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CHAPTER II.

[1] TURDETANIA lies above the coast on this side the Guadiana,¹ and is intersected by the river Guadalquiver.² It is bounded on the west and north by the river Guadiana; on the east by certain of the Carpetani and the Oretani; on the south by those of the Bastetani who inhabit the narrow slip of coast between Calpe and Gadeira, and by the sea beyond as far as the Guadiana. The Bastetani whom I have mentioned, together with the people on the other side the Guadiana, and many of the places adjacent, belong to Turdetania. The size of this country in its length and breadth does not exceed two thousand stadia, still it contains a vast number of towns; two hundred, it is said. Those best known are situated on the rivers, estuaries, and sea; but the two which have acquired the greatest name and importance are, Corduba, founded by Marcellus,³ and the city of the Gaditanians.⁴ The latter for its naval importance, and its alliance with the Romans; and the former on account of its fertility and extent, a considerable portion of the Guadalquiver flowing by it; in addition to this it has been from its commencement inhabited by picked men, whether natives or Romans; and it was the first colony planted by the Romans in these parts.

After this city and that of the Gaditanians, Hispalis⁵ is the most noted. This also is a Roman colony. Commerce is still carried on here, although at the present moment the city of Baetis⁶ though not so finely built, is outshining it, on account of the honour it has received from the soldiers of Caesar taking up their quarters there.

[2] After these are Italica,⁷ and Ilipa,⁸ situated on the Guadalquiver; farther on are Astygis,⁹ Carmo,¹⁰ and Obulco; and besides these Munda,¹¹ Ategua, Urso,¹² Tukkis,¹³ Julia,¹⁴ and Aegua, where the sons of Pompey were defeated. None of these places are far from Corduba. Munda is in some sort regarded as the metropolis of the whole district. This place is distant from Carteia 1400¹⁵ stadia, and it was here that Cnaeus fled after his defeat, and sailing thence landed on a rocky height overlooking the sea, where he was murdered. His brother Sextus, having escaped from Corduba, after carrying on the war for a short time in Spain, caused a revolt in Sicily. Flying thence into Asia he was seized at Miletus¹⁶ by the generals¹⁷ of Antony, and executed. Amongst the Kelts the most famous place is Conistorgis.¹⁸ Upon the estuaries is Asta,¹⁹ in which the Gaditani mostly hold their assemblies; it is opposite the sea-port of the island, at a distance of not more than 100 stadia.

[3] A vast number of people dwell along the Guadalquiver; and you may sail up it almost 1200 stadia from the sea to Corduba, and the places a little higher up. The banks and little islets of this river are cultivated with the greatest diligence. The eye is also delighted with groves and gardens, which in this district are met with in the highest perfection. As far as Ispalis, which is a distance of not less than 500 stadia, the river is navigable for ships²⁰ of considerable size; but for the cities higher up, as far as Ilipas, smaller vessels are employed, and thence to Corduba river-boats. These are now constructed of planks joined together, but they were formerly made out of a single trunk. Above this to Castlon the river is no longer navigable. A chain of mountains, rich in metal, runs parallel to the Guadalquiver,²¹ approaching the river sometimes more, sometimes less, towards the north.

There is much silver found in the parts about Ilipas and Sisapo, both in that which is called the old town and the new. There are copper and gold about the Cotinae.²² These mountains are on the left as you sail up the river; on the right there is a vast and elevated plain, fertile, full of large trees, and containing excellent pasturage. The Guadiana²³ is likewise navigable, but not for vessels equally large, nor yet so far up. It is also bordered by mountains containing metal, and extends as far as the Tagus. Districts which contain metals must, of necessity, be rugged and poor,²⁴ as indeed are those adjoining Carpetania, and still more those next the Keltiberians. The same is the case with Baeturia, the plains of which, bordering on the Guadiana, are arid.

[4] Turdetania, on the other hand, is marvellously fertile, and abounds in every species of produce. The value of its productions is doubled by means of exportation, the surplus products finding a ready sale amongst the numerous ship-owners. This results from its rivers and estuaries, which, as we have said, resemble rivers, and by which you may sail from the sea to the inland towns, not only in small, but even in large-sized skiffs. For the whole country above the coast, and situated between the Sacred Promontory²⁵ and the Pillars, consists of an extended plain. Here in many places are hollows running inland from the sea, which resemble moderately-sized ravines or the beds of rivers, and extend for many stadia. These are filled by the approach of the sea at high tide, and may be navigated as easily, or even more so than rivers. They are navigated much the same as rivers the sea, meeting with no obstacle, enters like the flow of a river at flood-tide. The sea comes in here with greater force than in the other places; for being forced from the wide ocean into the narrow strait,²⁶ formed by the coast of Maurusia and Iberia, it experiences recoils, and thus is borne full into the retiring parts of the land. Some of these shallows are left dry as the tide ebbs, while others are never destitute of water; others again contain islands, of this kind are the estuaries between the Sacred Promontory²⁷ and the Pillars, where the tide comes in with more violence than at other places. Such a tide is of considerable advantage to sailors, since it makes the estuaries both fuller and more spacious, frequently swelling them to a breadth of eight²⁸ stadia, so that the whole land, so to speak, is rendered navigable, thus giving wonderful facility both for the export and import of merchandise. Nevertheless there is some inconvenience. For in the navigation of the rivers, the sailors run considerable danger both in ascending and descending, owing to the violence with which the flood-tide encounters the current of the stream as it flows down. The ebb-tides are likewise the cause of much damage in these estuaries, for resulting as they do from the same cause as the flood-tides, they are frequently so rapid as to leave the vessel on dry land; and herds in passing over to the islands that are in these estuaries are sometimes drowned [in the passage] and sometimes surprised in the islands, and endeavouring to cross back again to the continent, are unable, and perish in the attempt. They say that certain of the cattle, having narrowly observed what takes place, wait till the sea has retired, and then cross over to the main-land.

[5] The men [of the country], being well acquainted with the nature of these places, and that the estuaries would very well answer the same purpose as rivers, founded cities and other settlements along them the same as along rivers. Of this number are Asta, Nebrissa,²⁹ Onoba,³⁰ Ossonoba, Maenoba, besides many others. The canals which have been cut in various directions are also found useful in the traffic which is carried on between place and place, both amongst the people themselves and with foreigners. The conflux of water at the flood-tides is also valuable, as rendering navigable the isthmuses which separate the different pieces of water, thus making it possible to ferry over from the rivers into the estuaries, and from the estuaries into the rivers. Their trade is wholly carried on with Italy and Rome. The navigation is excellent as far as the Pillars, (excepting perhaps some little difficulties at the Strait,) and equally so on the Mediterranean, where the voyages are very calm, especially to those who keep the high seas. This is a great advantage to merchant-vessels. The winds on the high seas blow regularly; and peace reigns there now, the pirates having been put down, so that in every respect the voyage is facile. Posidonius tells us he observed the singular phenomenon in his journey from Iberia,³¹ that in this sea, as far as the Gulf of Sardinia, the south-east³² winds blow periodically. And on this account he strove in vain for three whole months to reach Italy, being driven about by the winds against the Gymnesian islands,³³ Sardinia, and the opposite coasts of Libya.

[6] Large quantities of corn and wine are exported from Turdetania, besides much oil, which is of the first quality;³⁴ also wax, honey, pitch, large quantities of the kermes-berry,³⁵ and vermilion not inferior to that of Sinope.³⁶ The country furnishes the timber for their shipbuilding. They have likewise mineral salt, and not a few salt streams. A considerable quantity of salted fish is exported, not only from hence, but also from the remainder of the coast beyond the Pillars, equal to that of Pontus. Formerly they exported large quantities of garments, but they now send the [unmanufactured] wool, which is superior even to that of the Coraxi,³⁷ and remarkable for its beauty. Rams for the purpose of covering fetch a talent. The stuffs manufactured by the Saltiatae³⁸ are of incomparable texture. There is a super-abundance of cattle, and a great variety of game: while, on the other hand, of destructive animals there are scarcely any, with the exception of certain little hares which burrow in the ground, and are called by some leberides.³⁹ These creatures destroy both seeds and trees by gnawing their roots. They are met with throughout almost the whole of Iberia,⁴⁰ and extend to Marseilles, infesting likewise the islands. It is said that formerly the inhabitants of the Gymnesian islands⁴¹ sent a deputation to the Romans soliciting that a new land might be given them, as they were quite driven out of their country by these animals, being no longer able to stand against their vast multitudes.⁴² It is possible that people should be obliged to have recourse to such an expedient for help in waging war in so great an extremity, which however but seldom happens, and is a plague produced by some pestilential state of the atmosphere, which at other times has produced serpents and rats in like abundance; but for the ordinary increase of these little hares, many ways of hunting have been devised, amongst others by wild cats from Africa,⁴³ trained for the purpose. Having muzzled these, they turn them into the holes, when they either drag out the animals they find there with their claws, or compel them to fly to the surface of the earth, where they are taken by people standing by for that purpose. The large amount of the exports from Turdetania is evinced by the size and number of their ships. Merchant-vessels of the greatest size sail thence to Dicaearchia⁴⁴ and Ostia, a Roman port; they are in number nearly equal to those which arrive from Libya.

[7] Such is the wealth of the inland part of Turdetania, and its maritime portions are found fully to equal it in the richness of their sea-productions. In fact, oysters and every variety of shell-fish, remarkable both for their number and size, are found along the whole of the exterior sea, but here in particular. It is probable that the flow and ebb tides, which are particularly strong here, contribute both to their quantity and size, on count of the great number of pools and standing waters which they form.⁴⁵ The same is the case with regard to all kinds of cetacea, narwhals, whales, and physeteri,⁴⁶ which when they blow [up the water from their snouts] appear to observers from a distance to resemble a cloud shaped like a column. The congers are quite monstrous, far surpassing in size those of our [sea];⁴⁷ so are the lampreys, and many other fish of the same kind. It is said that in Carteia there are kerukae⁴⁸ and cuttle-fish which would contain as much as ten cotylae.⁴⁹ In the parts more exterior there are lampreys and congers weighing 80 minae,⁵⁰ and polypesa talent,⁵¹ also teuthidae⁵² two cubits in length, with other fish in proportion. Shoals of rich fat thunny are driven hither from the sea-coast beyond. They feed on the fruit of a species of stunted oak, which grows at the bottom of the sea, and produces very large acorns. The same oaks grow in large numbers throughout the land of Iberia, their roots are of the same size as those of the full-grown oak, although the tree itself never attains the height of a low shrub. So great is the quantity of fruit which it produces, that at the season when they are ripe, the whole coast on either side of the Pillars is covered with acorns which have been thrown up by the tides: the quantity however is always less on this side the Pillars [than on the other]. Polybius states that these acorns are ejected [by the sea] as far as [the shores of] Latium, unless, he adds, Sardo⁵³ and the neighbouring districts also produce them. The thunny-fish become gradually thinner, owing to the failure of their food, as they approach the Pillars from the outer sea. This fish, in fact, may be regarded as a kind of sea-hog, being fond of the acorn, and growing marvellously fat upon it; and whenever acorns are abundant, thunny-fish are abundant likewise.

