lui-même et sur la réussite de ses desseins. Il en est de même pour les villes : en vit-on jamais se révolter avec la pensée qu’elles ne trouveraient ni en elles-mêmes, ni dans leurs alliances, des ressources suffisantes ? Il est naturel à l’homme, aux États comme aux particuliers, de commettre des fautes ; et il n’y a pas de loi qui puisse empêcher cela, puisqu’on a désormais parcouru toute la série des peines, les aggravant sans cesse, pour être moins exposé aux attentats des malfaiteurs. Il est même vraisemblable qu’autrefois, pour les plus grands crimes, les punitions étaient moins sévères ; mais comme avec le temps on les affronta, la plupart aboutirent à la mort ; et cependant on brave la mort elle-même. Il faut donc, ou trouver quelque épouvantail plus terrible, ou reconnaître que la crainte des châtiments n’empêche rien. Le pauvre devient audacieux par nécessité ; l’insolence et l’orgueil du pouvoir poussent le riche à l’ambition. Dans toutes les autres situations où l’homme est dominé par la passion, il cède à l’irrésistible entrainement du moment, et se laisse jeter au milieu des périls. A ces causes il faut ajouter l’espérance et le désir : le désir commande, l’espérance le suit ; celui-ci forme les desseins, celle-là suppose la facilité du succès, et tous les deux causent les plus grands désastres ; d’autant mieux qu’ils cheminent sourdement, plus redoutables par cela même que les dangers visibles. A tout cela se joint la fortune, qui ne contribue pas moins à nous exalter : quelquefois une occasion se présente inopinément, et on se jette au milieu des hasards avec des moyens insuffisants. Les États surtout subissent ces entraînements ; cela se conçoit : il s’agit alors des plus puissants intérêts, la liberté ou la domination ; et chaque citoyen, voyant tout un peuple avec lui, conçoit follement une plus haute idée de lui-même. En un mot, il est impossi- ble, quand la nature humaine se porte vivement à la poursuite d’un objet, qu’on puisse l’en détourner par l’autorité des lois, ou par aucune autre crainte ; il y aurait même par trop de simplicité à y pré- tendre.

« Dans la plupart des États, la peine de mort est établie contre plusieurs délits, dont quelques-uns sont loin d’égaler en gravité le crime des Mytiléniens. Cependant l’espérance induit à braver ce danger. C’est que tout homme qui s’y expose compte sur la réussite de ses desseins; comme aussi toute ville qui entreprend une révolte ne le fait qu’avec la pensée de trouver en elle-même ou dans des alliances étrangères les moyens de la soutenir. Il est naturel à tous les hommes de commettre des fautes, soit comme États soit comme individus, et il n’y a pas de loi qui puisse y mettre obstacle. On a parcouru successivement toute l’échelle des peines, en les aggravant sans cesse pour se mettre en garde contre les malfaiteurs. Il est à croire qu’autrefoiselles étaient pïus douces pour les plus grands crimes; ma;s, comme on les bravait, elles ont fini avec le temps par aboutir pour la plupart à la mort ; et néanmoins on brave'la mort elle-même. Il faut donc ou trouver un meilleur système d’intimidation, ou convenir que la peine de mort est une barrière illusoire.

« Tous les hommes sont poussés vers les dangers ; le pauvre par l’audace de la nécessité ; le riche par l’orgueil de l’opulence ; les autres par l’irrésistible entraînement des passions dont chacun dans sa position est possédé. A ces causes si fécondes en malheurs, ajoutez encore l’espérance et la convoitise. Celle-ci ouvre la voie, celle-là s’y engage sur ses traces. L’une forme des projets, l’autre compte sur le hasard pour les réaliser; et, comme elles agissent dans l’ombre, elles sont plus redoutables que les dangers manifestes. Enfin la fortune y joint ses excitations. Quelquefois elle surgit à l’improviste et précipite les faibles dans le péril. C’est surtout le cas pour les Etats, parce qu’il s’agit pour eux des plus grands intérêts, la liberté ou l’empire; et que chaque citoyen, se voyant appuyé par la masse, s’exagère follement ses propres forces. En un mot il est absurde, Userait d’une insigne naïveté, de croire que la nature humaine, une fois lancée à la poursuite de quelque objet, se laissera maîtriser par le frein des lois ou par toute autre crainte.

