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CHAPTER III.

[1] ERATOSTHENES is guilty of another fault in so frequently referring to the works of men beneath his notice, sometimes for the purpose of refuting them; at others, when he agrees with them, in order to cite them as authorities. I allude to Damastes, and such as him, who even when they speak the truth, are utterly unworthy of being appealed to as authorities, or vouchers for the credibility of a statement. For such purposes the writings of trustworthy men should only be employed, who have accurately described much; and though perhaps they may have omitted many points altogether, and barely touched on others, are yet never guilty of wilfully falsifying their statements. To cite Damastes as an authority is little better than to quote the Bergaean,¹ or Euemerus the Messenian, and those other scribblers whom Eratosthenes himself sneers at for their absurdities. Why, he even points out as one of the follies of this Damastes, his observation that the Arabian Gulf was a lake;² likewise the statement that Diotimus, the son of Strombicus and chief of the Athenian legation, sailed through Cilicia up the Cydnus³ into the river Choaspes,⁴ which flows by Susa,⁵ and so arrived at that capital after forty days’ journey. This particular he professes to state on the authority of Diotimus himself, and then expresses his wonder whether the Cydnus could actually cross the Euphrates and Tigris in order to disgorge itself into the Choaspes.⁶

[2] However, this is not all we have to say against him. Of many places he tells us that nothing is known, when in fact they have every one been accurately described. Then he warns us to be very cautious in believing what we are told on such matters, and endeavours by long and tedious arguments to show the value of his advice; swallowing at the same time the most ridiculous absurdities himself concerning the Euxine and Adriatic. Thus he believed the Bay of Issus⁷ to be the most easterly point of the Mediterranean, though Dioscurias,⁸ which is nearly at the bottom of the Pontus Euxinus, is, according to his own calculations, farther east by a distance of 3000 stadia.⁹ In describing the northern and farther parts of the Adriatic he cannot refrain from similar romancing, and gives credit to many strange narrations concerning what lies beyond the Pillars of Hercules, informing us of an Isle of Kerne there, and other places now nowhere to be found, which we shall speak of presently.

Having remarked that the ancients, whether out on piratical excursions, or for the purposes of commerce, never ventured into the high seas, but crept along the coast, and instancing Jason, who leaving his vessels at Colchis penetrated into Armenia and Media on foot, he proceeds to tell us that formerly no one dared to navigate either the Euxine or the seas by Libya, Syria, and Cilicia. If by formerly he means periods so long past that we possess no record of them, it is of little consequence to us whether they navigated those seas or not, but if [he speaks] of times of which we know any thing, and if we are to place any trust in the accounts which have come down to us, every one will admit that the ancients appear to have made longer journeys both by sea and land than their successors; witness Bacchus, Hercules, nay Jason himself, and again Ulysses and Menelaus, of whom Homer tells us. It seems most probable that Theseus and Pirithous are indebted to some long voyages for the credit they afterwards obtained of having visited the infernal regions; and in like manner the Dioscuri¹⁰ gained the appellation of guardians of the sea, and the deliverers of sailors.¹¹ The sovereignty of the seas exercised by Minos, and the navigation carried on by the Phoenicians, is well known. A little after the period of the Trojan war they had penetrated beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and founded cities as well there as to the midst of the African coast.¹² Is it not correct to number amongst the ancients Aeneas,¹³ Antenor,¹⁴ the Heneti, and all the crowd of warriors, who, after the destruction of Troy, wandered over the face of the whole earth? For at the conclusion of the war both the Greeks and Barbarians found themselves deprived, the one of their livelihood at home, the other of the fruits of their expedition; so that when Troy was overthrown, the victors, and still more the vanquished, who had survived the conflict, were compelled by want to a life of piracy; and we learn that they became the founders of many cities along the sea-coast beyond Greece,¹⁵ besides several inland settlements.¹⁶

[3] Again, having discoursed on the advance of knowledge respecting the Geography of the inhabited earth, between the time of Alexander and the period when he was writing, Eratosthenes goes into a description of the figure of the earth; not merely of the habitable earth, an account of which would have been very suitable, but of the whole earth, which should certainly have been given too, but not in this disorderly manner. He proceeds to tell us that the earth is spheroidal, not however perfectly so, inasmuch as it has certain irregularities, he then enlarges on the successive changes of its form, occasioned by water, fire, earthquakes, eruptions, and the like; all of which is entirely out of place, for the spheroidal form of the whole earth is the result of the system of the universe, and the phenomena which he mentions do not in the least change its general form; such little matters being entirely lost in the great mass of the earth. Still they cause various peculiarities in different parts of our globe, and result from a variety of causes.

[4] He points out as a most interesting subject for disquisition the fact of our finding, often quite inland, two or three thousand stadia from the sea, vast numbers of muscle, oyster, and scallop-shells, and salt-water lakes.¹⁷ He gives as an instance, that about the temple of Ammon,¹⁸ and along the road to it for the space of 3000 stadia, there are yet found a vast amount of oyster shells, many salt-beds, and salt springs bubbling up, besides which are pointed out numerous fragments of wreck which they say have been cast up through some opening, and dolphins placed on pedestals with the inscription, Of the delegates from Cyrene. Herein he agrees with the opinion of Strato the natural philosopher, and 3anthus of Lydia. 3anthus mentioned that in the reign of Artaxerxes there was so great a drought, that every river, lake, and well was dried up: and that in many places he had seen a long way from the sea fossil shells, some like cockles, others resembling scallop shells, also salt lakes in Armenia, Matiana,¹⁹ and Lower Phrygia, which induced him to believe that sea had formerly been where the land now was. Strato, who went more deeply into the causes of these phenomena, was of opinion that formerly there was no exit to the Euxine as now at Byzantium, but that the rivers running into it had forced a way through, and thus let the waters escape into the Propontis, and thence to the Hellespont.²⁰ And that a like change had occurred in the Mediterranean. For the sea being overflowed by the rivers, had opened for itself a passage by the Pillars of Hercules, and thus, much that was formerly covered by water, had been left dry.²¹ He gives as the cause of this, that anciently the levels of the Mediterranean and Atlantic were not the same, and states that a bank of earth, the remains of the ancient separation of the two seas, is still stretched under water from Europe to Africa. He adds, that the Euxine is the most shallow, and the seas of Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia much deeper, which is occasioned by the number of large rivers flowing into the Euxine both from the north and east, and so filling it up with mud, whilst the others preserve their depth. This is the cause of the remarkable sweetness of the Euxine Sea, and of the currents which regularly set towards the deepest part. He gives it as his opinion, that should the rivers continue to flow in the same direction, the Euxine will in time be filled up [by the deposits], since already the left side of the sea is little else than shallows, as also Salmydessus,²² and the shoals at the mouth of the Ister, and the desert of Scythia,²³ which the sailors call the Breasts. Probably too the temple of Ammon was originally close to the sea, though now, by the continual deposit of the waters, it is quite inland: and he conjectures that it was owing to its being so near the sea that it became so celebrated and illustrious, and that it never would have enjoyed the credit it now possesses had it always been equally remote from the sea. Egypt too [he says] was formerly covered by sea as far as the marshes near Pelusium,²⁴ Mount Casius,²⁵ and the Lake Sirbonis.²⁶ Even at the present time, when salt is being dug in Egypt, the beds are found under layers of sand and mingled with fossil shells, as if this district had formerly been under water, and as if the whole region about Casium and Gerrha²⁷ had been shallows reaching to the Arabian Gulf. The sea afterwards receding left the land uncovered, and the Lake Sirbonis remained, which having afterwards forced itself a passage, became a marsh. In like manner the borders of the Lake Moeris resemble a sea-beach rather than the banks of a river. Every one will admit that formerly at various periods a great portion of the mainland has been covered and again left bare by the sea. Likewise that the land now covered by the sea is not all on the same level, any more than that whereon we dwell; which is now uncovered and has experienced so many changes, as Eratosthenes has observed. Consequently in the reasoning of 3anthus there does not appear to be any thing out of place.

[5] In regard to Strato, however, we must remark that, leaving out of the question the many arguments he has properly stated, some of those which he has brought forward are quite inadmissible. For first he is inaccurate in stating that the beds of the interior and the exterior seas have not the same level, and that the depth of those two seas is different: whereas the cause why the sea is at one time raised, at another depressed, that it inundates certain places and again retreats, is not that the beds have different levels, some higher and some lower, but simply this, that the same beds are at one time raised, at another depressed, causing the sea to rise or subside with them; for having risen they cause an inundation, and when they subside the waters return to their former places. For if it is so, an inundation will of course accompany every sudden increase of the waters of the sea, [as in the spring-tides,] or the periodical swelling of rivers, in the one instance the waters being brought together from distant parts of the ocean, in the other, their volume being increased. But the risings of rivers are not violent and sudden, nor do the tides continue any length of time, nor occur irregularly; nor yet along the coasts of our sea do they cause inundations, nor any where else. Consequently we must seek for an explanation of the cause either in the stratum composing the bed of the sea, or in that which is overflowed; we prefer to look for it in the former, since by reason of its humidity it is more liable to shiftings and sudden changes of position, and we shall find that in these matters the wind is the great agent after all. But, I repeat it, the immediate cause of these phenomena, is not in the fact of one part of the bed of the ocean being higher or lower than another, but in the upheaving or depression of the strata on which the waters rest. Strato’s hypothesis evidently originated in the belief that that which occurs in rivers is also the case in regard to the sea; viz. that there is a flow of water from the higher places. Otherwise he would not have attempted to account for the current he observed at the Strait of Byzantium in the manner he does, attributing it to the bed of the Euxine being higher than that of the Propontis and adjoining ocean, and even attempting to explain the cause thereof: viz. that the bed of the Euxine is filled up and choked by the deposit of the rivers which flow into it; and its waters in consequence driven out into the neighbouring sea. The same theory he would apply in respect to the Mediterranean and Atlantic, alleging that the bed of the former is higher than that of the latter, in consequence of the number of rivers which flow into it, and the alluvium they carry along with them. In that case there ought to be a like influx at the Pillars and Calpe,²⁸ as there is at Byzantium. But I waive this objection, as it might be asserted that the influx was the same in both places, but owing to the interference of the ebb and flow of the sea, became imperceptible.

[6] I rather make this inquiry:—If there were any reason why, before the outlet was opened at Byzantium, the bed of the Euxine (being deeper than either that of the Propontis²⁹ or of the adjoining sea³⁰) should not gradually have become more shallow by the deposit of the rivers which flow into it, allowing it formerly either to have been a sea, or merely a vast lake greater than the Palus Maeotis? This proposition being conceded, I would next ask, whether before this the bed of the Euxine would not have been brought to the same level as the Propontis, and in that case, the pressure being counterpoised, the overflowing of the water have been thus avoided; and if after the Euxine had been filled up, the superfluous waters would not naturally have forced a passage and flowed off, and by their commingling and power have caused the Euxine and Propontis to flow into each other, and thus become one sea? no matter, as I said above, whether formerly it were a sea or a lake, though latterly certainly a sea. This also being conceded, they must allow that the present efflux depends neither upon the elevation nor the inclination of the bed, as Strato’s theory would have us consider it.