[8] Of the various riches of the aforenamed country,⁵⁴ not the least is its wealth in metals: this every one will particularly esteem and admire. Of metals, in fact, the whole country of the Iberians is full, although it is not equally fertile and flourishing throughout, especially in those parts where the metals most abound. It is seldom that any place is blessed with both these advantages, and likewise seldom that the different kinds of metals abound in one small territory. Turdetania, however, and the surrounding districts surpass so entirely in this respect, that however you may wish, words cannot convey their excellence. Gold, silver, copper, and iron, equal in amount and of similar quality, not having been hitherto discovered in any other part of the world.⁵⁵ Gold is not only dug from the mines, but likewise collected; sand containing gold being washed down by the rivers and torrents. It is frequently met with in arid districts, but here the gold is not visible to the sight, whereas in those which are overflowed the grains of gold are seen glittering. On this account they cause water to flow over the arid places in order to make the grains shine; they also dig pits, and make use of other contrivances for washing the sand, and separating the gold from it; so that at the present day more gold is procured by washing than by digging it from the mines. The Galatae affirm that the mines along the Kemmenus mountains⁵⁶ and their side of the Pyrenees are superior; but most people prefer those on this side. They say that sometimes amongst the grains of gold lumps have been found weighing half a pound, these they call paloe; they need but little refining.⁵⁷ They also say that in splitting open stones they find small lumps, resembling paps. And that when they have melted the gold, and purified it by means of a kind of aluminous earth, the residue left is electrum. This, which contains a mixture of silver and gold, being again subjected to the fire, the silver is separated and the gold left [pure]; for this metal is easily dissipated and fat,⁵⁸ and on this account gold is most easily melted by straw, the flame of which is soft, and bearing a similarity [to the gold], causes it easily to dissolve: whereas coal, besides wasting a great deal, melts it too much by reason of its vehemence, and carries it off [in vapour]. In the beds of the rivers the sand is either collected and washed in boats close by, or else a pit is dug to which the earth is carried and there washed. The furnaces for silver are constructed lofty, in order that the vapour, which is dense and pestilent, may be raised and carried off. Certain of the copper mines are called gold mines, which would seem to show that formerly gold was dug from them.

[9] Posidonius, in praising the amount and excellence of the metals, cannot refrain from his accustomed rhetoric, and becomes quite enthusiastic in exaggeration. He tells us we are not to disbelieve the fable, that formerly the forests having been set on fire, the earth, which was loaded with silver and gold, melted, and threw up these metals to the surface, forasmuch as every mountain and wooded hill seemed to be heaped up with money by a lavish fortune. Altogether (he remarks) any one seeing these places, could only describe them as the inexhaustible treasuries of nature, or the unfailing exchequer of some potentate; for not only, he tells us, is this land rich itself, but riches abound beneath it. So that amongst these people the subterraneous regions should not be regarded as the realms of Pluto, but of Plutus. Such is the flourished style in which he speaks on this subject, that you would fancy his turgid language had been dug from a mine itself. Discoursing on the diligence of the miners, he applies to them the remark [of Demetrius] of Phalaris, who, speaking of the silver mines of Attica, said that the men there dug with as much energy as if they thought they could grub up Plutus himself. He compares with these the activity and diligence of the Turdetani, who are in the habit of cutting tortuous and deep tunnels, and draining the streams which they frequently encounter by means of Egyptian screws.⁵⁹ As for the rest,⁶⁰ they are quite different from the Attic miners, whose mining (he remarks) may be justly compared to that enigma,⁶¹ What I have taken up I have not kept, and what I have got I have thrown away. Whereas the Turdetanians make a good profit, since a fourth part of the ore which they extract from the copper mines is [pure] copper, while from the silver mines one person has taken as much as a Euboean talent. He says that tin is not found upon the surface, as authors commonly relate, but that it is dug up; and that it is produced both in places among the barbarians who dwell beyond the Lusitanians and in the islands Cassiterides; and that from the Britannic Islands it is carried to Marseilles. Amongst the Artabri,⁶² who are the last of the Lusitanians towards the north and west, he tells us that the earth is powdered with silver, tin, and white gold, that is, mixed with silver, the earth having been brought down by the rivers: this the women scrape up with spades, and wash in sieves, woven after the fashion of baskets. Such is the substance of what [Posidonius] tells us concerning the mines [of Iberia].

[10] Polybius, speaking of the silver mines of New Carthage,⁶³ tells us that they are extremely large, distant from the city about 20 stadia, and occupy a circuit of 400 stadia, that there are 40,000 men regularly engaged in them, and that they yield daily to the Roman people [a revenue of] 25,000 drachmae. The rest of the process I pass over, as it is too long, but as for the silver ore collected, he tells us that it is broken up, and sifted through sieves over water; that what remains is to be again broken, and the water having been strained off, it is to be sifted and broken a third time. The dregs which remain after the fifth time are to be melted, and the lead being poured off, the silver is obtained pure. These silver mines still exist; however they are no longer the property of the state, neither these nor those elsewhere, but are possessed by private individuals. The gold mines, on the contrary, nearly all belong to the state. Both at Castlon⁶⁴ and other places there are singular lead mines worked. They contain a small proportion of silver, but not sufficient to pay for the expense of refining.

[11] Not far from Castlon is the mountain in which they report that the [river] Guadalquiver⁶⁵ takes its rise. They call it silver mountain on account of the silver mines which it contains.⁶⁶ Polybius asserts that both the Guadiana⁶⁷ and this river have their sources in Keltiberia, notwithstanding they are separated from each other by a distance of 900 stadia;⁶⁸ [this we are to attribute to] the Keltiberians having increased in power, and having consequently conferred their name on the surrounding country. It appears the ancients knew the Guadalquiver under the name of the Tartessus, and Gades⁶⁹ with the neighbouring islands under that of Erythia; and it is thought that we should understand in this sense the words of Stesichorus⁷⁰ concerning the pastoral poet Geryon, that he was born almost opposite to the renowned Erythia, in a rocky cave near to the abundant springs of the silver-bedded river Tartessus. They say that on the piece of land enclosed between the two outlets of this river there formerly stood a city named, like the river, Tartessus, and that the district was called Tartessis, which the Turduli now inhabit. Eratosthenes likewise tells us that the [country] near to Calpe⁷¹ was called Tartessis, and also Erythia the Fortunate Island. This Artemidorus contradicts, and says that it is as false as his other statements, that the Sacred Promontory⁷² is distant from Gades⁷³ five days’ sail, when in fact they are [distant from each other] not more than 1700 stadia.⁷⁴ Likewise that the tide ceased at this point, whereas it passes round the whole circuit of the habitable earth. That it is easier to pass from the northern parts of Iberia into Keltica,⁷⁵ than to proceed thither by sea; with many other things which he asserted on the faith of that charlatan Pytheas.

[12] Our poet [Homer] being very explicit, and possessing great experience, gives one cause to believe that he was not unfamiliar with these localities. Of this any one may be convinced who will examine carefully what has been written on these points, both the incorrect [comments], and likewise those which are better and more truthful. One amongst these incorrect ideas is, that he considered [Tartessis] to be the farthest country towards the west, where, as he himself expresses it,

The radiant sun in ocean sank,

Drawing night after him o’er all the earth.⁷⁶

Iliad viii. 485. Now, since it is evident that night is ominous, and near to Hades, and Hades to Tartarus, it seems probable that [Homer], having heard of Tartessus, took thence the name of Tartarus to distinguish the farthest of the places beneath the earth, also embellishing it with fable in virtue of the poetic licence. In the same way, knowing that the Cimmerians dwelt in northern and dismal territories near to the Bosphorus, he located them in the vicinity of Hades; perhaps also on account of the common hatred of the Ionians against this people. For they say that in the time of Homer, or a little before, the Cimmerians made an incursion as far as Aeolia and Ionia. Always drawing his fables from certain real facts, his Planetae⁷⁷ are modelled on the Cyaneae. He describes them as dangerous rocks, as they tell us the Cyaneaean rocks are, [and] on which account [in fact] they are called Symplegades.⁷⁸ He adds to this [the account of] Jason’s navigating through the midst of them. The Straits of the Pillars⁷⁹ and Sicily,⁸⁰ likewise, suggested to him the fable of the Planetae. Thus, even according to the worst comments, from the fiction of Tartarus any one might gather that Homer was acquainted with the regions about Tartessus.

[13] Of these facts, notwithstanding, there are better proofs. For instance, the expeditions of Hercules and the Phoenicians to this country were evidence to him of the wealth and luxury of the people. They fell so entirely under the dominion of the Phoenicians, that at the present day almost the whole of the cities of Turdetania and the neighbouring places are inhabited by them. It also seems to me that the expedition of Ulysses hither, as it took place and was recorded, was the foundation both of his Odyssey and Iliad, which he framed upon facts collected into a poem, and embellished as usual with poetical mythology. It is not only in Italy, Sicily, and a few other places that vestiges of these [events] occur; even in Iberia a city is shown named Ulyssea,⁸¹ also a temple of Minerva, and a myriad other traces both of the wandering of Ulysses and also of other survivors of the Trojan war, which was equally fatal to the vanquished and those who took Troy. These latter in fact gained a Cadmean victory,⁸² for their homes were destroyed, and the portion of booty which fell to each was exceedingly minute. Consequently not only those who had survived the perils [of their country], but the Greeks as well, betook themselves to piracy, the former because they had been pillaged of every thing; the latter, on account of the shame which each one anticipated to himself:

The shame

That must attend us, after absence long

Returning unsuccessful, who can bear?⁸³

Iliad ii. 298. In the same way is related the wandering of Aeneas, of Antenor, and of the Heneti; likewise of Diomedes, of Menelaus, of Ulysses,⁸⁴ and of many others. Hence the poet, knowing of similar expeditions to the extremities of Iberia, and having heard of its wealth and other excellencies, (which the Phoenicians had made known,) feigned this to be the region of the Blessed, and the Plain of Elysium, where Proteus informs Menelaus that he is to depart to:

But far hence the gods

Will send thee to Elysium, and the earth’s

Extremest bounds; there Rhadamanthus dwells,

The golden-haired, and there the human kind

Enjoy the easiest life; no snow is there,

No biting winter, and no drenching shower,

But zephyr always gently from the sea

Breathes on them to refresh the happy race.⁸⁵

Odyssey iv. 563. Now the purity of the air, and the gentle breathing of the zephyr, are both applicable to this country, as well as the softness of the climate, its position in the west, and its place at the extremities of the earth, where, as we have said, he feigned that Hades was. By coupling Rhadamanthus with it, he signifies that the place was near to Minos, of whom he says,

There saw I Minos, offspring famed of Jove;

His golden sceptre in his hand, he sat

Judge of the dead.⁸⁶

Odyssey xi. 567. Bohn’s edition. Similar to these are the fables related by later poets; such, for instance, as the expeditions after the oxen of Geryon, and the golden apples of the Hesperides, the Islands of the Blessed⁸⁷ they speak of, which we know are still pointed out to us not far distant from the extremities of Maurusia, and opposite to Gades.