[1] "Now the death-penalty has been prescribed in various states for many offences which are not so serious as this is, nay, for minor ones; but nevertheless men are so inspired by hope as to take the risk; indeed, no one ever yet has entered upon a perilous enterprise with the conviction that his plot was condemned to failure.

[2] And as to states, what one that was meditating revolt ever took the decisive step in the belief that the resources at hand, whether its own or contributed by its allies, were inadequate for success?

[3] All men are by nature prone to err, both in private and in public life, and there is no law which will prevent them; in fact, mankind has run the whole gamut of penalties, making them more and more severe, in the hope that the transgressions of evil-doers might be abated. It is probable that in ancient times the penalties prescribed for the greatest offences were relatively mild, but as transgressions still occurred, in course of time the penalty was seldom less than death.

[4] But even so there is still transgression. Either, then, some terror more dreadful than death must be discovered, or we must own that death at least is no prevention. Nay, men are lured into hazardous enterprises by the constraint of poverty, which makes them bold, by the insolence and pride of affluence, which makes them greedy, and by the various passions engendered in the other conditions of human life as these are severally mastered by some mighty and irresistible impulse.

[5] Then, too, Hope and Desire are everywhere; Desire leads, Hope attends; Desire contrives the plan, Hope suggests the facility of fortune; the two passions are most baneful, and being unseen phantoms prevail over seen dangers.

[6] Besides these, fortune contributes in no less degree to urge men on; for she sometimes presents herself unexpectedly and thus tempts men to take risks even when their resources are inadequate, and states even more than men, inasmuch as the stake is the greatest of all—their own freedom or empire over others—and the individual, when supported by the whole people, unreasonably overestimates his own strength.

[7] In a word, it is impossible, and a mark of extreme simplicity, for anyone to imagine that when human nature is wholeheartedly bent on any undertaking it can be diverted from it by rigorous laws or by any other terror.

[1] "Now the penalty of death has been enacted in states for many offences, and those not equal to this, but less heinous; and yet, urged on by hope, men venture to commit them; and no one ever yet came into danger ¹ with a conviction of his own mind that he would not succeed in his attempt.

[2] What city, too, when bent on revolt, ever attempted it with deficient resources—according to its own idea—either internal, or by means of alliance with others?

[3] Indeed all men, both in private and public capacity, are naturally disposed to do wrong, an there is no law that will keep them from it; atleast men have gone through all kinds of punishment in their enactments, to try if by any means they might be less injured by evil-doers, and it is probable that in early times the punishments for the greatest offences were more lenient; but as they are disregarded, they generally, in the course of time, extend to death;

[4] and still even this is disregarded. Either, then, some fear more dreadful than this must be discovered, or this, at any rate, does not restrain men: but poverty inspiring ing boldness through necessity, and larger means inspiring ambition though insolence and pride, and the other conditions of life through some human passion or other, according as they are severally enslaved by some fatal and overpowering one, lead men on to dangers.

[5] Moreover, hope and desire for every thing, the one taking the lead, and the other following; and the one devising the attempt, while the other suggests the facility of succeeding in it; cause the most numerous disasters; and though unseen, they are more influential than the dangers that are seen. Fortune, too, aids them no less in urging men on;

[6] for by sometimes siding them unexpectedly, she induces them to run the risk even with inferior means; especially in the case of states, in as much as the venture is for the greatest object, namely, freedom, or empire over others: and as each individual, when acting in concert with all, unreasonably carries his ideas to an extravagant length concerning then.

[7] In short, it is impossible [to remedy the evil], and the man is very simple who thinks, that when human nature is eagerly set on doing a thing, he has any means of diverting it, either by the rigour of laws, or any other kind of terror.

[1] « Jam igitur in rebus publicis capitis poena proposita est in multo peccato, non solum huic paria sed etiam minora; nihilo minus tomen homines spe elati discrimen subeunt, neque quisquam unquam in periculum venit, qui se ex eo non pro voto evasurum crediderit.

[2] Et civitas defectionem faciens qu» unquam exstitit, qu» justo minorem se ipsa existimans habere apparatum vel suum vel socialem, hoc aggredi auderet ?

[3] Omnibus enim natura insitum est, et privatim et publice, ut peccent, nec ulla lex est, qu» ab hoc prohibere valeat, siquidem homines per omnia poenarum genera iverunt, eas paulatim augentes, si forte ita a facinorosis minus l»derentur. Et verisimile est mitiores poenas olim in maxima scelera constitutas fuisse, sed quum violarentur, temporis progressu ad mortem plerae' que processerunt; et tamen hoc quoque violatur.