[7] We would apply the same arguments to the whole of the Mediterranean and Atlantic, and account for the efflux of the former, not by any [supposed] difference between the elevation and inclination of its bed and of that of the Atlantic, but attribute it to the number of rivers which empty themselves into it. Since, according to this supposition, it is not incredible that, had the whole of the Mediterranean Sea in times past been but a lake filled by the rivers, and having overflowed, it might have broken through the Strait at the Pillars, as through a cataract; and still continuing to swell more and more, the Atlantic in course of time would have become confluent by that channel, and have run into one level, the Mediterranean thus becoming a sea. In fine, the Physician did wrong in comparing the sea to rivers, for the latter are borne down as a descending stream, but the sea always maintains its level. The currents of straits depend upon other causes, not upon the accumulation of earth formed by the alluvial deposit from rivers, filling up the bed of the sea. This accumulation only goes on at the mouths of rivers. Such are what are called the Stethe or Breasts at the mouth of the Ister,³¹ the desert of the Scythians, and Salmydessus, which are partially occasioned by other winter-torrents as well; witness the sandy, low, and even coast of Colchis,³² at the mouth of the Phasis,³³ the whole of the coast of Themiscyra,³⁴ named the plain of the Amazons, near the mouths of the Thermodon³⁵ and Iris,³⁶ and the greater part of Sidene.³⁷ It is the same with other rivers, they all resemble the Nile in forming an alluvial deposit at their mouths, some more, some less than others. Those rivers which carry but little soil with them deposit least, while others, which traverse an extended and soft country, and receive many torrents in their course, deposit the greatest quantity. Such for example is the river Pyramus,³⁸ by which Cilicia has been considerably augmented, and concerning which an oracle has declared, This shall occur when the wide waters of the Pyramus have enlarged their banks as far as sacred Cyprus.³⁹ This river becomes navigable from the middle of the plains of Cataonia, and entering Cilicia⁴⁰ by the defiles of the Taurus, discharges itself into the sea which flows between that country and the island of Cyprus.

[8] These river deposits are prevented from advancing further into the sea by the regularity of the ebb and flow, which continually drive them back. For after the manner of living creatures, which go on inhaling and exhaling their breath continually, so the sea in a like way keeps up a constant motion in and out of itself. Any one may observe who stands on the sea-shore when the waves are in motion, the regularity with which they cover, then leave bare, and then again cover up his feet. This agitation of the sea produces a continual movement on its surface, which even when it is most tranquil has considerable force, and so throws all extraneous matters on to the land, and

Flings forth the salt weed on the shore.⁴¹

Iliad ix. 7. This effect is certainly most considerable when the wind is on the water, but it continues when all is hushed, and even when it blows from land the swell is still carried to the shore against the wind, as if by a peculiar motion of the sea itself. To this the verses refer—

O’er the rocks that breast the flood

Borne turgid, scatter far the showery spray,⁴²

Iliad iv. 425. and,

Loud sounds the roar of waves ejected wide.⁴³

Iliad xvii. 265.

[9] The wave, as it advances, possesses a kind of power, which some call the purging of the sea, to eject all foreign substances. It is by this force that dead bodies and wrecks are cast on shore. But on retiring it does not possess sufficient power to carry back into the sea either dead bodies, wood, or even the lightest substances, such as cork, which may have been cast out by the waves. And by this means when places next the sea fall down, being undermined by the wave, the earth and the water charged with it are cast back again; and the weight [of the mud] working at the same time in conjunction with the force of the advancing tide, it is the sooner brought to settle at the bottom, instead of being carried out far into the sea. The force of the river current ceases at a very little distance beyond its mouth. Otherwise, supposing the rivers had an uninterrupted flow, by degrees the whole ocean would be filled in from the beach onwards, by the alluvial deposits. And this would be inevitable even were the Euxine deeper than the sea of Sardinia, than which a deeper sea has never been sounded, measuring, as it does, according to Posidonius, about 1000 fathoms.⁴⁴

[10] Some, however, may be disinclined to admit this explanation, and would rather have proof from things more manifest to the senses, and which seem to meet us at every turn. Now deluges, earthquakes, eruptions of wind, and risings in the bed of the sea, these things cause the rising of the ocean, as sinking of the bottom causes it to become lower. It is not the case that small volcanic or other islands can be raised up from the sea, and not large ones, nor that all islands can, but not continents, since extensive sinkings of the land no less than small ones have been known; witness the yawning of those chasms which have ingulfed whole districts no less than their cities, as is said to have happened to Bura,⁴⁵ Bizone,⁴⁶ and many other towns at the time of earthquakes: and there is no more reason why one should rather think Sicily to have been disjoined from the main-land of Italy than cast up from the bottom of the sea by the fires of Aetna, as the Lipari and Pithecussan⁴⁷ Isles have been.

[11] However, so nice a fellow is Eratosthenes, that though he professes himself a mathematician,⁴⁸ he rejects entirely the dictum of Archimedes, who, in his work On Bodies in Suspension, says that all liquids when left at rest assume a spherical form, having a centre of gravity similar to that of the earth. A dictum which is acknowledged by all who have the slightest pretensions to mathematical sagacity. He says that the Mediterranean, which, according to his own description, is one entire sea, has not the same level even at points quite close to each other; and offers us the authority of engineers for this piece of folly, notwithstanding the affirmation of mathematicians that engineering is itself only one division of the mathematics. He tells us that Demetrius⁴⁹ intended to cut through the Isthmus of Corinth, to open a passage for his fleet, but was prevented by his engineers, who, having taken measurements, reported that the level of the sea at the Gulf of Corinth was higher than at Cenchrea,⁵⁰ so that if he cut through the isthmus, not only the coasts near Aegina, but even Aegina itself, with the neighbouring islands, would be laid completely under water, while the passage would prove of little value. According to Eratosthenes, it is this which occasions the current in straits, especially the current in the Strait of Sicily,⁵¹ where effects similar to the flow and ebb of the tide are remarked. The current there changes twice in the course of a day and night, like as in that period the tides of the sea flow and ebb twice. In the Tyrrhenian sea⁵² the current which is called descendent, and which runs towards the sea of Sicily, as if it followed an inclined plane, corresponds to the flow of the tide in the ocean. We may remark, that this current corresponds to the flow both in the time of its commencement and cessation. For it commences at the rising and setting of the moon, and recedes when that satellite attains its meridian, whether above [in the zenith] or below the earth [in the nadir]. In the same way occurs the opposite or ascending current, as it is called. It corresponds to the ebb of the ocean, and commences as soon as the moon has reached either zenith or nadir, and ceases the moment she reaches the point of her rising or setting. [So far Eratosthenes.]

[12] The nature of the ebb and flow has been sufficiently treated of by Posidonius and Athenodorus. Concerning the flux and reflux of the currents, which also may be explained by physics, it will suffice our present purpose to observe, that in the various straits these do not resemble each other, but each strait has its own peculiar current. Were they to resemble each other,. the current at the Strait of Sicily⁵³ would not change merely twice during the day, (as Eratosthenes himself tells us it does,) and at Chalcis seven times;⁵⁴ nor again that of Constantinople, which does not change at all, but runs always in one direction from the Euxine to the Propontis, and, as Hipparchus tells us, sometimes ceases altogether. However, if they did all depend on one cause, it would not be that which Eratosthenes has assigned, namely, that the various seas have different levels. The kind of inequality he supposes would not even be found in rivers only for the cataracts; and where these cataracts occur, they occasion no ebbing, but have one continued downward flow, which is caused by the inclination both of the flow and the surface; and therefore though they have no flux or reflux they do not remain still, on account of a principle of flowing which is inherent in them; at the same time they cannot be on the same level, but one must be higher and one lower than another. But who ever imagined the surface of the ocean to be on a slope, especially those who follow a system which supposes the four bodies we call elementary, to be spherical.⁵⁵ For water is not like the earth, which being of a solid nature is capable of permanent depressions and risings, but by its force of gravity spreads equally over the earth, and assumes that kind of level which Archimedes has assigned it.

[13] To what we cited before concerning the temple of Ammon and Egypt, Eratosthenes adds, that to judge from appearances, Mount Casius⁵⁶ was formerly covered by sea, and the whole district now known as Gerra lay under shoal water touching the bay of the Erythraean Sea,⁵⁷ but was left dry on the union⁵⁸ of the [Mediterranean] Sea [with the ocean]. A certain amphibology lurks here under this description of the district lying under shoal water and touching the bay of the Erythraean Sea; for to touch⁵⁹ both means to be close to, and also to be in actual contact with, so that when applied to water it would signify that one flows into the other. I understand him to mean, that so long as the strait by the Pillars of Hercules remained closed, these marshes covered with shoal-water extended as far as the Arabian Gulf, but on that passage being forced open, the Mediterranean, discharging itself by the strait, became lower, and the land was left dry.

On the other hand, Hipparchus understands by the term touching, that the Mediterranean, being over-full, flowed into the Erythraean Sea, and he inquires how it could happen, that as the Mediterranean flowed out by this new vent at the Pillars of Hercules, the Erythraean Sea, which was all one with it, did not flow away too, and thus become lower, but has always retained the same level? and since Eratosthenes supposes the whole exterior sea to be confluent, it follows that the Western Ocean⁶⁰ and the Erythraean Sea are all one; and thus [remarks Hipparchus] as a necessary consequence, the sea beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the Erythraean Sea, and that also which is confluent with it,⁶¹ have all the same level.

[14] But, Eratosthenes would reply, I never said that, in consequence of the repletion of the Mediterranean, it actually flowed into the Erythraean Sea, but only that it approached very near thereto: besides, it does not follow, that in one and the self-same sea, the level of its surface must be all the same; to instance the Mediterranean itself, no one, surely, will say it is of the same height at Lechaeum⁶² and at Cenchrea.⁶³ This answer Hipparchus anticipated in his Critique; and being aware of the opinion of Eratosthenes, was justified in attacking his arguments. But he ought not to have taken it for granted, that when Eratosthenes said the exterior sea was all one, he necessarily implied that its level was every where the same.