[14] I repeat that the Phoenicians were the discoverers [of these countries], for they possessed the better part of Iberia and Libya before the time of Homer, and continued masters of those places until their empire was overthrown by the Romans. This also is an evidence of the wealth of Iberia: in the expedition of the Carthaginians under Barcas,⁸⁸ they found, according to historians, that the people of Turdetania used silver goblets⁸⁹ and casks. One might guess too that it was on account of this great opulence that the men of the country, and their chiefs in particular, were styled long-lived. Wherefore Anacreon thus sings,

Neither would I desire the horn of Amalthea, nor to reign over Tartessus one hundred and fifty years.

Herodotus too has preserved the name of the king, whom he calls Arganthonius.⁹⁰ The passage of Anacreon must therefore either be understood [of this king], or some other like him; or else more generally thus, nor to reign for a lengthened period in Tartessus. Some writers⁹¹ are of opinion that Tartessus is the present Carteia.

[15] The Turdetani not only enjoy a salubrious climate, but their manners are polished and urbane, as also are those of the people of Keltica, by reason of their vicinity [to the Turdetani], or, according to Polybius, on account of their being of the same stock, but not to so great a degree, for they live for the most part scattered in villages. The Turdetani, on the other hand, especially those who dwell about the Guadalquiver,⁹² have so entirely adopted the Roman mode of life, as even to have forgotten their own language. They have for the most part become Latins,⁹³ and received Roman colonists; so that a short time only is wanted before they will be all Romans. The very names of many of the towns at present, such as Pax Augusta⁹⁴ amongst the Keltici, Augusta-Emerita⁹⁵ amongst the Turduli, Caesar-Augusta⁹⁶ amongst the Keltiberians and certain other colonies, are proof of the change of manners I have spoken of. Those of the Iberians who adopt these new modes of life are styled togati. Amongst their number are the Keltiberians, who formerly were regarded as the most uncivilized of them all. So much for these.

Geography. Strabo. Hans Claude Hamilton (Translator), William Falconer (Translator). London. 1854-1857.

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Current edition Perseus

Geography (English) (Strabo. The Geography of Strabo, Vols. 1-3. Hamilton, Hans Claude, translator; Falconer, William, translator. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1854-1857.)

Editions (1)

Γεωγραφικά Perseus (Strabo. Strabonis Geographica, Vols. 1-3. Meineke, August, editor. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877.) — 3.2 focus

[1] τῆς δʼ οὖν ἐντὸς τοῦ Ἄνα παραλίας ὑπερκεῖσθαι συμβαίνει τὴν Τουρδητανίαν, ἣν ὁ Βαῖτις διαρρεῖ ποταμός. ἀφορίζει δὲ αὐτὴν πρὸς μὲν τὴν ἑσπέραν καὶ ἄρκτον ὁ Ἄνας ποταμός, πρὸς δὲ τὴν ἕω Καρπητανῶν τέ τινες καὶ Ὠρητανοί, πρὸς νότον δὲ Βαστητανῶν οἱ μεταξὺ τῆς Κάλπης καὶ τῶν Γαδείρων στενὴν νεμόμενοι παραλίαν, καὶ ἡ ἑξῆς θάλαττα μέχρι Ἄνα. καὶ οἱ Βαστητανοὶ δὲ οὓς εἶπον τῇ Τουρδητανίᾳ πρόσκεινται καὶ οἱ ἔξω τοῦ Ἄνα καὶ οἱ πολλοὶ τῶν προσχώρων. μέγεθος δʼ οὐ πλεῖόν ἐστι τῆς χώρας ταύτης ἐπὶ μῆκος καὶ πλάτος ἢ δισχίλιοι στάδιοι. πόλεις δʼ ὑπερβάλλουσαι τὸ πλῆθος· καὶ γὰρ διακοσίας φασί· γνωριμώταται δὲ αἱ ἐπὶ τοῖς ποταμοῖς ἱδρυμέναι καὶ ταῖς ἀναχύσεσι καὶ τῇ θαλάττῃ διὰ τὰς χρείας. πλεῖστον δʼ ἥ τε Κόρδυβα ηὔξηται, Μαρκέλλου κτίσμα, καὶ δόξῃ καὶ δυνάμει καὶ ἡ τῶν Γαδιτανῶν πόλις, ἡ μὲν διὰ τὰς ναυτιλίας καὶ διὰ τὸ προσθέσθαι Ῥωμαίοις κατὰ συμμαχίας, ἡ δὲ χώρας ἀρετῇ καὶ μεγέθει, προσλαμβάνοντος καὶ τοῦ ποταμοῦ Βαίτιος μέγα μέρος· ᾤκησάν τε ἐξ ἀρχῆς Ῥωμαίων τε καὶ τῶν ἐπιχωρίων ἄνδρες ἐπίλεκτοι· καὶ δὴ καὶ πρώτην ἀποικίαν ταύτην εἰς τούσδε τοὺς τόπους ἔστειλαν Ῥωμαῖοι. μετὰ δὲ ταύτην καὶ τὴν τῶν Γαδιτανῶν ἡ μὲν Ἵσπαλις ἐπιφανής, καὶ αὐτὴ ἄποικος Ῥωμαίων· νυνὶ δὲ τὸ μὲν ἐμπόριον συμμένει, τῇ τιμῇ δὲ καὶ τῷ ἐποικῆσαι νεωστὶ τοὺς Καίσαρος στρατιώτας ἡ Βαῖτις ὑπερέχει καίπερ οὐ συνοικουμένη λαμπρῶς.

[2] μετὰ δὲ ταύτας Ἰτάλικα καὶ Ἴλιπα ἐπὶ τῷ Βαίτι, Ἄστιγις δʼ ἀπωτέρω καὶ Κάρμων καὶ Ὀβούλκων, ἔτι δὲ ἐν αἷς οἱ Πομπηίου παῖδες κατεπολεμήθησαν, Μοῦνδα καὶ Ἀτέγουα καὶ Οὔρσων καὶ Τοῦκκις καὶ Οὐλία καὶ Αἴγουα· ἅπασαι δʼ αὗται Κορδύβης οὐκ ἄπωθεν. τρόπον δέ τινα μητρόπολις κατέστη τοῦ τόπου τούτου Μοῦνδα· διέχει δὲ Καρτηίας ἡ Μοῦνδα σταδίους * χιλίους καὶ τετρακοσίους, εἰς ἣν ἔφυγεν ἡττηθεὶς ὁ Γναῖος, εἶτʼ ἐκπλεύσας ἔνθεν καὶ ἐκβὰς εἴς τινα ὑπερκειμένην θαλάττης ὀρεινὴν διεφθάρη. ὁ δʼ ἀδελφὸς αὐτοῦ Σέξτος ἐκ Κορδύβης σωθεὶς καὶ μικρὸν ἐν τοῖς Ἴβηρσι πολεμήσας χρόνον ὕστερον Σικελίαν ἀπέστησεν, εἶτʼ ἐκπεσὼν ἐνθένδε εἰς τὴν Ἀσίαν ἁλοὺς ὑπὸ τῶν Ἀντωνίου στρατηγῶν ἐν Μιδαείῳ κατέστρεψε τὸν βίον. ἐν δὲ τοῖς Κελτικοῖς Κονίστοργίς ἐστι γνωριμωτάτη· ἐπὶ δὲ ταῖς ἀναχύσεσιν ἡ Ἄστα, εἰς ἣν οἱ Γαδιτανοὶ συνίασι μάλιστα, ὑπερκειμένην τοῦ ἐπινείου τῆς νήσου σταδίους οὐ πολὺ πλείους τῶν ἑκατόν.

[3] παροικεῖται δὲ ὑπὸ πλείστων ὁ Βαῖτις καὶ ἀναπλεῖται σχεδόν τι ἐπὶ χιλίους καὶ διακοσίους σταδίους ἐκ θαλάττης μέχρι Κορδύβης καὶ τῶν μικρὸν ἐπάνω τόπων. καὶ δὴ καὶ ἐξείργασται περιττῶς ἥ τε παραποταμία καὶ τὰ ἐν τῷ ποταμῷ νησίδια. πρόσεστι δὲ καὶ τὸ τῆς ὄψεως τερπνόν, ἄλσεσι καὶ ταῖς ἄλλαις φυτουργίαις ἐκπεπονημένων τῶν χωρίων. μέχρι μὲν οὖν Ἱσπάλιος ὁλκάσιν ἀξιολόγοις ὁ ἀνάπλους ἐστὶν ἐπὶ σταδίους οὐ πολὺ λείποντας τῶν πεντακοσίων, ἐπὶ δὲ τὰς ἄνω πόλεις μέχρι Ἰλίπας ταῖς ἐλάττοσι, μέχρι δὲ Κορδύβης τοῖς ποταμίοις σκάφεσι, πηκτοῖς μὲν τὰ νῦν τὸ παλαιὸν δὲ καὶ μονοξύλοις· τὸ δʼ ἄνω τὸ ἐπὶ Καστλῶνος οὐκ ἔστι πλόιμον· παράλληλοι δέ τινες ῥάχεις ὀρῶν παρατείνουσι τῷ ποταμῷ μᾶλλόν τε καὶ ἧττον αὐτῷ συνάπτουσαι πρὸς βορρᾶν, μετάλλων πλήρεις. πλεῖστος δʼ ἐστὶν ἄργυρος ἐν τοῖς κατὰ Ἴλιπαν τόποις καὶ τοῖς κατὰ Σισάπωνα τόν τε παλαιὸν λεγόμενον καὶ τὸν νέον· κατὰ δὲ τὰς Κωτίνας λεγομένας χαλκός τε ἅμα γεννᾶται καὶ χρυσός. ἐν ἀριστερᾷ μὲν οὖν ἐστι τοῖς ἀναπλέουσι τὰ ὄρη ταῦτα, ἐν δεξιᾷ δὲ πεδίον μέγα καὶ ὑψηλὸν καὶ εὔκαρπον καὶ μεγαλόδενδρον καὶ εὔβοτον. ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ Ἄνας ἀνάπλουν, οὔτε δὲ τηλικούτοις σκάφεσιν οὔτʼ ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον. ὑπέρκειται δὲ καὶ αὐτοῦ μεταλλείας ἔχοντα ὄρη, καθήκει δὲ ταῦτα πρὸς τὸν Τάγον. τὰ μὲν οὖν τὰς μεταλλείας ἔχοντα χωρία ἀνάγκη τραχέα τε εἶναι καὶ παράλυπρα, οἷάπερ καὶ τὰ τῇ Καρπητανίᾳ συνάπτοντα καὶ ἔτι μᾶλλον τοῖς Κελτίβηρσι. τοιαύτη δὲ καὶ ἡ Βαιτουρία ξηρὰ ἔχουσα πεδία τὰ παρήκοντα τῷ Ἄνᾳ.