[4] Aut igitur aliquis terror hoc vehementior est excogitandus, aut ne iste quidem coercet, sed vel paupertas, quae audaciam ex necessitate prajbet, vel potentia, quae ex petulantia et superbia pluris habendi cupiditatem, vel aliae sortes pro alTectu hominum, ut in quaque intolerabilis aliqua vis vehementior dominatur, abripiunt in pericula.

[5] Et spes et amor praeter cetera omnia, hic quidem praeiens, illa vero subsequens, itemque hic rei aggrediendae rationem excogitans, ilia fortunae facilem successum suggerens, plurimum nocent, et quamvis sub aspectum minime cadant, majorem tamen vim habent, quam mala, quae cernuntur.

[6] Et praeter ista ipsius quoque fortunae non minores partes sunt in efferendis animis. Nam ex inopinato nonnunquam adstans aliquem vel infirmioribus opibus instructum adducit ad periclitandum, et magis etiam civitates, quanto de majoribus rebus periculum est, de libertate aut de imperio in alios obtinendo, et quia cum universis singuli temere de se plus axjuo sentiunt.

[7] Denique ut rem paucis complectar, hoc fieri non potest, et magnae est stultitiae, si quis existimat, si humana natura feratur cum magno animi impetu ad aliquid agendum, se aliquam rationem habere, qua eam avertat aut legum vi aut aliquo alio terrore.

[1] Euch aber, den Söhnen und Brüdern der Gefallenen in dieser Versammlung, sind unerreichbare Muster vorgestellt. Denn den Ruhm der Todten tastet kein Neid mehr an, und glücklich noch, wem heroische Tugend nicht neben, sondern gleich nach ihnen einen Rang erwirbt. Misgunst und Eifersucht sind ja das Loos der Lebenden, und eine Liebe ohne Neider lohnt erst am Ziel der Kampfbahn.

« Pertanto, è nelle diverse repubbliche statuita la pena di morte per assai delitti, non solo di eguale ma anche di minor gravezza che questo : nondimeno gli uomini , incitati dalla speranza , vi si attentano j e niuno mai si condusse al misfatto disperando di dover sopravvivere al suo conato. Conciossiachè, qual città io ribellandosi si è mai mossa a ciò fare giudicando insufficienti gli apparecchiamenti o suoi o degli alleati ? Ed è proprio naturalmente di tutti, e privati e repubbliche, il fallire : nè v è legge che valga a ritenerli : avvegnaché abbiano gli uomini trascorso per tutti i gradi di pene sempre aumentando, se pur modo vi fosse d esser meno offesi dai malfattori. E pare che iu antico le pene fossero più miti anche pei più enormi delitti : ma col tempo, venendo trasgredite, si sono estese sino a quella di morte ; e pur questa ancora si trasgredisce. O bisogna dunque inventar supplizio più terribile di questa, o convenire che neppur essa è di verun freno ; dappoiché, la povertà, che colle sue strettezze inspira ardimento, la potenza che coll’ insolenza e coll’orgoglio mena alla soverchieria, e gli altri stati mezzani , giusta le cupidità degli uomini , secondo che ciascuno è da qualche più forte e incurabil passione dominato , strascinano nei pericoli. Soprattutto poi la speranza e il desiderio , questo precede , quella conseguita ; questo immagina il modo di fare il colpo , quella suggerisce la facilità di felice riusci mento : ond’è che sono la causa potissima dei mali nostri ; e benché sieno invisibili prevalgono sopra le pene che sono visibili. Oltre a ciò la fortuna stessa non meno concorre a dar la pinta : perciocché venendoci talvolta inaspettata al fiauco , ella spinge al cimento chicchessia, anche con minori forze, e principalmente le città, in quanto sono più importanti le cose che ambiscono , libertà, voglio dire ; ed impero su gli altri j e in quanto che ciascun cittadino riunito col rimanente , più di sè stesso inconsideratamente presume. E brevemente , egli è cosa impossibile e argomento di grosso ingegno il credere, che quando la umana natura è trasportata con impeto a commetter qualche cosa, il vigor delle leggi od altro spauracchio valga a distornela.