[15] Hipparchus rejects as false the [account] of the inscription on the dolphins by the delegates from Cyrene, but the reason he assigns for this is insufficient, viz. that though Cyrene was built in times of which we have record, no one mentions the oracle,⁶⁴ as being situated on the sea-shore. But what matters it that no historian has recorded this, when amongst the other proofs from which we infer that this place was formerly on the sea-shore, we number this of the dolphins which were set up, and the inscription, by the delegates from Cyrene?⁶⁵ Hipparchus agrees that if the bottom of the sea were raised up, it would lift the water with it, and might therefore overflow the land as far as the locality of the oracle, or more than 3000 stadia from the shore; but he will not allow that the rising would be sufficient to overflow the Island of Pharos and the major portion of Egypt, since [he says] the elevation would not be sufficient to submerge these. He alleges that if before the opening of the passage at the Pillars of Hercules, the Mediterranean had been swollen to such an extent as Eratosthenes affirms, the whole of Libya, and the greater part of Europe and Asia, must long ago have been buried beneath its waves. Besides, he adds, in this case the Euxine would in certain places have been connected with the Adriatic, since in the vicinity of the Euxine, [near to its source,)⁶⁶ the Ister is divided in its course, and flows into either sea, owing to the peculiarities of the ground.⁶⁷ To this we object, that the Ister does not take its rise at all in the vicinity of the Euxine, but, on the contrary, beyond the mountains of the Adriatic; neither does it flow into both the seas, but into the Euxine alone, and only becomes divided just above its mouths. This latter, however, was an error into which he fell in common with many of his predecessors. They supposed that there was another river in addition to the former Ister, bearing the same name, which emptied itself into the Adriatic, and from which the country of Istria, through which it flowed, gained that appellation. It was by this river they believed Jason returned on his voyage from Colchis.

[16] In order to lessen surprise at such changes as we have mentioned as causes of the inundations and other similar phenomena which are supposed to have produced Sicily, the islands of Aeolus,⁶⁸ and the Pitllecussae, it may be as well to compare with these others of a similar nature, which either now are, or else have been observed in other localities. A large array of such facts placed at once before the eye would serve to allay our astonishment; while that which is uncommon startles our perception, and manifests our general ignorance of the occurrences which take place in nature and physical existence. For instance, supposing any one should narrate the circumstances concerning Thera and the Therasian Islands, situated in the strait between Crete and the Cyrenaic,⁶⁹ Thera being itself the metropolis of Cyrene; or those [in connexion with] Egypt, and many parts of Greece. For midway between Thera and Therasia flames rushed forth from the sea for the space of four days; causing the whole of it to boil and be all on fire; and after a little an island twelve stadia in circumference, composed of the burning mass, was thrown up, as if raised by machinery. After the cessation of this phenomenon, the Rhodians, then masters of the sea, were the first who dared to sail to the place, and they built there on the island a temple to the Asphalian⁷⁰ Neptune. Posidonius remarks, that during an earthquake which occurred in Phoenicia, a city situated above Sidon was swallowed up, and that nearly two-thirds of Sidon also fell, but not suddenly, and therefore with no great loss of life. That the same occurred, though in a lighter form, throughout nearly the whole of Syria, and was felt even in some of the Cyclades and the Island of Euboea,⁷¹ so that the fountains of Arethusa, a spring in Chalcis, were completely obstructed, and after some time forced for themselves another opening, and the whole island ceased not to experience shocks until a chasm was rent open in the earth in the plain of Lelanto,⁷² from which poured a river of burning mud.

[17] Many writers have recorded similar occurrences, but it will suffice us to narrate those which have been collected by Demetrius of Skepsis.

Apropos of that passage of Homer:—

And now they reach’d the running rivulets clear,

Where from Scamander’s dizzy flood arise

Two fountains, tepid one, from which a smoke

Issues voluminous as from a fire,

The other, even in summer heats, like hail

For cold, or snow, or crystal stream frost-bound:⁷³

Iliad xxii. 147. this writer tells us we must not be surprised, that although the cold spring still remains, the hot cannot be discovered; and says we must reckon the failing of the hot spring as the cause. He goes on to relate certain catastrophes recorded by Democles, how formerly in the reign of Tantalus⁷⁴ there were great earthquakes in Lydia and Ionia as far as the Troad,⁷⁵ which swallowed up whole villages and overturned Mount Sipylus;⁷⁶ marshes then became lakes, and the city of Troy was covered by the waters.⁷⁷ Pharos, near Egypt, which anciently was an island, may now be called a peninsula, and the same may be said of Tyre and Clazomenae.⁷⁸

During my stay at Alexandria in Egypt the sea rose so high near Pelusium⁷⁹ and Mount Casius⁸⁰ as to overflow the land, and convert the mountain into an island, so that a journey from Casius into Phoenicia might have been undertaken by water. We should not be surprised therefore if in time to come the isthmus⁸¹ which separates the Egyptian sea⁸² from the Erythraean,⁸³ should part asunder or subside, and becoming a strait, connect the outer and inner seas,⁸⁴ similarly to what has taken place at the strait of the Pillars.

At the commencement of this work will be found some other narrations of a similar kind, which should be considered at the same time, and which will greatly tend to strengthen our belief both in these works of nature and also in its other changes.

[18] The Piraeus having been formerly an island, and lying πέοͅαν, or off the shore, is said to have thus received its name. Leucas,⁸⁵ on the contrary, has been made an island by the Corinthians, who cut through the isthmus which connected it with the shore [of the mainland]. It is concerning this place that Laertes is made to say,

Oh that I possessed

Such vigour now as when in arms I took

Nericus, continental city fair.⁸⁶

Odyss. xxiv. 376. Here man devoted his labour to make a separation, in other instances to the construction of moles and bridges. Such is that which connects the island opposite to Syracuse⁸⁷ with the mainland. This junction is now effected by means of a bridge, but formerly, according to Ibycus, by a pier of picked stones, which he calls elect. Of Bura⁸⁸ and Helice,⁸⁹ one has been swallowed by an earthquake, the other covered by the waves. Near to Methone,⁹⁰ which is on the Hermionic Gulf,⁹¹ a mountain seven stadia in height was cast up during a fiery eruption; during the day it could not be approached on account of the heat and sulphureous smell; at night it emitted an agreeable odour, appeared brilliant at a distance, and was so hot that the sea boiled all around it to a distance of five stadia, and appeared in a state of agitation for twenty stadia, the heap being formed of fragments of rock as large as towers. Both Arne and Mideia⁹² have been buried in the waters of Lake Copaïs.⁹³ These towns the poet in his Catalogue⁹⁴ thus speaks of;

Arne claims

A record next for her illustrious sons,

Vine-bearing Arne. Thou wast also there

Mideia.⁹⁵

Iliad ii. 507. It seems that several Thracian cities have been submerged by the Lake Bistonis,⁹⁶ and that now called Aphnitis.⁹⁷ Some also affirm that certain cities of Trerus were also overwhelmed, in the neighbourhood of Thrace. Artemita, formerly one of the Echinades,⁹⁸ is now part of the mainland; the same has happened to some other of the islets near the Achelous, occasioned, it is said, in the same way, by the alluvium carried into the sea by that river, and Hesiod⁹⁹ assures us that a like fate awaits them all. Some of the Aetolian promontories were formerly islands. Asteria,¹⁰⁰ called by Homer Asteris, is no longer what it was.

There is a rocky isle

In the mid-sea, Samos the rude between

And Ithaca, not large, named Asteris.

It hath commodious havens, into which

A passage clear opens on either side.¹⁰¹

Odyssey iv. 844. There is no good anchorage there now. Neither is there in Ithaca the cavern, nor yet the temple of the nymphs described to us by Homer. It seems more correct to attribute this to change having come over the places, than either to the ignorance or the romancing of the poet. This however, being uncertain, must be left to every man’s opinion.

[19] Myrsilus tells us that Antissa¹⁰² was formerly an island, and so called because it was opposite to Lesbos,¹⁰³ then named Issa. Now, however, it forms one of the towns of Lesbos.¹⁰⁴ Some have believed that Lesbos itself has been disjoined from Mount Ida in the same way as Prochytas¹⁰⁵ and Pithecussa¹⁰⁶ from Misenum,¹⁰⁷ Capreae¹⁰⁸ from the Athenaeum, Sicily from Rhegium,¹⁰⁹ and Ossa from Olympus.¹¹⁰ Many changes similar to these have occurred elsewhere. The river Ladon in Arcadia ceased for some time its flow. Duris informs us that the Rhagae¹¹¹ in Media gained that appellation from chasms made in the ground near the Gates of the Caspian¹¹² by earthquakes, in which many cities and villages were destroyed, and the rivers underwent various changes. Ion, in his satirical composition of Omphale, has said of Euboea,

The light wave of the Euripus has divided the land of Euboea from Boeotia; separating the projecting land by a strait.

[20] Demetrius of Callatis, speaking of the earthquakes which formerly occurred throughout the whole of Greece, states that a great portion of the Lichadian Islands and of Kenaeum¹¹³ were submerged; that the hot springs of Aedepsus¹¹⁴ and Thermopylae were suppressed for three days, and that when they commenced to run again those of Aedepsus gushed from new fountains. That at Oreus¹¹⁵ on the sea-coast the wall and nearly seven hundred houses fell at once. That the greater part of Echinus,¹¹⁶ Phalara,¹¹⁷ and Heraclaea of Trachis¹¹⁸ were thrown down, Phalara being overturned from its very foundations. That almost the same misfortune occurred to the Lamians¹¹⁹ and inhabitants of Larissa; that Scarpheia¹²⁰ was overthrown from its foundations, not less than one thousand seven hundred persons being swallowed up, and at Thronium¹²¹ more than half that number. That a torrent of water gushed forth taking three directions, one to Scarphe and Thronium, another to Thermopylae, and a third to the plains of Daphnus in Phocis. That the springs of [many] rivers were for several days dried up; that the course of the Sperchius¹²² was changed, thus rendering navigable what formerly were highways; that the Boagrius¹²³ flowed through another channel; that many parts of Alope, Cynus, and Opus were injured,¹²⁴ and the castle of Oeum, which commands the latter city, entirely overturned. That part of the wall of Elateia¹²⁵ was thrown down; and that at Alponus,¹²⁶ during the celebration of the games in honour of Ceres, twenty-five maidens, who had mounted a tower to enjoy the show exhibited in the port, were precipitated into the sea by the falling of the tower. They also record that a large fissure was made [by the water] through the midst of the island of Atalanta,¹²⁷ opposite Euboea,¹²⁸ sufficient for ships to sail in; that the course of the channel was in places as broad as twenty stadia between the plains; and that a trireme being raised [thereby] out of the docks, was carried over the walls.

[21] Those who desire to instil into us that more perfect freedom from [ignorant] wonder, which Democritus and all other philosophers so highly extol, should add the changes which have been produced by the migrations of various tribes: we should thus be inspired with courage, steadiness, and composure. For instance, the Western Iberians,¹²⁹ removed to the regions beyond the Euxine and Colchis, being separated from Armenia, according to Apollodorus, by the Araxes,¹³⁰ but rather by the Cyrus¹³¹ and Moschican mountains.¹³² The expedition of the Egyptians into Ethiopia¹³³ and Colchis. The migration of the Heneti,¹³⁴ who passed from Paphlagonia into the country bordering on the Adriatic Gulf. Similar emigrations were also undertaken by the nations of Greece, the Ionians, Dorians, Achaians, and Aeolians; and the Aenians,¹³⁵ now next neighbours to the Aetolians, formerly dwelt near Dotium ¹³⁶ and Ossa, beyond the Perrhaebi;¹³⁷ the Perrhaebi too are but wanderers here themselves. Our present work furnishes numerous instances of the same kind. Some of these are familiar to most readers, but the migrations of the Carians, the Treres, the Teucrians, and the Galatae or Gauls,¹³⁸ are not so generally known. Nor yet for the most part are the expeditions of their chiefs, for instance, Madys the Scythian, Tearko the Ethiopian, Cobus of Trerus, Sesostris and Psammeticus the Egyptians; nor are those of the Persians from Cyrus to 3erxes familiar to every one. The Kimmerians, or a separate tribe of them, called the Treres, have frequently overrun the countries to the right of the Euxine and those adjacent to them, bursting now into Paphlagonia, now into Phrygia, as they did when, according to report, Midas¹³⁹ came to his death by drinking bull’s blood. Lygdamis led his followers into Lydia, passed through Ionia, took Sardis, but was slain in Cilicia. The Kimmerians and Treres frequently made similar incursions, until at last, as it is reported, these latter, together with [their chief] Cobus, were driven out by Madys, king of the Scythians.¹⁴⁰ But enough has been said in this place on the general history of the earth, as each country will have a particular account.