[4] αὐτὴ δʼ ἡ Τουρδητανία θαυμαστῶς εὐτυχεῖ· παμφόρου δʼ οὔσης αὐτῆς, ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ πολυφόρου, διπλασιάζεται τὰ εὐτυχήματα ταῦτα τῷ ἐκκομισμῷ· τὸ γὰρ περιττεῦον τῶν καρπῶν ἀπεμπολεῖται ῥᾳδίως τῷ πλήθει τῶν ναυκληρίων. ποιοῦσι δὲ τοῦτο οἵ τε ποταμοὶ καὶ αἱ ἀναχύσεις, ὡς εἶπον, ἐμφερεῖς τοῖς ποταμοῖς οὖσαι καὶ ἀναπλεόμεναι παραπλησίως ἐκ θαλάττης οὐ μικροῖς μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ μεγάλοις σκάφεσιν εἰς τὰς ἐν τῇ μεσογαίᾳ πόλεις. ἅπασα γάρ ἐστι πεδιὰς ἡ ὑπὲρ τῆς παραλίας ἐπὶ πολὺ τῆς μεταξὺ τοῦ τε ἱεροῦ ἀκρωτηρίου καὶ στηλῶν. ἐνταῦθα δὲ πολλαχοῦ κοιλάδες εἰς τὴν μεσόγαιαν ἐκ τῆς θαλάττης ἀνέχουσι φάραγξι μετρίαις ἢ καὶ ῥείθροις ἐοικυῖαι ποταμίοις, ἐκτεταμέναι ἐπὶ πολλοὺς σταδίους· ταύτας δὲ πληροῦσιν αἱ τῆς θαλάττης ἐπιβάσεις κατὰ τὰς πλημμυρίδας, ὥστʼ ἀναπλεῖσθαι μηδὲν ἧττον ἢ τοὺς ποταμούς, ἀλλὰ καὶ βέλτιον· τοῖς γὰρ κατάπλοις ἔοικε τοῖς ποταμίοις, ἀντικόπτοντος μὲν οὐδενός, ἐπουρίζοντος δὲ τοῦ πελάγους καθάπερ τοῦ ποταμίου ῥεύματος διὰ τὴν πλημμυρίδα. αἱ δʼ ἐπιβάσεις μείζους εἰσὶν ἐνταῦθα ἢ ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις τόποις, ὅτι εἰς πόρον συνωθουμένη στενὸν ἡ θάλαττα ἐκ μεγάλου πελάγους, ὃν ἡ Μαυρουσία ποιεῖ πρὸς τὴν Ἰβηρίαν, ἀνακοπὰς λαμβάνει καὶ φέρεται πρὸς τὰ εἴκοντα μέρη τῆς γῆς εὐπετῶς. ἔνιαι μὲν οὖν τῶν τοιούτων κοιλάδων κενοῦνται κατὰ τὰς ἀμπώτεις, τινὰς δʼ οὐ παντάπασιν ἐπιλείπει τὸ ὕδωρ, ἔνιαι δὲ καὶ νήσους ἀπολαμβάνουσιν ἐν ἑαυταῖς. τοιαῦται μὲν οὖν εἰσιν αἱ ἀναχύσεις αἱ μεταξὺ τοῦ τε ἱεροῦ ἀκρωτηρίου καὶ τῶν στηλῶν, ἐπίδοσιν ἔχουσαι σφοδροτέραν παρὰ τὰς ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις τόποις· ἡ τοιαύτη δʼ ἐπίδοσις ἔχει μέν τι καὶ πλεονέκτημα πρὸς τὰς χρείας τῶν πλοϊζομένων· πλείους γὰρ καὶ μείζους ποιεῖ τὰς ἀναχύσεις, πολλάκις καὶ ἐπὶ * ὀκτὼ σταδίους ἀναπλεομένας, ὥστε τρόπον τινὰ πᾶσαν πλωτὴν παρέχεται τὴν γῆν καὶ εὐπετῆ πρός τε τὰς ἐξαγωγὰς τῶν φορτίων καὶ τὰς εἰσαγωγάς. ἔχει δέ τι καὶ ὀχληρόν· αἱ γὰρ ἐν τοῖς ποταμοῖς ναυτιλίαι διὰ τὴν σφοδρότητα τῆς πλημμυρίδος ἰσχυρότερον τῇ ῥύσει τῶν ποταμῶν ἀντιπνέουσαν κίνδυνον οὐ μικρὸν τοῖς ναυκληρίοις ἐπιφέρουσι κατακομιζομένοις τε ὁμοίως καὶ ἀνακομιζομένοις. αἱ δὲ ἀμπώτεις ἐν ταῖς ἀναχύσεσίν εἰσι βλαβεραί· ταῖς γὰρ πλημμυρίσιν ἀνὰ λόγον καὶ αὐταὶ παροξύνονται, διά τε τὸ τάχος καὶ ἐπὶ ξηρᾶς πολλάκις ἐγκατέλιπον τὴν ναῦν. τά τε βοσκήματα εἰς τὰς νήσους διαβαίνοντα τὰς¹ πρὸ τῶν ἀναχύσεων τοτὲ μὲν οὖν καὶ ἐπεκλύσθη τοτὲ δὲ ἀπελήφθη, βιαζόμενα δʼ ἐπανελθεῖν οὐκ ἴσχυσεν ἀλλὰ διεφθάρη· τὰς δὲ βοῦς φασι καὶ τετηρηκυίας τὸ συμβαῖνον περιμένειν τὴν ἀναχώρησιν τῆς θαλάττης καὶ τότε ἀπαίρειν εἰς τὴν ἤπειρον.

[5] καταμαθόντες δʼ οὖν τὴν φύσιν τῶν τόπων οἱ ἄνθρωποι καὶ τὰς ἀναχύσεις ὁμοίως ὑπουργεῖν τοῖς ποταμοῖς δυναμένας πόλεις ἔκτισαν ἐπʼ αὐτῶν καὶ ἄλλας κατοικίας, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ποταμῶν· τούτων δʼ ἐστὶν ἥ τε Ἄστα καὶ Νάβρισσα καὶ Ὄνοβα καὶ Ὀσσόνοβα καὶ Μαίνοβα καὶ ἄλλαι πλείους. προσλαμβάνουσι δὲ καὶ διώρυγες ἔσθʼ ὅπου γεγονυῖαι τῷ πολλαχόθεν εἶναι καὶ πολλαχόσε τὴν κομιδὴν καὶ πρὸς ἀλλήλους καὶ πρὸς τοὺς ἔξω. καὶ αἱ σύρροιαι δὲ ὡσαύτως ὠφελοῦσι κατὰ τὰς ἐπὶ πολὺ πλήμας διαχεομένας ἐπὶ τῶν διειργόντων ἰσθμῶν τοὺς πόρους καὶ πλωτοὺς ἀπεργαζομένας, ὥστε πορθμεύεσθαι καὶ ἐκ τῶν ποταμῶν εἰς τὰς ἀναχύσεις κἀκεῖθεν δεῦρο. ἅπασα δʼ ἡ ἐμπορία πρὸς τὴν Ἰταλίαν ἐστὶ καὶ τὴν Ῥώμην, ἔχουσα τὸν πλοῦν τόν τε μέχρι τῶν στηλῶν ἀγαθὸν (πλὴν εἴ τίς ἐστι περὶ τὸν πορθμὸν δυσκολία) καὶ τὸν πελάγιον τὸν ἐν τῇ καθʼ ἡμᾶς θαλάττῃ. διὰ γὰρ εὐδίου κλίματος οἱ δρόμοι συντελοῦνται καὶ μάλιστα τῷ πελαγίζοντι· τοῦτο δὲ πρόσφορόν ἐστι ταῖς ἐμπορικαῖς ὁλκάσιν. ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ οἱ ἄνεμοι τάξιν οἱ πελάγιοι· πρόσεστι δὲ καὶ ἡ νῦν εἰρήνη, τῶν λῃστηρίων καταλυθέντων, ὥσθʼ ἡ σύμπασα ὑπάρχει ῥᾳστώνη τοῖς πλοϊζομένοις. ἴδιον δέ τί φησι Ποσειδώνιος τηρῆσαι κατὰ τὸν ἀνάπλουν τὸν ἐκ τῆς Ἰβηρίας, ὅτι οἱ εὖροι κατʼ ἐκεῖνο τὸ πέλαγος ἕως τοῦ Σαρδῴου κόλπου πνέοιεν ἐτησίαι· διὸ καὶ τρισὶ μησὶν εἰς Ἰταλίαν κατᾶραι μόλις παραδιενεχθεὶς περί τε τὰς Γυμνησίας νήσους καὶ περὶ Σαρδόνα καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ἀπαντικρὺ τούτων μέρη τῆς Λιβύης.

[6] Ἐξάγεται δʼ ἐκ τῆς Τουρδητανίας σῖτός τε καὶ οἶνος πολὺς καὶ ἔλαιον οὐ πολὺ μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ κάλλιστον· καὶ κηρὸς δὲ καὶ μέλι καὶ πίττα ἐξάγεται καὶ κόκκος πολλὴ καὶ μίλτος οὐ χείρων τῆς Σινωπικῆς γῆς. τά τε ναυπήγια συνιστᾶσιν αὐτόθι ἐξ ἐπιχωρίας ὕλης, ἅλες τε ὀρυκτοὶ παρʼ αὐτοῖς εἰσι καὶ ποταμῶν ἁλμυρῶν ῥεύματα οὐκ ὀλίγα· οὐκ ὀλίγη δὲ οὐδὲ ἐκ τῶν ὄψων ταριχεία οὐκ ἔνθεν μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐκ τῆς ἄλλης τῆς ἐκτὸς στηλῶν παραλίας, οὐ χείρων τῆς Ποντικῆς. πολλὴ δὲ καὶ ἐσθὴς πρότερον ἤρχετο, νῦν δὲ ἔρια μᾶλλον τῶν κοραξῶν. καὶ ὑπερβολή τίς ἐστι τοῦ κάλλους· ταλαντιαίους γοῦν ὠνοῦνται τοὺς κριοὺς εἰς τὰς ὀχείας. ὑπερβολὴ δὲ καὶ τῶν λεπτῶν ὑφασμάτων, ἅπερ οἱ Σαλτιγῖται κατασκευάζουσιν. ἄφθονος δὲ καὶ βοσκημάτων εὐπορία παντοίων καὶ κυνηγεσίων. τῶν δʼ ὀλεθρίων θηρίων σπάνις πλὴν τῶν γεωρύχων λαγιδέων, οὓς ἔνιοι λεβηρίδας προσαγορεύουσι· λυμαίνονται γὰρ καὶ φυτὰ καὶ σπέρματα ῥιζοφαγοῦντες· καὶ τοῦτο συμβαίνει καθʼ ὅλην τὴν Ἰβηρίαν σχεδόν τι, διατείνει δὲ καὶ μέχρι Μασσαλίας, ὀχλεῖ δὲ καὶ τὰς νήσους. οἱ δὲ τὰς Γυμνησίας οἰκοῦντες λέγονται πρεσβεύσασθαί ποτε πρὸς Ῥωμαίους κατὰ χώρας αἴτησιν· ἐκβάλλεσθαι γὰρ ὑπὸ τῶν ζῴων τούτων, ἀντέχειν μὴ δυνάμενοι διὰ τὸ πλῆθος. πρὸς μὲν οὖν τὸν τοσοῦτον ἴσως πόλεμον, ὃς οὐκ ἀεὶ συμβαίνει, φορᾷ δέ τινι λοιμικῇ καθάπερ ὄφεων καὶ μυῶν τῶν ἀρουραίων, χρεία τῆς τοσαύτης ἐπικουρίας, πρὸς δὲ τὸ μέτριον ἐξεύρηνται πλείους θῆραι· καὶ δὴ καὶ γαλᾶς ἀγρίας ἃς ἡ Λιβύη φέρει τρέφουσιν ἐπίτηδες, ἃς φιμώσαντες παριᾶσιν εἰς τὰς ὀπάς· αἱ δʼ ἐξέλκουσιν ἔξω τοῖς ὄνυξιν οὓς ἂν καταλάβωσιν, ἢ φεύγειν ἀναγκάζουσιν εἰς τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν, ἐκπεσόντας δὲ θηρεύουσιν οἱ ἐφεστῶτες. τὴν δὲ ἀφθονίαν τῶν ἐκκομιζομένων ἐκ τῆς Τουρδητανίας ἐμφανίζει τὸ μέγεθος καὶ τὸ πλῆθος τῶν ναυκληρίων· ὁλκάδες γὰρ μέγισται παρὰ τούτων πλέουσιν εἰς Δικαιάρχειαν καὶ τὰ Ὤστια τῆς Ῥώμης ἐπίνειον· τὸ δὲ πλῆθος μικροῦ δεῖν ἐνάμιλλον τοῖς Λιβυκοῖς².

[7] τοιαύτης δὲ τῆς μεσογαίας οὔσης τῆς ἐν τῇ Τουρδητανίᾳ, καὶ τὴν παράλιον ἐνάμιλλον εὕροι τις ἂν τοῖς ἐκ θαλάττης ἀγαθοῖς· τά τε γὰρ ὀστρεώδη πάντα καὶ κογχοειδῆ καὶ τοῖς πλήθεσιν ὑπερβάλλει καὶ τοῖς μεγέθεσι καθόλου κατὰ τὴν ἔξω θάλατταν πᾶσαν, ἐνταῦθα δὲ διαφερόντως, ἅτε καὶ τῶν πλημμυρίδων καὶ τῶν ἀμπώτεων ἐνταῦθα αὐξομένων, ἃς εἰκὸς αἰτίας εἶναι καὶ τοῦ πλήθους καὶ τοῦ μεγέθους διὰ τὴν γυμνασίαν. ὡς δʼ αὕτως ἔχει καὶ περὶ τῶν κητέων ἁπάντων, ὀρύγων τε καὶ φαλαινῶν καὶ φυσητήρων, ὧν ἀναφυσησάντων φαίνεταί τις νεφώδους ὄψις κίονος τοῖς πόρρωθεν ἀφορῶσι· καὶ οἱ γόγγροι δὲ ἀποθηριοῦνται πολὺ τῶν παρʼ ἡμῖν ὑπερβεβλημένοι κατὰ τὸ μέγεθος, καὶ αἱ σμύραιναι καὶ ἄλλα πλείω τῶν τοιούτων ὄψων. ἐν δὲ Καρτηίᾳ κήρυκας δεκακοτύλους καὶ πορφύρας φασίν· ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐξωτέροις τόποις καὶ μείζους ὀγδοήκοντα μνῶν τὴν σμύραιναν καὶ τὸν γόγγρον, ταλαντιαῖον δὲ τὸν πολύποδα, διπήχεις δὲ τὰς τευθίδας καὶ τὰ παραπλήσια. πολὺς δὲ καὶ ὁ θύννος συνελαύνεται δεῦρο ἀπὸ τῆς ἄλλης τῆς ἔξωθεν παραλίας πίων καὶ παχύς. τρέφεται δὲ βαλάνῳ δρυΐνῃ φυομένῃ κατὰ τῆς θαλάττης χαμαιζήλῳ τινὶ παντάπασιν, ἁδρότατον δʼ ἐκφερούσῃ καρπόν· ἥπερ καὶ ἐν τῇ γῇ φύεται πολλὴ κατὰ τὴν Ἰβηρίαν, ῥίζας μὲν ἔχουσα μεγάλας ὡς ἂν τελείας δρυός, ἐξαιρομένη δὲ θάμνου ταπεινῆς ἧττον· τοσοῦτον δʼ ἐκφέρει καρπὸν ὥστε μετὰ τὴν ἀκμὴν πλήρη τὴν παραλίαν βαλάνου εἶναι τήν τε ἐντὸς καὶ τὴν ἐκτὸς στηλῶν, ἣν ἐκβάλλουσιν αἱ πλῆμαι· ἡ δʼ ἐντὸς στηλῶν ἐλάττων ἀεὶ καὶ μᾶλλον εὑρίσκεται. λέγει δʼ ὁ Πολύβιος καὶ μέχρι τῆς Λατίνης ἐκπίπτειν τὴν βάλανον ταύτην, εἰ μὴ ἄρα (φησί) καὶ ἡ Σαρδὼ φέρει καὶ ἡ πλησιόχωρος ταύτῃ. καὶ οἱ θύννοι δʼ ὅσῳ πλέον συνεγγίζουσι ταῖς στήλαις ἔξωθεν φερόμενοι, τοσῷδʼ ἰσχναίνονται πλέον τῆς τροφῆς ἐπιλειπούσης· εἶναί τε παρὰ θαλάττιον ὗν τὸ ζῷον τοῦτο· ἥδεσθαι γὰρ τῇ βαλάνῳ καὶ πιαίνεσθαι διαφερόντως ὑπʼ αὐτῆς, φορᾶς τε τῆς βαλάνου γενομένης φορὰν καὶ τῶν θύννων εἶναι.

[8] τοσούτοις δὲ τῆς προειρημένης χώρας ἀγαθοῖς κεχορηγημένης, οὐχ ἥκιστα, ἀλλὰ καὶ μάλιστα ἀποδέξαιτʼ ἄν τις καὶ θαυμάσειε τὸ περὶ τὰς μεταλλείας εὐφυές· ἅπασα μὲν γὰρ μεστὴ τῶν τοιούτων ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν Ἰβήρων χώρα, οὐ πᾶσα δʼ εὔκαρπος οὐδʼ εὐδαίμων οὕτως καὶ μάλιστα ἡ τῶν μετάλλων εὐποροῦσα. σπάνιον δʼ ἐν ἀμφοτέροις εὐτυχεῖν, σπάνιον δὲ καὶ τὸ τὴν αὐτὴν ἐν ὀλίγῳ χωρίῳ παντοίοις πληθύνειν μετάλλοις. ἡ δὲ Τουρδητανία καὶ ἡ προσεχὴς αὐτῇ λόγον οὐδένα ἄξιον καταλείπει περὶ τήνδε τὴν ἀρετὴν τοῖς ἐπαινεῖν βουλομένοις. οὔτε γὰρ χρυσός, οὐκ ἄργυρος, οὐδὲ δὴ χαλκός, οὐδὲ σίδηρος οὐδαμοῦ τῆς γῆς οὔτε τοσοῦτος οὔθʼ οὕτως ἀγαθὸς ἐξήτασται γεννώμενος μέχρι νῦν. ὁ δὲ χρυσὸς οὐ μεταλλεύεται μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ σύρεται· καταφέρουσι δʼ οἱ ποταμοὶ καὶ οἱ χείμαρροι τὴν χρυσῖτιν ἄμμον, πολλαχοῦ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἀνύδροις τόποις οὖσαν, ἀλλʼ ἐκεῖ μὲν ἀφανής ἐστιν, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐπικλύστοις ἀπολάμπει τὸ τοῦ χρυσοῦ ψῆγμα· καὶ τοὺς ἀνύδρους δὲ φορητῷ ἐπικλύζοντες ὕδατι στιλπνὸν ποιοῦσι τὸ ψῆγμα, καὶ φρέατα δʼ ὀρύσσοντες καὶ ἄλλας τέχνας ἐπινοοῦντες πλύσει τῆς ἄμμου τὸν χρυσὸν ἐκλαμβάνουσι, καὶ πλείω τῶν χρυσωρυχείων ἐστὶ νῦν τὰ χρυσοπλύσια προσαγορευόμενα. ἀξιοῦσι δὲ Γαλάται κράτιςτα παρʼ ἑαυτοῖς εἶναι τὰ μέταλλα τά τε ἐν τῷ Κεμμένῳ ὄρει καὶ τὰ ὑπʼ αὐτῇ κείμενα τῇ Πυρήνῃ· τὸ μέντοι πλέον τἀντεῦθεν εὐδοκιμεῖ. ἐν δὲ τοῖς ψήγμασι τοῦ χρυσίου φασὶν εὑρίσκεσθαί ποτε καὶ ἡμιλιτριαίας βώλους ἃς καλοῦσι πάλας, μικρᾶς καθάρσεως δεομένας. φασὶ δὲ καὶ λίθων σχιζομένων εὑρίσκειν βωλάρια θηλαῖς ὅμοια· ἐκ δὲ τοῦ χρυσοῦ ἑψομένου καὶ καθαιρομένου στυπτηριώδει τινὶ γῇ τὸ κάθαρμα ἤλεκτρον εἶναι· πάλιν δὲ τούτου καθεψομένου, μῖγμα ἔχοντος ἀργύρου καὶ χρυσοῦ, τὸν μὲν ἄργυρον ἀποκαίεσθαι τὸν δὲ χρυσὸν ὑπομένειν· εὐδιάχυτος γὰρ * ὁ τύπος καὶ λιπώδης· διὰ τοῦτο καὶ τῷ ἀχύρῳ τήκεται μᾶλλον ὁ χρυσός, ὅτι ἡ φλὸξ μαλακὴ οὖσα συμμέτρως ἔχει πρὸς τὸ εἶκον καὶ διαχεόμενον ῥᾳδίως, ὁ δὲ ἄνθραξ ἐπαναλίσκει πολὺ ὑπερτήκων τῇ σφοδρότητι καὶ ἐξαίρων. ἐν δὲ τοῖς ῥείθροις σύρεται καὶ πλύνεται πλησίον ἐν σκάφαις, ἢ ὀρύττεται φρέαρ, ἡ δὲ ἀνενεχθεῖσα γῆ πλύνεται. τὰς δὲ τοῦ ἀργύρου καμίνους ποιοῦσιν ὑψηλάς, ὥστε τὴν ἐκ τῶν βώλων λιγνὺν μετέωρον ἐξαίρεσθαι· βαρεῖα γάρ ἐστι καὶ ὀλέθριος. τῶν δὲ χαλκουργείων τινὰ καλεῖται χρυσεῖα, ἐξ ὧν τεκμαίρονται χρυσὸν ἐξ αὐτῶν ὀρύττεσθαι πρότερον.