[22] We must now return to the point whence we digressed. Herodotus having observed that there could be no such people as Hyperborean, inasmuch as there were no Hypernotii,¹⁴¹ Eratosthenes calls this argument ridiculous, and compares it to the sophism, that there are no epichaerekaki,¹⁴² inasmuch as there are no epichaeragathi;¹⁴³ [adding] perhaps there are Hypernotii; since at all events in Ethiopia Notus does not blow, although lower down it does.

It would indeed be strange, since winds blow under every latitude, and especially the southern wind called Notus, if any region could be found where this latter was not felt. On the contrary, not only does Ethiopia experience our Notus, but also the whole country which lies above as far as the equator.¹⁴⁴

If Herodotus must be blamed at all, it is for supposing that the Hyperboreans were so named in consequence of Boreas, or the north wind, not blowing upon them. The poets are allowed much licence in their modes of expression; but their commentators, who endeavour always to give us the correct view, tell us that the people who dwelt in the extreme north, were styled Hyperboreans. The pole is the boundary of the northern winds, and the equator of the southern; these winds have no other limit.

[23] Eratosthenes next finds fault with the writers who fill their narrative with stories evidently feigned and impossible; some as mere fable, but others as history, which did not deserve mention. In the discussion of a subject like his, he should not have wasted his time about such trifles. Such is the way in which this writer completes the First Book of his Memoirs.

Geography. Strabo. Hans Claude Hamilton (Translator), William Falconer (Translator). London. 1854-1857.

Sponsored by Perseus Project, Tufts University.

Funding provided by Tufts University.

Current edition Perseus

Geography (English) (Strabo. The Geography of Strabo, Vols. 1-3. Hamilton, Hans Claude, translator; Falconer, William, translator. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1854-1857.)

Editions (1)

Γεωγραφικά Perseus (Strabo. Strabonis Geographica, Vols. 1-3. Meineke, August, editor. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877.) — 1.3 focus

[1] οὐδὲ τοῦτʼ εὖ Ἐρατοσθένης, ὅτι ἀνδρῶν οὐκ ἐξίων μνήμης ἐπὶ πλέον μέμνηται, τὰ μὲν ἐλέγχων τὰ δὲ πιστεύων καὶ μάρτυσι χρώμενος αὐτοῖς, οἷον Δαμάστῃ καὶ τοιούτοις ἄλλοις. καὶ γὰρ εἴ τι λέγουσιν ἀληθές, οὐ μάρτυσί γε ἐκείνοις χρηστέον περὶ αὐτοῦ, οὐδὲ πιστευτέον διὰ τοῦτο· ἀλλʼ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀξιολόγων ἀνδρῶν μόνων τῷ τοιούτῳ τρόπῳ χρηστέον, οἳ πολλὰ μὲν εἰρήκασιν εὖ, πολλὰ δὲ καὶ παραλελοίπασιν ἢ οὐχ ἱκανῶς ἐξεῖπον, οὐδὲν δʼ ἐψευσμένως. ὁ δὲ Δαμάστῃ χρώμενος μάρτυρι οὐδὲν διαφέρει τοῦ καλοῦντος μάρτυρα τὸν Βεργαῖον¹ Εὐήμερον καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους, οὓς αὐτὸς εἴρηκε διαβάλλων τὴν φλυαρίαν. καὶ τούτου δʼ ἕνα τῶν λήρων αὐτὸς λέγει, τὸν μὲν Ἀράβιον κόλπον λίμνην ὑπολαμβάνοντος εἶναι, Διότιμον δὲ τὸν Στρομβίχου πρεσβείας Ἀθηναίων ἀφηγούμενον διὰ τοῦ Κύδνου ἀναπλεῦσαι ἐκ τῆς Κιλικίας ἐπὶ τὸν Χοάσπην ποταμόν, ὃς παρὰ τὰ Σοῦσα ῥεῖ, καὶ ἀφικέσθαι τετταρακοσταῖον εἰς Σοῦσα· ταῦτα δʼ αὐτῷ διηγήσασθαι αὐτὸν τὸν Διότιμον. εἶτα θαυμάζειν εἰ τὸν Εὐφράτην καὶ τὸν Τίγριν ἦν δυνατὸν διακόψαντα τὸν Κύδνον εἰς τὸν Χοάσπην ἐκβαλεῖν.

[2] οὐ μόνον δὲ ταῦτʼ ἄν τις ἐπισημήναιτο, ἀλλʼ ὅτι καὶ περὶ τῶν τόπων οὐδὲ καθʼ ἑαυτόν πω γνώριμα εἶναί φησι τὰ καθʼ ἕκαστα ἀκριβολογούμενα, καὶ κελεύσας ἡμῖν μὴ ῥᾳδίως τοῖς τυχοῦσι πιστεύειν, καὶ τὰς αἰτίας διὰ μακρῶν ἀποδοὺς διʼ ἃς οὐδὲ πιστευτέον, οἷον περὶ τῶν κατὰ τὸν Πόντον καὶ τὸν Ἀδρίαν, αὐτὸς ἐπίστευσε τοῖς τυχοῦσι. τοιγάρτοι τὸν μὲν Ἰσσικὸν κόλπον ἐπίστευσεν ἑωθινώτατον τῆς καθʼ ἡμᾶς θαλάττης σημεῖον, τοῦ κατὰ Διοσκουριάδα τὴν ἐν τῷ τοῦ Πόντου μυχῷ σχεδόν τι καὶ τρισχιλίοις σταδίοις ἑωθινωτέρου ὄντος καὶ κατʼ αὐτὸν ἐκ τοῦ σταδιασμοῦ οὗ φησί· τοῦ τε Ἀδρίου καὶ τὰ ἀρκτικὰ καὶ τὰ ἔσχατα διεξιὼν οὐδενὸς ἀπέχεται μυθώδους. πεπίστευκε δὲ καὶ περὶ τῶν ἔξω στηλῶν Ἡρακλείων πολλοῖς μυθώδεσι, Κέρνην τε νῆσον καὶ ἄλλους τόπους ὀνομάζων τοὺς μηδαμοῦ νυνὶ δεικνυμένους, περὶ ὧν μνησθησόμεθα καὶ ὕστερον. εἰπών τε τοὺς ἀρχαιοτάτους πλεῖν καὶ κατὰ λῃστείαν ἢ ἐμπορίαν, μὴ πελαγίζειν δέ, ἀλλὰ παρὰ γῆν, καθάπερ τὸν Ἰάσονα, ὅνπερ καὶ μέχρι τῆς Ἀρμενίας καὶ Μηδίας ἐκ τῶν Κόλχων στρατεῦσαι ἀφέντα τὰς ναῦς, ὕστερόν φησι τὸ παλαιὸν οὔτε τὸν Εὔξεινον θαρρεῖν τινα πλεῖν οὔτε παρὰ Λιβύην καὶ Συρίαν καὶ Κιλικίαν. εἰ μὲν οὖν τοὺς πάλαι τοὺς πρὸ τῆς ἡμετέρας λέγει μνήμης, οὐδὲν ἐμοὶ μέλει περὶ ἐκείνων λέγειν, οὔτʼ εἰ ἔπλεον οὔτʼ εἰ μή· εἰ δὲ περὶ τῶν μνημονευομένων, οὐκ ἂν ὀκνήσαι τις εἰπεῖν ὡς οἱ παλαιοὶ μακροτέρας ὁδοὺς φανοῦνται καὶ κατὰ γῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν τελέσαντες τῶν ὕστερον, εἰ χρὴ προσέχειν τοῖς λεγομένοις· οἷον Διόνυσος καὶ Ἡρακλῆς καὶ αὐτὸς ὁ Ἰάσων, ἔτι δʼ οἱ ὑπὸ τοῦ ποιητοῦ λεγόμενοι Ὀδυσσεὺς καὶ Μενέλαος. καὶ Θησέα δὲ καὶ Πειρίθουν μακρὰς εἰκός ἐστι στρατείας ὑπομείναντας καταλιπεῖν δόξαν περὶ ἑαυτῶν ὡς εἰς Ἅιδου καταβάντας, τοὺς δὲ Διοσκούρους ἐπιμελητὰς τῆς θαλάττης λεχθῆναι καὶ σωτῆρας τῶν πλεόντων. ἥ τε Μίνω θαλαττοκρατία θρυλεῖται καὶ ἡ Φοινίκων ναυτιλία, οἳ καὶ τὰ ἔξω τῶν Ἡρακλείων στηλῶν ἐπῆλθον καὶ πόλεις ἔκτισαν κἀκεῖ καὶ περὶ τὰ μέσα τῆς Λιβύης παραλίας μικρὸν τῶν Τρωικῶν ὕστερον. Αἰνείαν δὲ καὶ Ἀντήνορα καὶ Ἐνετοὺς καὶ ἁπλῶς τοὺς ἐκ τοῦ Τρωικοῦ πολέμου πλανηθέντας εἰς πᾶσαν τὴν οἰκουμένην ἄξιον μὴ τῶν παλαιῶν ἀνθρώπων νομίσαι; συνέβη γὰρ δὴ τοῖς τότε Ἕλλησιν ὁμοίως καὶ τοῖς βαρβάροις διὰ τὸν τῆς στρατείας χρόνον ἀποβαλεῖν τά τε ἐν οἴκῳ καὶ τῇ στρατείᾳ πορισθέντα· ὥστε μετὰ τὴν τοῦ Ἰλίου καταστροφὴν τούς τε νικήσαντας ἐπὶ λῃστείαν τραπέσθαι διὰ τὰς ἀπορίας καὶ πολὺ μᾶλλον τοὺς ἡττηθέντας καὶ περιγενομένους ἐκ τοῦ πολέμου. καὶ δὴ καὶ πόλεις ὑπὸ τούτων πλεῖσται κτισθῆναι λέγονται κατὰ πᾶσαν τὴν ἔξω τῆς Ἑλλάδος παραλίαν, ἔστι δʼ ὅπου καὶ τὴν μεσόγαιαν.