[9] ποσειδώνιος δὲ τὸ πλῆθος τῶν μετάλλων ἐπαινῶν καὶ τὴν ἀρετὴν οὐκ ἀπέχεται τῆς συνήθους ῥητορείας, ἀλλὰ συνενθουσιᾷ ταῖς ὑπερβολαῖς· οὐ γὰρ ἀπιστεῖν τῷ μύθῳ φησὶν ὅτι τῶν δρυμῶν ποτε ἐμπρησθέντων ἡ γῆ τακεῖσα, ἅτε ἀργυρῖτις καὶ χρυσῖτις, εἰς τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν ἐξέζεσε διὰ τὸ πᾶν ὄρος καὶ πάντα βουνὸν ὕλην εἶναι νομίσματος ὑπό τινος ἀφθόνου τύχης σεσωρευμένην. καθόλου δʼ ἂν εἶπε (φησίν) ἰδών τις τοὺς τόπους θησαυροὺς εἶναι φύσεως ἀενάους ἢ ταμιεῖον ἡγεμονίας ἀνέκλειπτον· οὐ γὰρ πλουσία μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ ὑπόπλουτος ἦν (φησίν) ἡ χώρα, καὶ παρʼ ἐκείνοις ὡς ἀληθῶς τὸν ὑποχθόνιον τόπον οὐχ ὁ Ἅιδης ἀλλʼ ὁ Πλούτων κατοικεῖ. τοιαῦτα μὲν οὖν ἐν ὡραίῳ σχήματι εἴρηκε περὶ τούτων, ὡς ἂν ἐκ μετάλλου καὶ αὐτὸς πολλῷ χρώμενος τῷ λόγῳ. τὴν δʼ ἐπιμέλειαν φράζων τὴν τῶν μεταλλευόντων παρατίθησι τὸ τοῦ Φαληρέως, ὅτι φησὶν ἐκεῖνος ἐπὶ τῶν Ἀττικῶν ἀργυρείων, οὕτω συντόνως ὀρύττειν τοὺς ἀνθρώπους ὡς ἂν προσδοκώντων αὐτὸν ἀνάξειν τὸν Πλούτωνα· καὶ τούτων οὖν ἐμφανίζει παραπλησίαν τὴν σπουδὴν καὶ τὴν φιλεργίαν, σκολιὰς τεμνόντων καὶ βαθείας τὰς σύριγγας καὶ πρὸς τοὺς ἐν αὐταῖς ἀπαντῶντας ποταμοὺς πολλάκις τοῖς Αἰγυπτίοις ἀναντλούντων κοχλίαις. * τὸν δόλον οὐ ταὐτὸν εἶναι τούτοις τε καὶ τοῖς Ἀττικοῖς, ἀλλʼ ἐκείνοις μὲν αἰνίγματι ἐοικέναι τὴν μεταλλείαν· ὅσα μὲν γὰρ ἀνέλαβον (φησίν) οὐκ ἔλαβον, ὅσα δὲ εἶχον, ἀπέβαλον· τούτοις δʼ ὑπεράγαν λυσιτελεῖν, τοῖς μὲν χαλκουργοῖς τέταρτον μέρος ἐξάγουσι τῆς γῆς τὸν χαλκόν, τῶν δὲ ἀργυρευόντων τισὶν ἰδιωτῶν ἐν τρισὶν ἡμέραις Εὐβοϊκὸν τάλαντον ἐξαίρουσι. τὸν δὲ καττίτερον οὐκ ἐπιπολῆς εὑρίσκεσθαί φησιν, ὡς τοὺς ἱστορικοὺς θρυλεῖν, ἀλλʼ ὀρύττεσθαι· γεννᾶσθαι δʼ ἔν τε τοῖς ὑπὲρ τοὺς Λυσιτανοὺς βαρβάροις καὶ ἐν ταῖς Καττιτερίσι νήσοις, καὶ ἐκ τῶν Βρεττανικῶν δὲ εἰς τὴν Μασσαλίαν κομίζεσθαι. ἐν δὲ τοῖς Ἀρτάβροις, οἳ τῆς Λυσιτανίας ὕστατοι πρὸς ἄρκτον καὶ δύσιν εἰσίν, ἐξανθεῖν φησιν τὴν γῆν ἀργύρῳ, καττιτέρῳ, χρυσῷ λευκῷ (ἀργυρομιγὴς γάρ ἐστι), τὴν δὲ γῆν ταύτην φέρειν τοὺς ποταμούς· τὴν δὲ σκαλίσι τὰς γυναῖκας διαμώσας πλύνειν ἐν ἠθητηρίοις πλεκτοῖς εἰς κίστην. οὗτος μὲν περὶ τῶν μετάλλων τοιαῦτʼ εἴρηκε.

[10] πολύβιος δὲ τῶν περὶ Καρχηδόνα νέαν ἀργυρείων μνησθεὶς μέγιστα μὲν εἶναί φησι, διέχειν δὲ τῆς πόλεως ὅσον εἴκοσι σταδίους, περιειληφότα κύκλον τετρακοσίων σταδίων, ὅπου τέτταρας μυριάδας ἀνθρώπων μένειν τῶν ἐργαζομένων, ἀναφέροντας τότε τῷ δήμῳ τῶν Ῥωμαίων καθʼ ἑκάστην ἡμέραν δισμυρίας καὶ πεντακισχιλίας δραχμάς. τὴν δὲ κατεργασίαν τὴν μὲν ἄλλην ἐῶ (μακρὰ γάρ ἐστι), τὴν δὲ συρτὴν βῶλον τὴν ἀργυρῖτίν φησι κόπτεσθαι καὶ κοσκίνοις εἰς ὕδωρ διαττᾶσθαι· κόπτεσθαι δὲ πάλιν τὰς ὑποστάσεις, καὶ πάλιν διηθουμένας ἀποχεομένων τῶν ὑδάτων κόπτεσθαι· τὴν δὲ πέμπτην ὑπόστασιν χωνευθεῖσαν, ἀποχυθέντος τοῦ μολίβδου, καθαρὸν τὸν ἄργυρον ἐξάγειν. ἔστι δὲ καὶ νῦν τὰ ἀργυρεῖα, οὐ μέντοι δημόσια οὔτε ἐνταῦθα οὔτε ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις τόποις, ἀλλʼ εἰς ἰδιωτικὰς μεθέστηκε κτήσεις· τὰ δὲ χρυσεῖα δημοσιεύεται τὰ πλείω. ἐν δὲ καὶ Καστλῶνι καὶ ἄλλοις τόποις ἴδιόν ἐστι μέταλλον ὀρυκτοῦ μολίβδου· παραμέμικται δέ τι καὶ τούτῳ τοῦ ἀργύρου μικρόν, οὐχ ὥστε λυσιτελεῖν ἀποκαθαίρειν αὐτόν.

[11] οὐ πολὺ δʼ ἄπωθεν τοῦ Καστλῶνος ἔστι καὶ τὸ ὄρος ἐξ οὗ ῥεῖν φασι τὸν Βαῖτιν, ὃ καλοῦσιν Ἀργυροῦν διὰ τὰ ἀργυρεῖα τὰ ἐν αὐτῷ. Πολύβιος δὲ καὶ τὸν Ἄναν καὶ τοῦτον ἐκ τῆς Κελτιβηρίας ῥεῖν φησι, διέχοντας ἀλλήλων ὅσον ἐνακοσίους σταδίους· αὐξηθέντες γὰρ οἱ Κελτίβηρες ἐποίησαν καὶ τὴν πλησιόχωρον πᾶσαν ὁμώνυμον ἑαυτοῖς. ἐοίκασι δʼ οἱ παλαιοὶ καλεῖν τὸν Βαῖτιν Ταρτησσόν, τὰ δὲ Γάδειρα καὶ τὰς πρὸς αὐτὴν νήσους Ἐρύθειαν· διόπερ οὕτως εἰπεῖν ὑπολαμβάνουσι Στησίχορον περὶ τοῦ Γηρυόνος βουκόλου διότι γεννηθείη σχεδὸν ἀντιπέρας κλεινᾶς Ἐρυθείας Ταρτησσοῦ ποταμοῦ παρὰ παγὰς ἀπείρονας ἀργυρορίζους, ἐν κευθμῶνι πέτρας. δυεῖν δὲ οὐσῶν ἐκβολῶν τοῦ ποταμοῦ πόλιν ἐν τῷ μεταξὺ χώρῳ κατοικεῖσθαι πρότερον φασίν, ἣν καλεῖσθαι Ταρτησσὸν ὁμώνυμον τῷ ποταμῷ, καὶ τὴν χώραν Ταρτησσίδα, ἣν νῦν Τουρδοῦλοι νέμονται. καὶ Ἐρατοσθένης δὲ τὴν συνεχῆ τῇ Κάλπῃ Ταρτησσίδα καλεῖσθαί φησι καὶ Ἐρύθειαν νῆσον εὐδαίμονα. πρὸς ὃν Ἀρτεμίδωρος ἀντιλέγων καὶ ταῦτα ψευδῶς λέγεσθαί φησιν ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ καθάπερ καὶ τὸ ἀπὸ Γαδείρων ἐπὶ τὸ ἱερὸν ἀκρωτήριον διάστημα ἀπέχειν ἡμερῶν πέντε πλοῦν, οὐ πλειόνων ὄντων ἢ χιλίων καὶ ἑπτακοσίων σταδίων, καὶ τὸ τὰς ἀμπώτεις μέχρι δεῦρο περατοῦσθαι ἀντὶ τοῦ κύκλῳ περὶ πᾶσαν τὴν οἰκουμένην συμβαίνειν, καὶ τὸ τὰ προσαρκτικὰ μέρη τῆς Ἰβηρίας εὐπαροδώτερα εἶναι πρὸς τὴν Κελτικὴν ἢ κατὰ τὸν ὠκεανὸν πλέουσι, καὶ ὅσα δὴ ἄλλα εἴρηκε Πυθέᾳ πιστεύσας³.