[3] εἰπὼν δὲ καὶ αὐτὸς ὁπόσον προὔβη τὰ τῆς οἰκουμένης εἰς γνῶσιν τοῖς μετʼ Ἀλέξανδρον καὶ κατʼ αὐτὸν ἤδη, μεταβέβηκεν ἐπὶ τὸν περὶ τοῦ σχήματος λόγον, οὐχὶ περὶ τοῦ τῆς οἰκουμένης, ὅπερ ἦν οἰκειότερον τῷ περὶ αὐτῆς λόγῳ, ἀλλὰ τοῦ τῆς συμπάσης γῆς· δεῖ μὲν γὰρ καὶ τούτου μνησθῆναι, μὴ ἀτάκτως δέ. εἰπὼν οὖν ὅτι σφαιροειδὴς ἡ σύμπασα, οὐχ ὡς ἐκ τόρνου δέ, ἀλλʼ ἔχει τινὰς ἀνωμαλίας, ἐπιφέρει τὸ πλῆθος τῶν ἐν μέρει μετασχηματισμῶν αὐτῆς, οἳ συμβαίνουσιν ἔκ τε ὕδατος καὶ πυρὸς καὶ σεισμῶν καὶ ἀναφυσημάτων καὶ ἄλλων τοιούτων, οὐδʼ ἐνταῦθα τὴν τάξιν φυλάττων. τὸ μὲν γὰρ σφαιροειδὲς περὶ ὅλην τὴν γῆν ἀπὸ τῆς τοῦ ὅλου ἕξεως συμβαίνει, οἱ δὲ τοιοῦτοι μετασχηματισμοὶ τὴν μὲν ὅλην γῆν οὐδὲν ἐξαλλάττουσιν· ἐν γὰρ τοῖς μεγάλοις ἐναφανίζεται τὰ οὕτω μικρά· τῆς δὲ οἰκουμένης διαθέσεις ἑτέρας καὶ ἑτέρας τινὰς ἀπεργάζονται καὶ τὰς προσεχεῖς αἰτίας ἄλλας καὶ ἄλλας ἔχουσι.

[4] μάλιστα δέ φησι ζήτησιν παρασχεῖν πῶς ἐν δισχιλίοις καὶ τρισχιλίοις ἀπὸ θαλάττης σταδίοις κατὰ τὴν μεσόγαιαν ὁρᾶται πολλαχοῦ κόγχων καὶ ὀστρέων καὶ χηραμύδων πλῆθος καὶ λιμνοθάλατται, καθάπερ φησὶ περὶ τὸ ἱερὸν τοῦ Ἄμμωνος καὶ τὴν ἐπʼ αὐτῷ ὁδὸν τρισχιλίων σταδίων οὖσαν· πολλὴν γὰρ εἶναι χύσιν ὀστρέων, ἅλας τε καὶ νῦν ἔτι εὑρίσκεσθαι πολλούς, ἀναφυσήματά τε θαλάττης εἰς ὕψος ἀναβάλλειν· πρὸς ᾧ καὶ ναυάγια θαλαττίων πλοίων δείκνυσθαι, ἃ ἔφασαν διὰ τοῦ χάσματος ἐκβεβράσθαι, καὶ ἐπὶ στυλιδίων ἀνακεῖσθαι δελφῖνας ἐπιγραφὴν ἔχοντας Κυρηναίων θεωρῶν. ταῦτα δʼ εἰπὼν τὴν Στράτωνος ἐπαινεῖ δόξαν τοῦ φυσικοῦ, καὶ ἔτι Ξάνθου τοῦ Λυδοῦ· τοῦ μὲν Ξάνθου λέγοντος ἐπὶ Ἀρταξέρξου γενέσθαι μέγαν αὐχμὸν ὥστʼ ἐκλιπεῖν ποταμοὺς καὶ λίμνας καὶ φρέατα· αὐτόν τε εἰδέναι πολλαχῆ πρόσω ἀπὸ τῆς θαλάττης λίθον τε κογχυλιώδη καὶ τὰ κτενώδεα καὶ χηραμύδων τυπώματα καὶ λιμνοθάλατταν ἐν Ἀρμενίοις καὶ Ματιηνοῖς καὶ ἐν Φρυγίᾳ τῇ κάτω, ὧν ἕνεκα πείθεσθαι τὰ πεδία ποτὲ θάλατταν γενέσθαι. τοῦ δὲ Στράτωνος ἔτι μᾶλλον ἁπτομένου τῆς αἰτιολογίας, ὅτι φησὶν οἴεσθαι τὸν Εὔξεινον μὴ ἔχειν πρότερον τὸ κατὰ Βυζάντιον στόμα, τοὺς δὲ ποταμοὺς βιάσασθαι καὶ ἀνοῖξαι τοὺς εἰς αὐτὸν ἐμβάλλοντας, εἶτʼ ἐκπεσεῖν τὸ ὕδωρ εἰς τὴν Προποντίδα καὶ τὸν Ἑλλήσποντον. τὸ δʼ αὐτὸ συμβῆναι καὶ περὶ τὴν καθʼ ἡμᾶς θάλατταν· καὶ γὰρ ἐνταῦθα τὸν κατὰ στήλας ἐκραγῆναι πόρον, πληρωθείσης ὑπὸ τῶν ποταμῶν τῆς θαλάττης, κατὰ δὲ τὴν ἔκρυσιν ἀνακαλυφθῆναι τὰ τεναγώδη πρότερον. φέρει δʼ αἰτίαν πρῶτον μὲν ὅτι τῆς ἔξω θαλάττης καὶ τῆς ἐντὸς τοὔδαφος ἕτερόν ἐστιν, ἔπειθʼ ὅτι καὶ νῦν ἔτι ταινία τις ὕφαλος διατέτακεν ἀπὸ τῆς Εὐρώπης ἐπὶ τὴν Λιβύην, ὡς ἂν μὴ μιᾶς οὔσης πρότερον τῆς τε ἐντὸς καὶ τῆς ἐκτός. καὶ βραχύτατα μὲν εἶναι τὰ περὶ τὸν Πόντον, τὸ δὲ Κρητικὸν καὶ Σικελικὸν καὶ Σαρδῷον πέλαγος σφόδρα βαθέα· τῶν γὰρ ποταμῶν πλείστων καὶ μεγίστων ῥεόντων ἀπὸ τῆς ἄρκτου καὶ τῆς ἀνατολῆς, ἐκεῖνα μὲν ἰλύος πληροῦσθαι, τὰ ἄλλα δὲ μένειν βαθέα. διὸ καὶ γλυκυτάτην εἶναι τὴν Ποντικὴν θάλατταν τάς τʼ ἐκρύσεις γίνεσθαι εἰς οὓς ἐγκέκλιται τόπους τὰ ἐδάφη. δοκεῖν δὲ κἂν χωσθῆναι τὸν Πόντον ὅλον εἰς ὕστερον, ἂν μένωσιν αἱ ἐπιρρύσεις τοιαῦται· καὶ γὰρ νῦν ἤδη τεναγίζειν τὰ ἐν ἀριστερᾷ τοῦ Πόντου, τόν τε Σαλμυδησσὸν καὶ τὰ καλούμενα στήθη ὑπὸ τῶν ναυτικῶν τὰ περὶ τὸν Ἴστρον καὶ τὴν Σκυθῶν ἐρημίαν. τάχα δὴ καὶ τὸ τοῦ Ἄμμωνος ἱερὸν πρότερον ἐπὶ τῆς θαλάττης ὂν ἐκρύσεως γενομένης νῦν ἐν τῇ μεσογαίᾳ κεῖσθαι. εἰκάζει τε τὸ μαντεῖον εὐλόγως ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον γενέσθαι ἐπιφανές τε καὶ γνώριμον ἐπὶ θαλάττῃ ὄν, τόν τε ἐπὶ πολὺ οὕτως ἐκτοπισμὸν ἀπὸ τῆς θαλάττης οὐκ εὔλογον ποιεῖν τὴν νῦν οὖσαν ἐπιφάνειαν καὶ δόξαν· τήν τε Αἴγυπτον τὸ παλαιὸν θαλάττῃ κλύζεσθαι μέχρι τῶν ἑλῶν τῶν περὶ τὸ Πηλούσιον καὶ τὸ Κάσιον ὄρος καὶ τὴν Σιρβωνίδα λίμνην· ἔτι γοῦν καὶ νῦν κατὰ τὴν Αἴγυπτον τῆς ἁλμυρίδος ὀρυττομένης ὑφάμμους καὶ κογχυλιώδεις εὑρίσκεσθαι τοὺς βόθρους, ὡς ἂν τεθαλαττωμένης τῆς χώρας καὶ τοῦ τόπου παντὸς τοῦ περὶ τὸ Κάσιον καὶ τὰ Γέρρα καλούμενα τεναγίζοντος, ὥστε συνάπτειν τῷ τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς κόλπῳ· ἐνδούσης δὲ τῆς θαλάττης ἀνακαλυφθῆναι, μεῖναι δὲ τὴν Σιρβωνίδα λίμνην, εἶτʼ ἐκραγῆναι καὶ ταύτην ὥστε ἑλώδη γενέσθαι. ὡς δʼ αὕτως καὶ τῆς Μοίριδος λίμνης τοὺς αἰγιαλοὺς αἰγιαλοῖς θαλάττης μᾶλλον ἢ ποταμοῦ προσεοικέναι. τὸ μὲν οὖν ἐπικλύζεσθαί ποτε πολὺ μέρος τῶν ἠπείρων ἐπὶ καιρούς τινας καὶ πάλιν ἀνακαλύπτεσθαι δοίη τις ἄν· ὡς δʼ αὕτως καὶ τὸ τοῖς ἐδάφεσιν ἀνώμαλον εἶναι τὴν γῆν ἅπασαν τὴν νῦν ὕφαλον, καθάπερ γε νὴ Δία καὶ τὴν ἔξαλον, ἐν ᾗ οἰκοῦμεν, τοσαύτας δεχομένην ὅσας αὐτὸς Ἐρατοσθένης εἴρηκε μεταβολάς· ὥστε πρός γε τὸν Ξάνθου λόγον οὐδὲν ἂν ἔχοι τις προσφέρειν ἄτοπον.

[5] πρὸς δὲ τὸν Στράτωνα λέγοιτʼ ἄν, ὅτι πολλῶν αἰτίων ὄντων ἀφεὶς ταῦτα τὰ μὴ ὄντα αἰτιᾶται. πρώτην γὰρ αἰτίαν φησίν, ὅτι τῆς ἐντὸς θαλάττης καὶ τῆς ἐκτὸς οὐ ταὐτὸν τὸ ἔδαφος καὶ ὁ βυθός. πρὸς γὰρ τὸ μετεωρίζεσθαι ταύτην καὶ ταπεινοῦσθαι καὶ ἐπικλύζειν τόπους τινὰς καὶ ἀναχωρεῖν ἀπʼ αὐτῶν οὐ τοῦτό ἐστιν αἴτιον τὸ ἄλλα καὶ ἄλλα ἐδάφη τὰ μὲν ταπεινότερα εἶναι τὰ δὲ ὑψηλότερα, ἀλλὰ τὸ τὰ αὐτὰ ἐδάφη ποτὲ μὲν μετεωρίζεσθαι ποτὲ δʼ αὖ ταπεινοῦσθαι καὶ συνεξαίρειν ἢ συνενδιδόναι τὸ πέλαγος· ἐξαρθὲν μὲν γὰρ ἐπικλύσαι ἄν, ταπεινωθὲν δὲ ἀναδράμοι ἂν εἰς τὴν ἀρχαίαν κατάστασιν. εἰ γὰρ οὐχ οὕτω, δεήσει πλεονασμῷ τῆς θαλάττης αἰφνιδίῳ γενομένῳ τὴν ἐπίκλυσιν συμβαίνειν, καθάπερ ἐν ταῖς ἀναβάσεσι τῶν ποταμῶν, τοτὲ μὲν ἐπενεχθέντος ἑτέρωθεν τοτὲ δʼ αὐξηθέντος τοῦ ὕδατος. ἀλλʼ οὔθʼ αἱ αὐξήσεις ἀθρόαι καὶ αἰφνίδιοι γίνονται, οὔθʼ αἱ πλημμυρίδες τοσοῦτον ἐπιμένουσι χρόνον οὐδʼ ἄτακτοί εἰσιν, οὔτε κατὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν ἐπικλύζουσι θάλατταν οὐδʼ ὅπου ἔτυχε. λοιπὸν οὖν αἰτιᾶσθαι τὸ ἔδαφος ἢ τὸ τῇ θαλάττῃ ὑποκείμενον ἢ τὸ ἐπικλυζόμενον, μᾶλλον δὲ τὸ ὕφαλον. πολὺ γὰρ εὐκινητότερον καὶ μεταβολὰς θάττους δέξασθαι δυνάμενον τὸ ἔνυγρον· καὶ γὰρ τὸ πνευματικὸν τὸ πάντων τῶν τοιούτων αἴτιον πλέον ἐνταῦθα. ἀλλʼ, ὡς ἔφην, τῶν τοιούτων ἀπεργαστικόν ἐστι παθῶν τὸ τὰ αὐτὰ ἐδάφη ποτὲ μὲν ἐξαίρεσθαι ποτὲ δὲ ὑφίζησιν λαμβάνειν, οὐ τὸ τὰ μὲν εἶναι ὑψηλὰ τὰ δὲ ἧττον· ὁ δὲ τοῦτο λαμβάνει, νομίζων ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ποταμῶν συμβαίνει τοῦτο καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς θαλάττης ἀπαντᾶν, τὸ ἀπὸ τῶν μετεώρων τόπων εἶναι τὴν ῥύσιν. οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν τοῦ κατὰ Βυζάντιον ῥοῦ τὸ ἔδαφος ᾐτιᾶτο, λέγων ὑψηλότερον τὸ τοῦ Εὐξείνου ἢ τὸ τῆς Προποντίδος καὶ τοῦ ἑξῆς πελάγους, ἅμα καὶ αἰτίαν προστιθείς· ἀπὸ γὰρ τῆς ἰλύος τῆς ἀπὸ τῶν ποταμῶν καταφερομένης πληροῦσθαι τὸν βυθὸν καὶ βραχὺν γίνεσθαι, διὰ τοῦτο δὲ καὶ ῥεῖν εἰς τὰ ἐκτός. τὸν δʼ αὐτὸν λόγον καὶ ἐπὶ τὴν ἡμετέραν θάλατταν σύμπασαν μεταφέρει πρὸς τὴν ἐκτός, ὡς καὶ ταύτης μετεωρότερον τοὔδαφος ποιούσης τοῦ ὑποκειμένου τῷ Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει· καὶ γὰρ αὕτη ἐκ πολλῶν ποταμῶν πληροῦται καὶ τὴν ὑποστάθμην τῆς ἰλύος δέχεται τὴν ἀνάλογον. ἐχρῆν οὖν καὶ τὸν εἴσρουν ὅμοιον γίνεσθαι τῷ κατὰ Βυζάντιον τὸν κατὰ στήλας καὶ τὴν Κάλπην. ἀλλὰ τοῦτο μὲν ἐῶ· ἐροῦσι γὰρ κἀκεῖ τοῦτο συμβαίνειν, περισπᾶσθαι δὲ ὑπὸ τῶν ἀμπώτεων καὶ τῶν πλημμυρίδων καὶ ἐπικρύπτεσθαι.

[6] Ἐκεῖνο δὲ πυνθάνομαι τί ἐκώλυε, πρὶν ἀνεῳγέναι τὸ στόμα τὸ κατὰ Βυζάντιον, ταπεινότερον ὂν τὸ τοῦ Εὐξείνου ἔδαφος τοῦ τῆς Προποντίδος καὶ τῆς ἑξῆς θαλάττης πληρωθῆναι ὑπὸ τῶν ποταμῶν, εἴτε θάλατταν οὖσαν καὶ πρότερον εἴτε λίμνην μείζω τῆς Μαιώτιδος; εἰ γὰρ τοῦτο συγχωροῖτο, προσερήσομαι καὶ τοῦτο· ἆρά γε ἡ ἐπιφάνεια τοῦ ὕδατος ἐκείνου καὶ τοῦ τῆς Προποντίδος οὐχ οὕτως εἶχεν ὥστε, μέχρι μὲν ἡ αὐτὴ ἦν, μὴ βιάζεσθαι πρὸς ἔκρυσιν διὰ τὴν ἐξ ἴσης ἀντέρεισιν καὶ θλῖψιν, ἐπειδὴ δὲ ὑπερεπόλασεν ἡ ἐντός, βιάσασθαι καὶ ἀπερᾶσαι τὸ πλεονάζον, ἐκ δὲ τούτου γενέσθαι σύρρουν τὸ ἔξω πέλαγος τῷ ἐντὸς καὶ τὴν αὐτὴν ἐπιφάνειαν ἐκείνῳ λαβεῖν, εἴτε θαλαττίῳ εἴτε λιμναίῳ μὲν πρότερον ὄντι, θαλαττίῳ δὲ ὕστερον, διὰ τὴν μῖξιν καὶ τὴν ἐπικράτειαν; εἰ γὰρ καὶ τοῦτο δώσουσιν, ἡ μὲν ἔκρυσις οὐκ ἂν κωλύοιτο ἡ νῦν, οὐκ ἀπὸ ὑπερτέρου δὲ ἐδάφους οὐδὲ ἐπικλινοῦς, ὅπερ ἠξίου Στράτων.

[7] ταῦτα δὲ δεῖ μεταφέρειν καὶ ἐπὶ τὴν ὅλην τὴν καθʼ ἡμᾶς θάλατταν καὶ τὴν ἐκτός, μὴ ἐν τοῖς ἐδάφεσι καὶ ταῖς ἐπικλίσεσιν αὐτῶν τὴν αἰτίαν τοῦ ἔκρου τιθεμένους, ἀλλʼ ἐν τοῖς ποταμοῖς· ἐπεὶ οὐκ ἀπίθανον κατʼ αὐτούς, οὐδʼ εἰ τὴν ὅλην θάλατταν τὴν ἡμετέραν λίμνην πρότερον εἶναι συνέβαινε πληρουμένην ὑπὸ τῶν ποταμῶν, ἐπιπολάσασαν ἐκπεσεῖν ἔξω διὰ τῶν κατὰ στήλας στενῶν ὡς ἐκ καταράκτου, ἐπαυξομένην δʼ ἀεὶ καὶ μᾶλλον τὴν θάλατταν σύρρουν γενέσθαι ὑπʼ αὐτῆς τῷ χρόνῳ καὶ συνδραμεῖν εἰς μίαν ἐπιφάνειαν, ἐκθαλαττωθῆναι δὲ διὰ τὴν ἐπικράτειαν. οὐ φυσικὸν δʼ ὅλως τὸ τοῖς ποταμοῖς εἰκάζειν τὴν θάλατταν· οἱ μὲν γὰρ φέρονται κατὰ ἐπικλινὲς ῥεῖθρον, ἡ δὲ ἀκλινὴς ἕστηκεν. οἱ δὲ πορθμοὶ ῥευματίζονται κατʼ ἄλλον τρόπον, οὐ διὰ τὸ τὴν ἰλὺν τὴν ἐκ τῶν ποταμῶν προσχοῦν τὸν τοῦ πελάγους βυθόν· ἡ γὰρ πρόσχωσις περὶ αὐτὰ συνίσταται τὰ στόματα τῶν ποταμῶν, οἷον περὶ μὲν τὰ τοῦ Ἴστρου τὰ λεγόμενα στήθη καὶ ἡ Σκυθῶν ἐρημία καὶ ὁ Σαλμυδησσός, καὶ ἄλλων χειμάρρων συνεργούντων πρὸς τοῦτο, περὶ δὲ τὰ τοῦ Φάσιδος ἡ Κολχικὴ παραλία δίαμμος καὶ ταπεινὴ καὶ μαλακὴ οὖσα, περὶ δὲ τὸν Θερμώδοντα καὶ τὸν Ἶριν ὅλη Θεμίσκυρα, τὸ τῶν Ἀμαζόνων πεδίον, καὶ τῆς Σιδηνῆς τὸ πλέον· οὕτω δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων. ἅπαντες γὰρ μιμοῦνται τὸν Νεῖλον ἐξηπειροῦντες τὸν πρὸ αὐτῶν πόρον, οἱ μὲν μᾶλλον οἱ δὲ ἧττον· ἧττον μὲν οἱ μὴ πολλὴν καταφέροντες τὴν ἰλύν, μᾶλλον δὲ οἱ πολλήν τε καὶ μαλακόγειον χώραν ἐπιόντες καὶ χειμάρρους δεχόμενοι πολλούς, ὧν ἐστι καὶ ὁ Πύραμος ὁ τῇ Κιλικίᾳ πολὺ μέρος προσθείς, ἐφʼ οὗ καὶ λόγιον ἐκπέπτωκέ τι τοιοῦτον ἔσσεται ἐσσομένοις, ὅτε Πύραμος ἀργυροδίνης ἠιόνα προχέων ἱερὴν ἐς Κύπρον ἵκηται. ἐκ μέσων γὰρ τῶν τῆς Καταονίας πεδίων ἐνεχθεὶς πλωτὸς καὶ διεκπαισάμενος διὰ τῶν τοῦ Ταύρου στενῶν εἰς τὴν Κιλικίαν ἐκδίδωσιν εἰς τὸν πρὸ ταύτης τε καὶ τῆς Κύπρου πόρον.