[12] ̔ο δὲ ποιητὴς πολύφωνός τις ὢν καὶ πολυίστωρ δίδωσιν ἀφορμὰς ὡς οὐδὲ τούτων ἀνήκοός ἐστι τῶν τόπων, εἴ τις ὀρθῶς συλλογίζεσθαι βούλοιτο ἀπʼ ἀμφοῖν, τῶν τε χεῖρον λεγομένων περὶ αὐτῶν καὶ τῶν ἄμεινον καὶ ἀληθέστερον. χεῖρον μέν, ὅτι πρὸς δύσιν ἐσχάτη ἤκουεν αὕτη, ὅπου, καθάπερ αὐτός φησιν, εἰς τὸν ὠκεανὸν ἐμπίπτει λαμπρὸν φάος ἠελίοιο, ἕλκον νύκτα μέλαιναν ἐπὶ ζείδωρον ἄρουραν. ἡ δὲ νὺξ ὅτι δύσφημον καὶ τῷ Ἅιδῃ πλησιάζον⁴, ὁ δὲ Ἅιδης τῷ Ταρτάρῳ, εἰκάζοι ἄν τις ἀκούοντα περὶ Ταρτησσοῦ τὸν Τάρταρον ἐκεῖθεν παρονομάσαι τὸν ἔσχατον τῶν ὑποχθονίων τόπων, προσθεῖναι δὲ καὶ μῦθον τὸ ποιητικὸν σώζοντα. καθάπερ καὶ τοὺς Κιμμερίους εἰδὼς ἐν βορείοις καὶ ζοφεροῖς οἰκήσαντας τόποις τοῖς κατὰ τὸν Βόσπορον ἵδρυσεν αὐτοὺς πρὸς τῷ Ἅιδῃ, τάχα καὶ κατά τι κοινὸν τῶν Ἰώνων ἔχθος πρὸς τὸ φῦλον τοῦτο· καὶ γὰρ καθʼ Ὅμηρον ἢ μικρὸν πρὸ αὐτοῦ λέγουσι τὴν τῶν Κιμμερίων ἔφοδον γενέσθαι τὴν μέχρι τῆς Αἰολίδος καὶ τῆς Ἰωνίας. ταῖς δὲ Κυανέαις ἐποίησε παραπλησίως τὰς Πλαγκτάς, ἀεὶ τοὺς μύθους ἀπό τινων ἱστοριῶν ἐνάγων. χαλεπὰς γάρ τινας μυθεύει πέτρας, καθάπερ τὰς Κυανέας φασίν, ἐξ οὗ καὶ Συμπληγάδες καλοῦνται· διόπερ καὶ τὸν Ἰάσονος παρέθηκε διʼ αὐτῶν πλοῦν· καὶ ὁ κατὰ τὰς στήλας δὲ πορθμὸς καὶ ὁ κατὰ Σικελίαν ὑπηγόρευον αὐτῷ τὸν περὶ τῶν Πλαγκτῶν μῦθον. πρὸς μὲν δὴ τὸ χεῖρον ἀπὸ τῆς τοῦ Ταρτάρου μυθοποιίας αἰνίττοιτό τις ἂν τὴν τῶν τόπων μνήμην τῶν περὶ Ταρτησσόν.

[13] πρὸς δὲ τὸ βέλτιον ἐκ τούτων· ἥ τε γὰρ Ἡρακλέους στρατεία μέχρι δεῦρο προελθοῦσα καὶ τῶν Φοινίκων ὑπέγραφεν αὐτῷ πλοῦτόν τινα καὶ ῥᾳθυμίαν τῶν ἀνθρώπων· οὗτοι γὰρ Φοίνιξιν οὕτως ἐγένοντο σφόδρα ὑποχείριοι ὥστε τὰς πλείους τῶν ἐν τῇ Τουρδητανίᾳ πόλεων καὶ τῶν πλησίον τόπων ὑπʼ ἐκείνων νῦν οἰκεῖσθαι. καὶ ἡ τοῦ Ὀδυσσέως δὲ στρατεία δοκεῖ μοι δεῦρο γενηθεῖσα καὶ ἱστορηθεῖσα ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ παραδοῦναι πρόφασιν, ὥστε τὴν Ὀδύσσειαν καθάπερ καὶ τὴν Ἰλιάδα ἀπὸ τῶν συμβάντων μεταγαγεῖν εἰς ποίησιν καὶ τὴν συνήθη τοῖς ποιηταῖς μυθοποιίαν. οὐ γὰρ μόνον οἱ κατὰ τὴν Ἰταλίαν καὶ Σικελίαν τόποι καὶ ἄλλοι τινὲς τῶν τοιούτων σημεῖα ὑπογράφουσιν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰβηρίᾳ Ὀδύσσεια πόλις δείκνυται καὶ Ἀθηνᾶς ἱερὸν καὶ ἄλλα μυρία ἴχνη τῆς τε ἐκείνου πλάνης καὶ ἄλλων τῶν ἐκ τοῦ Τρωικοῦ πολέμου περιγενομένων ἐπʼ ἴσης κακώσαντος τούς τε πολεμηθέντας καὶ τοὺς ἑλόντας τὴν Τροίαν· καὶ γὰρ οὗτοι Καδμείαν νίκην ἐτύγχανον ἠρμένοι, τῶν τε οἴκων αὐτοῖς κατεφθαρμένων καὶ τῶν λαφύρων ὀλίγων εἰς ἕκαστον ἐληλυθότων· συνέβη δὴ τοῖς περιλειφθεῖσιν ἀπελθοῦσιν ἐκ τῶν κινδύνων κατὰ λῃστείας τρέπεσθαι⁵, τοῖς μὲν διὰ τὸ ἐκπεπορθῆσθαι τοῖς δὲ διὰ τὴν αἰσχύνην, ἑκάστου προλαβόντος αἰσχρόν τοι δηρόν τε μένειν ἄνευ τῶν οἰκείων κενεόν τε νέεσθαι παρʼ αὐτοὺς πάλιν. ἥ τε τοῦ Αἰνείου παραδέδοται πλάνη καὶ Ἀντήνορος καὶ ἡ τῶν Ἑνετῶν· ὡσαύτως καὶ ἡ Διομήδους τε καὶ Μενελάου⁶ καὶ ἄλλων πλειόνων. ὁ τοίνυν ποιητὴς τὰς τοσαύτας στρατείας ἐπὶ τὰ ἔσχατα τῆς Ἰβηρίας ἱστορηκώς, πυνθανόμενος δὲ καὶ πλοῦτον καὶ τὰς ἄλλας ἀρετὰς (οἱ γὰρ Φοίνικες ἐδήλουν τοῦτο) ἐνταῦθα τὸν τῶν εὐσεβῶν ἔπλασε χῶρον καὶ τὸ Ἠλύσιον πεδίον, οὗ φησιν ὁ Πρωτεὺς ἀποικήσειν τὸν Μενέλαον ἀλλά σʼ ἐς Ἠλύσιον πεδίον καὶ πείρατα γαίης ἀθάνατοι πέμψουσιν, ὅθι ξανθὸς Ῥαδάμανθυς· τῇ περ ῥηίστη βιοτὴ πέλει ἀνθρώποισιν· οὐ νιφετὸς οὔτʼ ἂρ χειμὼν πολὺς οὐδέ ποτʼ ὄμβρος, ἀλλʼ αἰεὶ ζεφύροιο λιγὺ πνείοντας ἀήτας ὠκεανὸς ἀνίησιν ἀναψύχειν ἀνθρώπους. τό τε γὰρ εὐάερον καὶ τὸ εὔπνουν τοῦ ζεφύρου ταύτης ἐστὶ τῆς χώρας οἰκεῖον ἑσπερίου τε καὶ ἀλεεινῆς οὔσης, τό τε ἐπὶ τοῖς πέρασι τῆς γῆς ἐφʼ οἷς καὶ τὸν Ἅιδην μεμυθεῦσθαι ἔφαμεν, ὅ τε Ῥαδάμανθυς παρατεθεὶς ὑπογράφει τὸν πλησίον τῷ Μίνῳ τόπον, περὶ οὗ φησίν ἔνθʼ ἤτοι Μίνωα ἴδον Διὸς ἀγλαὸν υἱόν, χρύσεον σκῆπτρον ἔχοντα, θεμιστεύοντα νέκυσσι. καὶ οἱ μετὰ ταῦτα δὲ ποιηταὶ παραπλήσια θρυλοῦσι, τήν τε ἐπὶ τὰς Γηρυόνου βόας στρατείαν καὶ τὴν ἐπὶ τὰ μῆλα τῶν Ἑσπερίδων τὰ χρύσεα ὡσαύτως⁷, καὶ μακάρων τινὰς νήσους κατονομάζοντες, ἃς καὶ νῦν δεικνυμένας ἴσμεν οὐ πολὺ ἄπωθεν τῶν ἄκρων τῆς Μαυρουσίας τῶν ἀντικειμένων τοῖς Γαδείροις.

[14] τοὺς δὲ Φοίνικας λέγω μηνυτάς· καὶ τῆς Ἰβηρίας καὶ τῆς Λιβύης τὴν ἀρίστην οὗτοι κατέσχον πρὸ τῆς ἡλικίας τῆς Ὁμήρου καὶ διετέλεσαν κύριοι τῶν τόπων ὄντες, μέχρι οὗ Ῥωμαῖοι κατέλυσαν αὐτῶν τὴν ἡγεμονίαν. τοῦ δʼ Ἰβηρικοῦ πλούτου καὶ ταῦτα μαρτύρια· Καρχηδόνιοι μετὰ τοῦ Βάρκα στρατεύσαντες κατέλαβον, ὥς φασιν οἱ συγγραφεῖς, φάτναις ἀργυραῖς καὶ πίθοις χρωμένους τοὺς ἐν τῇ Τουρδητανίᾳ. ὑπολάβοι δʼ ἄν τις ἐκ τῆς πολλῆς εὐδαιμονίας καὶ μακραίωνας ὀνομασθῆναι τοὺς ἐνθάδε ἀνθρώπους, καὶ μάλιστα τοὺς ἡγεμόνας, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο Ἀνακρέοντα μὲν οὕτως εἰπεῖν ἔγωγʼ οὔτʼ ἂν Ἀμαλθίης βουλοίμην κέρας οὔτʼ ἔτεα πεντήκοντά τε καὶ ἑκατὸν Ταρτησσοῦ βασιλεῦσαι, Ἡρόδοτον δὲ καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ βασιλέως καταγράψαι καλέσαντα Ἀργανθώνιον⁸.