[8] αἴτιον δὲ τοῦ μὴ φθάνειν τὴν χοῦν εἰς τὸ πέλαγος προϊοῦσαν τὴν ὑπὸ τῶν ποταμῶν καταφερομένην τὸ τὴν θάλατταν ἀνακόπτειν αὐτὴν εἰς τοὐπίσω, παλιρροοῦσαν φύσει· ἔοικε γὰρ τοῖς ζῴοις, καὶ καθάπερ ἐκεῖνα συνεχῶς ἀναπνεῖ τε καὶ ἐκπνεῖ, τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον καὶ αὐτὴ ἐξ αὑτῆς τε καὶ εἰς ἑαυτὴν συνεχῶς παλινδρομικήν τινα κινουμένη κίνησιν. δῆλον δὲ τῷ ἐπὶ τοῦ αἰγιαλοῦ ἑστῶτι κατὰ τὴν κυμάτωσιν· ἅμα γὰρ κλύζονται οἱ πόδες καὶ γυμνοῦνται καὶ πάλιν κλύζονται, καὶ τοῦτο συνεχῶς· τῷ δὲ κλύδωνι καὶ κῦμα ἐπιτρέχει, ὃ κἂν γαληνότατον ᾖ ἐπιφερόμενον ἔχει τινὰ βίαν πλείω καὶ ἀπορρίπτει πᾶν τὸ ἀλλότριον εἰς τὴν γῆν πολλὸν δὲ παρὲξ ἅλα φῦκος ἔχευε. μᾶλλον μὲν οὖν ἐν ἀνέμῳ συμβαίνει τοῦτο, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν νηνεμίᾳ καὶ ἐν ἀπογαίοις πνεύμασιν· οὐδὲν γὰρ ἧττον ἐπὶ γῆν φέρεται τὸ κῦμα ὑπεναντίως τῷ ἀνέμῳ, ὡς ἂν ἰδίαν τινὰ τῆς θαλάττης κίνησιν συγκινούμενον αὐτῇ.²

[9] ̔η μὲν οὖν ἔφοδος τοῦ κύματος ἔχει τινὰ βίαν ὥστʼ ἀπωθεῖσθαι τὸ ἀλλότριον. καὶ δὴ καὶ κάθαρσίν τινα τῆς θαλάττης ταύτην φασί, καθʼ ἣν καὶ τὰ νεκρὰ σώματα καὶ τὰ ναυάγια εἰς γῆν ἐκκυμαίνεται. ἡ δʼ ἀναχώρησις οὐκ ἔχει τοσαύτην βίαν ὥστε νεκρὸν ἢ ξύλον ἢ τὸ κουφότατον, φελλόν, ὑπὸ τοῦ κύματος εἰς γῆν ἀναβληθῆναι, οὕτω δὲ καὶ τῶν πλησίον αὐτῆς τόπων εἰς τὸ πέλαγος προπεσεῖν ὑποληφθέντων ὑπὸ τοῦ κύματος. οὕτω δὴ καὶ τὴν χοῦν καὶ τὸ σὺν αὐτῇ τεθολωμένον ὕδωρ ἐκκυμαίνεσθαι συμβαίνει, καὶ τοῦ βάρους ἅμα συνεργοῦντος ὥστε θᾶττον κατενεχθῆναι πρὸς τὴν γῆν κάτω, πρὶν εἰς τὸ πρόσω πελαγίσαι. καὶ γὰρ ἡ τοῦ ποταμοῦ βία παύεται μικρὸν προελθοῦσα τοῦ στόματος. οὕτω μὲν οὖν ἐνδέχεται προσχωσθῆναι τὸ πέλαγος πᾶν, ἀπὸ τῶν αἰγιαλῶν ἀρξάμενον, ἂν συνεχεῖς ἔχῃ τὰς ἐκ τῶν ποταμῶν ἐπιρρύσεις. τοῦτο δʼ ἂν συμβαίη, κἂν τοῦ Σαρδονίου πελάγους βαθύτερον ὑποθώμεθα τὸν Πόντον, ὅπερ λέγεται τῶν ἀναμετρηθέντων βαθύτατον χιλίων που ὀργυιῶν, ὡς Ποσειδώνιός φησι.

[10] τὴν μὲν οὖν τοιαύτην αἰτιολογίαν ἧττον ἄν τις ἀποδέξαιτο· μᾶλλον δʼ ἀπὸ τῶν φανερωτέρων καὶ τῶν καθʼ ἡμέραν τρόπον τινὰ ὁρωμένων ἀναπτέον τὸν λόγον· καὶ γὰρ κατακλυσμοὶ καὶ σεισμοὶ καὶ ἀναφυσήματα καὶ ἀνοιδήσεις τῆς ὑφάλου γῆς μετεωρίζουσι καὶ τὴν θάλατταν, αἱ δὲ συνιζήσεις ταπεινοῦσιν αὐτήν· οὐ γὰρ μύδροι μὲν ἀνενεχθῆναι δύνανται καὶ μικραὶ νῆσοι, μεγάλαι δʼ οὔ· οὐδὲ νῆσοι μέν, ἤπειροι δʼ οὔ. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ συνιζήσεις καὶ μικραὶ καὶ μεγάλαι γένοιντʼ ἄν, εἴπερ καὶ χάσματα καὶ καταπόσεις χωρίων καὶ κατοικιῶν, ὡς ἐπὶ Βούρας τε καὶ Βιζώνης καὶ ἄλλων πλειόνων, ὑπὸ σεισμοῦ γενέσθαι φασί· καὶ τὴν Σικελίαν οὐδέν τι μᾶλλον ἀπορρῶγα τῆς Ἰταλίας εἰκάζοι τίς ἂν ἢ ἀναβληθεῖσαν ὑπὸ τοῦ Αἰτναίου πυρὸς ἐκ βυθοῦ συμμεῖναι· ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ τὰς Λιπαραίων νήσους καὶ Πιθηκούσσας.

[11] ̔ο δʼ οὕτως ἡδύς ἐστιν ὥστε καὶ μαθηματικὸς ὢν οὐδὲ τὴν Ἀρχιμήδους βεβαιοῖ δόξαν, ὅτι φησὶν ἐκεῖνος ἐν τοῖς περὶ τῶν ὀχουμένων, παντὸς ὑγροῦ καθεστηκότος καὶ μένοντος τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν σφαιρικὴν εἶναι, σφαίρας ταὐτὸ κέντρον ἐχούσης τῇ γῇ· ταύτην γὰρ τὴν δόξαν ἀποδέχονται πάντες οἱ μαθημάτων πως ἁψάμενοι. ἐκεῖνος δὲ τὴν ἐντὸς θάλατταν, καίπερ μίαν οὖσαν, ὥς φησιν, οὐ νομίζει ὑπὸ μίαν ἐπιφάνειαν τετάχθαι, ἀλλʼ οὐδὲ τοῖς σύνεγγυς τόποις. καὶ μάρτυράς γε τῆς τοιαύτης ἀμαθίας ἀρχιτέκτονας ἄνδρας ποιεῖται, καὶ τῶν μαθηματικῶν καὶ τὴν ἀρχιτεκτονικὴν μέρος τῆς μαθηματικῆς ἀποφηναμένων. φησὶ γὰρ καὶ Δημήτριον διακόπτειν ἐπιχειρῆσαι τὸν τῶν Πελοποννησίων ἰσθμὸν πρὸς τὸ παρασχεῖν διάπλουν τοῖς στόλοις, κωλυθῆναι δʼ ὑπὸ τῶν ἀρχιτεκτόνων ἀναμετρησάντων καὶ ἀπαγγειλάντων μετεωροτέραν τὴν ἐν τῷ Κορινθιακῷ κόλπῳ θάλατταν τῆς κατὰ Κεγχρεὰς εἶναι, ὥστε, εἰ διακόψειε τὸ μεταξὺ χωρίον, ἐπικλυσθῆναι ἂν ἅπαντα τὸν περὶ Αἴγιναν πόρον καὶ αὐτὴν Αἴγιναν καὶ τὰς πλησίον νήσους, καὶ μηδὲ τὸν διάπλουν ἂν γενέσθαι χρήσιμον. διὰ δὲ τοῦτο καὶ τοὺς εὐρίπους ῥοώδεις εἶναι, μάλιστα δὲ τὸν κατὰ Σικελίαν πορθμόν, ὅν φησιν ὁμοιοπαθεῖν ταῖς κατὰ τὸν ὠκεανὸν πλημμυρίσι τε καὶ ἀμπώτεσι· δὶς γὰρ μεταβάλλειν τὸν ῥοῦν ἑκάστης ἡμέρας καὶ νυκτός, καθάπερ τὸν ὠκεανὸν δὶς μὲν πλημμυρεῖν δὶς δὲ ἀναχωρεῖν. τῇ μὲν οὖν πλημμυρίδι ὁμολογεῖν τὸν ἐκ τοῦ Τυρρηνικοῦ πελάγους εἰς τὸ Σικελικὸν καταφερόμενον ὡς ἂν ἐκ μετεωροτέρας ἐπιφανείας, ὃν δὴ καὶ κατιόντα ὀνομάζεσθαι, ὁμολογεῖν δʼ ὅτι καὶ κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν καιρὸν ἄρχεταί τε καὶ παύεται καθʼ ὃν αἱ πλημμυρίδες· ἄρχεται μὲν γὰρ περὶ τὴν ἀνατολὴν τῆς σελήνης καὶ τὴν δύσιν, λήγει δʼ ὅταν συνάπτῃ τῇ μεσουρανήσει ἑκατέρᾳ, τῇ τε ὑπὲρ γῆς καὶ τῇ ὑπὸ γῆς· τῇ δὲ ἀμπώτει τὸν ἐναντίον, ὃν ἐξιόντα καλεῖσθαι, ταῖς μεσουρανήσεσι τῆς σελήνης ἀμφοτέραις ἐναρχόμενον, καθάπερ αἱ ἀμπώτεις, ταῖς δὲ συνάψεσι ταῖς πρὸς τὰς ἀνατολὰς καὶ δύσεις παυόμενον.