[15] τῇ δὲ τῆς χώρας εὐδαιμονίᾳ καὶ τὸ ἥμερον καὶ τὸ πολιτικὸν συνηκολούθησε τοῖς Τουρδητανοῖς, καὶ τοῖς Κελτικοῖς δὲ διὰ τὴν γειτνίασιν, ὡς δʼ εἴρηκε Πολύβιος διὰ τὴν συγγένειαν· ἀλλʼ ἐκείνοις μὲν ἧττον· τὰ πολλὰ γὰρ κωμηδὸν ζῶσιν. οἱ μέντοι Τουρδητανοὶ καὶ μάλιστα οἱ περὶ τὸν Βαῖτιν τελέως εἰς τὸν Ῥωμαίων μεταβέβληνται τρόπον οὐδὲ τῆς διαλέκτου τῆς σφετέρας ἔτι μεμνημένοι. Λατῖνοί τε οἱ πλεῖστοι γεγόνασι καὶ ἐποίκους εἰλήφασι Ῥωμαίους, ὥστε μικρὸν ἀπέχουσι τοῦ πάντες εἶναι Ῥωμαῖοι. αἵ τε νῦν συνῳκισμέναι πόλεις, ἥ τε ἐν τοῖς Κελτικοῖς Παξαυγοῦστα καὶ ἡ ἐν τοῖς Τουρδούλοις Αὐγοῦστα Ἠμέριτα καὶ ἡ περὶ τοὺς Κελτίβηρας Καισαραυγοῦστα καὶ ἄλλαι ἔνιαι κατοικίαι, τὴν μεταβολὴν τῶν λεχθεισῶν πολιτειῶν ἐμφανίζουσι. καὶ δὴ τῶν Ἰβήρων ὅσοι ταύτης εἰσὶ τῆς ἰδέας τογᾶτοι λέγονται· ἐν δὲ τούτοις εἰσὶ καὶ οἱ Κελτίβηρες οἱ πάντων νομισθέντες ποτὲ θηριωδέστατοι. ταῦτα μὲν περὶ τούτων.

Notes on the current edition

Geography

1. Anas.

2. Baetis.

3. Cordova, situated on the Guadalquiver in Andalusia, We do not know whether it were founded by the Marcellus who was praetor in Thither Iberia, and created consul in the year of Rome 601, or Marcellus who joined Pompey’s party against Caesar. This city served for the winter quarters of the Romans, who during summer made war on the inhabitants of the western and northern parts of Spain. It was the native place of the two Senecas and Lucan, and the chief emporium of Iberia. We may form some idea of the amount of its population from the number of those who perished when taken by Caesar, as narrated by Hirtius, Spanish War, § 34. But the period in which Cordova’s glory was at its zenith was during the empire of the Moors, in the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, when it numbered 300,000 inhabitants.

4. Cadiz.

5. Seville. This city was surnamed Julia Romulensis. It was founded by Caesar, and regarded as the second city of the province, although, as we see, in the time of Strabo it was only third-rate.

6. Strabo is the only writer who mentions this city of Baetis. Casaubon and others are inclined to the opinion that the MSS. are corrupted, and that formerly another name stood here.

7. This city, the native place of the emperors Trajan and Adrian, and the poet Silius Italicus, was founded by Publius Scipio in the second Punic war, who placed here the soldiers incapacitated from the performance of military service. It is supposed to correspond to Sevilla la Vieja, about a league distant from Seville.

8. The Ilipa Ilia of Pliny and Illipula Magna of Ptolemy. Its exact position is not determined.

9. Hodie Ecija on the Xenil.

10. Carmona.

11. Monda, seven leagues west of Malaga.

12. Osuna.

13. Hodie Martos, Pliny gave it the surname of Augusta Gemella.

14. The Itucci of Pliny, to which he gives the surname Virtus Julia.

15. We should probably read 430.

16. Kramer, using the criticism of Lachmann, observes that this is a misreading for Midaium, and that a like mistake occurs in Appian.

17. Furnius and Titius.

18. In Lusitania.

19. About the spot where this city is supposed to have stood, between Xerez and Tribugena, there is still a place called Mesa de Asta.

20. Strabo uses ὸλκάσιν ἀξιολόγοις, but the English hulk would not bear the same import in this place as the Greek.

21. Betis.

22. Cotillas, or perhaps Constantina near Almaden.

23. Anas.

24. Experience does not seem to warrant this conclusion.

25. Cape St. Vincent.

26. Of Gibraltar.

27. Cape St. Vincent.

28. The text here is evidently corrupt, but it is not easy to determine to what extent the overflow reached at the time Strabo wrote.

29. Lebrixa.

30. Gibraleon.

31. Spain.

32. οἱ εὕποι.

33. Majorca and Minorca.

34. In his third book, Strabo, speaking of Campania, regards the oil of Venafrum as superior to any other. In this he agrees with Pliny, who places in the second class the oils of Baetica and Istria. Pausanias considers these two oils, both for beauty of colour and excellence of flavour, inferior to that produced at Tithorea in Phocis, and which was sent to Rome for the service of the emperor’s table.

35. Coccus tinctorius, used to dye scarlet.

36. Sinoub, still a Turkish city of importance.

37. A people inhabiting the western parts of the Caucasus.

38. This name occurs only in Strabo: of the various conjectures which have been hazarded on the subject, one of the most probable seems to be that we should read Saltigetae, a people of Bastetania, mentioned by Ptolemy.

39. These were evidently rabbits.

40. Spain.

41. Majorca and Minorca.

42. According to Pliny, (lib. viii. c. 55,) this deputation was sent to Augustus to demand of him a military force, apparently for the purpose of assisting the inhabitants in destroying the rabbits. The same writer has brought together a variety of instances in which cities have been abandoned or destroyed through similar causes. Vide lib. viii. c. 29. The inhabitants of Abdera in Thrace were forced to quit their city on account of the rats and frogs, and settled on the frontiers of Macedonia. (Justin. lib. xv. c. 2.)

43. Ferrets.

44. Pozzuolo.

45. We have here followed Gosselin’s suggestion of λιμνασίαν instead of ηυμνασίαν, the reading of MSS.

46. A kind of whale, mentioned also by Aristotle, but which does not seem to have been identified.

47. The Mediterranean.

48. A kind of shell-fish with a wreathed shell, which might be used as a sort of trumpet. It is mentioned by Aristotle.

49. The cotyla held about three-fourths of a pint.

50. This weight equalled 15 oz. 83 3/4 grs.

51. The Euboic or Attic talent, which is here meant, equalled almost 57 lb.

52. A kind of cuttle-fish or squid.

53. Sardinia.

54. Turdetania.

55. The mineral riches of Spain are lauded in equal terms by Herodotus, Aristotle, Pliny, and many other writers. We can only remark, that at the present day the mineral wealth of that country scarcely justifies such descriptions.

56. The Cevennes.

57. Pliny, (lib. xxxiii. c. 4,) writing on the same subject, says, Inveniuntur ita massae; necnon in puteis etiam denas excedentes libras. Palacras Hispani, alii palacranas, iidem quod minutum est balucem vocant.

58. This passage is evidently corrupt, nor do any of the readings which have been proposed seem to clear up the difficulties which it presents.

59. Archimedes’ Screw. It was called the Egyptian screw because invented by Archimedes when in Egypt, and also because it was much employed by the Egyptians in raising water from the Nile for the irrigation of their lands.

60. We read τὸ δὲ λοιπὸν, according to Kramer’s suggestion.

61. The following is the enigma alluded to. We have extracted it from Mackenzie’s Translation of the Life of Homer, attributed to Herodotus of Halicarnassus. While the sailors and the towns-people of the Isle of Ios (Nio) were speaking with Homer, some fishermen’s children ran their vessel on shore, and descending to the sands, addressed these words to the assembled persons: Hear us, strangers, explain our riddle if ye can. Then some of those who were present ordered them to speak. We leave, say they, what we take, and we carry with us that we cannot take. No one being able to solve the enigma, they thus expounded it. Having had an unproductive fishery, say they in explanation, we sat down on the sand, and being annoyed by the vermin, left the fish we had taken on the shore, taking with us the vermin we could not catch,

62. These people inhabited the province of Gallicia in Spain.

63. Carthagena.

64. Caslona.

65. Baetis.

66. The Sierra Cazorla.

67. Anas.

68. These 900 stadia are equal to from 25 to 26 leagues, which is exactly the distance from the sources of the Guadalquiver near to Cazorla to the lagoons named Ojos de Guadiana, adjacent to Villa-Harta.

69. Cadiz.

70. A Greek poet born at Himera in Sicily, and who flourished about B. C. 570: he lived in the time of Phalaris, and was contemporary with Sappho, Alceus, and Pittacus.

71. The rock of Gibraltar.

72. Cape St. Vincent.

73. Cadiz.

74. This is exactly the distance from Cadiz to Cape St. Vincent, following the coasts. It is from 48 to 49 leagues.

75. Gaul.

76.

The bright light of the sun fell into the ocean, drawing dark night over the fruitful earth.

Iliad viii. 485.

77. Wandering rocks.

78. Entwining or conflicting rocks. Euripides, Medea, verse 2, gives them the title of Symplegades.

79. Gibraltar.

80. The Strait of Messina.

81. Ulisipo or Lisbon.

82. A proverbial expression by which the Greeks described a victory equally prejudicial to the victors and the vanquished.

83.

But still it would be disgraceful to remain here so long, and to return home without fitting booty.

Iliad ii. 298.

84. We should probably here read Menestheus.

85.

But the immortals will send you to the Elysian plain, and the boundaries of the earth, where is auburn-haired Rhadamanthus; there of a truth is the most easy life for men. There is nor snow nor long winter, nor ever a shower, but ever does the ocean send forth the gently blowing breezes of the west wind to refresh men.

Odyssey iv. 563.

86.

There then I beheld Minos, the illustrious son of Jove, having a golden sceptre, giving laws to the dead.

Odyssey xi. 567. Bohn’s edition.

87. The Canary Islands.

88. Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal.

89. We have preferred, in common with the French translation, and the manuscript cited by Xylander, to read φιάλαις, instead of φάτναις, thinking it probable that Strabo referred in the first instance to the drinking vessels, and afterwards to the wine barrels, as being made of silver.

90. Herodotus, who wrote about a century after the time of Anacreon, expressly tells us that Arganthonius reigned during eighty years, and lived one hundred and twenty (l. i. c. 163). Cicero, Valerius Maximus, and Pliny report the same, apparently on the testimony of Herodotus. Lucian, Phlegon, and Appian however state the life of Arganthonius at one hundred and fifty years; and what is remarkable, the two former, Lucian and Phlegon, cite as their authority Anacreon and Herodotus. Pliny, citing Anacreon, has taken the reign of one hundred and fifty years, mentioned by the poet, as a life of that duration. The passage of Strabo is evidently changed from its original form.

91. Of the number are Pomponius Mela and Pliny.

92. Baectis.

93. That is, been admitted to all the privileges of Roman citizenship. Pliny tells us that in Baetica alone there were thirty cities enjoying this distinction.

94. Beja in Alentejo: others, with less show of probability, say Badajoz the capital of Estremadura.

95. Merida.

96. Saragossa.

Strabo Geography 3.2

Hans Claude Hamilton (Translator), William Falconer (Translator)

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