[12] περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν πλημμυρίδων καὶ τῶν ἀμπώτεων εἰρήκασιν ἱκανῶς Ποσειδώνιός τε καὶ Ἀθηνόδωρος· περὶ δὲ τῆς τῶν πορθμῶν παλιρροίας, ἐχόντων καὶ αὐτῶν φυσικώτερον λόγον ἢ κατὰ τὴν νῦν ὑπόθεσιν, τοσοῦτον εἰπεῖν ἀπόχρη, ὅτι οὔτε εἷς τρόπος τοῦ ῥοώδεις εἶναι τοὺς πορθμούς, ὅ γε κατʼ εἶδος (οὐ γὰρ ἂν ὁ μὲν Σικελικὸς δὶς ἑκάστης ἡμέρας μετέβαλλεν, ὡς οὗτός φησιν, ὁ δὲ Χαλκιδικὸς ἑπτάκις, ὁ δὲ κατὰ Βυζάντιον οὐδὲ μετέβαλλεν, ἀλλὰ διετέλει τὸν ἔκρουν μόνον ἔχων τὸν ἐκ τοῦ Ποντικοῦ πελάγους εἰς τὴν Προποντίδα, ὡς δὲ Ἵππαρχος ἱστορεῖ, καὶ μονάς ποτε ἐποιεῖτο), οὔτʼ εἰ τρόπος εἷς εἴη, ταύτην ἂν ἔχοι τὴν αἰτίαν, ἥν φησιν ὁ Ἐρατοσθένης, ὅτι ἡ ἐφʼ ἑκάτερα θάλαττα ἄλλην καὶ ἄλλην ἐπιφάνειαν ἔχει· οὐδὲ γὰρ ἐπὶ τῶν ποταμῶν τοῦτο γένοιτʼ ἄν, εἰ μὴ καταράκτας ἔχοιεν· ἔχοντες δὲ οὐ παλιρροοῦσιν, ἀλλʼ ἐπὶ τὸ ταπεινότερον ἀεὶ φέρονται. καὶ τοῦτο δὲ συμβαίνει διὰ τὸ κεκλιμένον εἶναι τὸ ῥεῦμα καὶ τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν αὐτοῦ· ὥστʼ οὐχ ὅτι παλιρροοῦντας, ἀλλʼ οὐδὲ καθεστῶτας καὶ μένοντας, συρροίας μὲν ἐν αὐτοῖς οὔσης, μὴ μιᾶς δὲ ἐπιφανείας, ἀλλὰ τῆς μὲν ὑψηλοτέρας τῆς δὲ ταπεινοτέρας. πελάγους δὲ τίς ἂν φαίη κεκλιμένην ἐπιφάνειαν; καὶ μάλιστα κατὰ τὰς σφαιροποιούσας ὑποθέσεις τὰ τέτταρα σώματα, ἃ δὴ καὶ στοιχεῖα φαμέν· οὐ γὰρ ὥσπερ ἡ γῆ κατὰ ἕξιν ἐσχημάτισται στερεὰ οὖσα, ὥστε καὶ κοιλάδας ἔχειν συμμενούσας καὶ ἀναστήματα, οὕτω καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ, ἀλλʼ αὐτῇ τῇ κατὰ τὸ βάρος ῥοπῇ τὴν ὄχησιν ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς ποιεῖται καὶ τοιαύτην λαμβάνει τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν οἵαν ὁ Ἀρχιμήδης φησιν.

[13] Ἐπιφέρει δὲ τοῖς περὶ τοῦ Ἄμμωνος καὶ τῆς Αἰγύπτου ῥηθεῖσιν, ὅτι δοκοίη καὶ τὸ Κάσιον ὄρος περικλύζεσθαι θαλάττῃ καὶ πάντα τὸν τόπον, ὅπου νῦν τὰ καλούμενα Γέρρα, καθʼ ἕκαστα τεναγίζειν συνάπτοντα τῷ τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς κόλπῳ, συνελθούσης δὲ τῆς θαλάττης ἀποκαλυφθῆναι. τὸ δὴ τεναγίζειν τὸν λεχθέντα τόπον συνάπτοντα τῷ τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς κόλπῳ, ἀμφίβολόν ἐστιν, ἐπειδὴ τὸ συνάπτειν σημαίνει καὶ τὸ συνεγγίζειν καὶ τὸ ψαύειν, ὥστε, εἰ ὕδατα εἴη, σύρρουν εἶναι θάτερον θατέρῳ. ἐγὼ μὲν οὖν δέχομαι καὶ τὸ συνεγγίζειν τὰ τενάγη τῇ Ἐρυθρᾷ θαλάττῃ, ἕως ἀκμὴν ἐκέκλειστο τὰ κατὰ τὰς στήλας στενά, ἐκραγέντων δὲ τὴν ἀναχώρησιν γενέσθαι, ταπεινωθείσης τῆς ἡμετέρας θαλάττης διὰ τὴν κατὰ τὰς στήλας ἔκρυσιν. Ἵππαρχος δὲ ἐκδεξάμενος τὸ συνάπτειν ταὐτὸν τῷ σύρρουν γενέσθαι τὴν ἡμετέραν θάλατταν τῇ Ἐρυθρᾷ διὰ τὴν πλήρωσιν, αἰτιᾶται τί δή ποτε οὐχὶ τῇ κατὰ τὰς στήλας ἐκρύσει μεθισταμένη ἐκεῖσε ἡ καθʼ ἡμᾶς θάλαττα συμμεθίστα καὶ τὴν σύρρουν αὐτῇ γενομένην τὴν Ἐρυθράν, καὶ ἐν τῇ αὐτῇ διέμεινεν ἐπιφανείᾳ, μὴ ταπεινουμένη· καὶ γὰρ κατʼ αὐτὸν Ἐρατοσθένη τὴν ἐκτὸς θάλατταν ἅπασαν σύρρουν εἶναι, ὥστε καὶ τὴν ἑσπέριον καὶ τὴν Ἐρυθρὰν θάλατταν μίαν εἶναι. τοῦτο δʼ εἰπὼν ἐπιφέρει τὸ ἀκόλουθον, τὸ τὸ αὐτὸ ὕψος ἔχειν τήν τε ἔξω στηλῶν θάλατταν καὶ τὴν Ἐρυθρὰν καὶ ἔτι τὴν ταύτῃ γεγονυῖαν σύρρουν.

[14] Ἀλλʼ οὔτʼ εἰρηκέναι τοῦτό φησιν Ἐρατοσθένης, τὸ σύρρουν γεγονέναι κατὰ τὴν πλήρωσιν τῇ Ἐρυθρᾷ, ἀλλὰ συνεγγίσαι μόνον, οὔτʼ ἀκολουθεῖν τῇ μιᾷ καὶ συνεχεῖ θαλάττῃ τὸ αὐτὸ ὕψος ἔχειν καὶ τὴν αὐτὴν ἐπιφάνειαν, ὥσπερ οὐδὲ τὴν καθʼ ἡμᾶς, καὶ νὴ Δία τὴν κατὰ τὸ Λέχαιον καὶ τὴν περὶ Κεγχρεάς. ὅπερ καὶ αὐτὸς ὁ Ἵππαρχος ἐπισημαίνεται ἐν τῷ πρὸς αὐτὸν λόγῳ· εἰδὼς οὖν τὴν δόξαν αὐτοῦ τοιαύτην ἰδίᾳ τι πρὸς αὐτὸν λεγέτω, καὶ μὴ ἐξ ἑτοίμου λαμβανέτω, ὡς ἄρα ὁ φήσας μίαν εἶναι τὴν ἔξω θάλατταν σύμφησι καὶ ὅτι μία ἐστὶν αὐτῆς ἡ ἐπιφάνεια.

[15] ψευδῆ δʼ εἶναι φήσας τὴν ἐπὶ τοῖς δελφῖσιν ἐπιγραφὴν Κυρηναίων θεωρῶν αἰτίαν ἀποδίδωσιν οὐ πιθανήν, ὅτι ἡ μὲν τῆς Κυρήνης κτίσις ἐν χρόνοις φέρεται μνημονευομένοις, τὸ δὲ μαντεῖον οὐδεὶς μέμνηται ἐπὶ θαλάττῃ ποτὲ ὑπάρξαν. τί γάρ, εἰ μηδεὶς μὲν ἱστορεῖ, ἐκ δὲ τῶν τεκμηρίων, ἐξ ὧν εἰκάζομεν παράλιόν ποτε τὸν τόπον γενέσθαι, οἵ τε δελφῖνες ἀνετέθησαν καὶ ἡ ἐπιγραφὴ ἐγένετο ὑπὸ Κυρηναίων θεωρῶν; συγχωρήσας δὲ τῷ μετεωρισμῷ τοῦ ἐδάφους συμμετεωρισθεῖσαν καὶ τὴν θάλατταν ἐπικλύσαι τοὺς μέχρι τοῦ μαντείου τόπους, πλέον ἀπὸ θαλάττης διέχοντας τῶν τρισχιλίων σταδίων, οὐ συγχωρεῖ τὸν μέχρι τοσούτου μετεωρισμὸν ὥστε καὶ τὴν Φάρον ὅλην καλυφθῆναι καὶ τὰ πολλὰ τῆς Αἰγύπτου, ὥσπερ οὐχ ἱκανοῦ ὄντος τοῦ τοσούτου ὕψους καὶ ταῦτα ἐπικλύσαι. φήσας δέ, εἴπερ ἐπεπλήρωτο ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον ἡ καθʼ ἡμᾶς θάλαττα πρὶν τὸ ἔκρηγμα τὸ κατὰ στήλας γενέσθαι, ἐφʼ ὅσον εἴρηκεν ὁ Ἐρατοσθένης, χρῆναι καὶ τὴν Λιβύην πᾶσαν καὶ τῆς Εὐρώπης τὰ πολλὰ καὶ τῆς Ἀσίας κεκαλύφθαι πρότερον, τούτοις ἐπιφέρει διότι καὶ ὁ Πόντος τῷ Ἀδρίᾳ σύρρους ἂν ὑπῆρξε κατά τινας τόπους, ἅτε δὴ τοῦ Ἴστρου ἀπὸ τῶν κατὰ τὸν Πόντον τόπων σχιζομένου καὶ ῥέοντος εἰς ἑκατέραν τὴν θάλατταν διὰ τὴν θέσιν τῆς χώρας. ἀλλʼ οὔτʼ ἀπὸ τῶν κατὰ τὸν Πόντον μερῶν ὁ Ἴστρος τὰς ἀρχὰς ἔχει, ἀλλὰ τἀναντία ἀπὸ τῶν ὑπὲρ τοῦ Ἀδρίου ὀρῶν· οὔτʼ εἰς ἑκατέραν τὴν θάλατταν ῥεῖ, ἀλλʼ εἰς τὸν Πόντον μόνον, σχίζεταί τε πρὸς αὐτοῖς μόνον τοῖς στόμασι. κοινὴν δέ τινα τῶν πρὸ αὐτοῦ τισιν ἄγνοιαν ταύτην ἠγνόηκεν, ὑπολαβοῦσιν εἶναί τινα ὁμώνυμον τῷ Ἴστρῳ ποταμὸν ἐκβάλλοντα εἰς τὸν Ἀδρίαν ἀπεσχισμένον αὐτοῦ, ἀφʼ οὗ καὶ τὸ γένος Ἴστρων, διʼ οὗ φέρεται, λαβεῖν τὴν προσηγορίαν, καὶ τὸν Ἰάσονα ταύτῃ ποιήσασθαι τὸν ἐκ τῶν Κόλχων ἀνάπλουν.

[16] πρὸς δὲ τὴν ἀθαυμαστίαν τῶν τοιούτων μεταβολῶν, οἵας ἔφαμεν αἰτίας εἶναι τῶν ἐπικλύσεων καὶ τῶν τοιούτων παθῶν, οἷα εἴρηται τὰ κατὰ τὴν Σικελίαν καὶ τὰς Αἰόλου νήσους καὶ Πιθηκούσσας, ἄξιον παραθεῖναι καὶ ἄλλα πλείω τῶν ἐν ἑτέροις τόποις ὄντων ἢ γενομένων ὁμοίων τούτοις. ἀθρόα γὰρ τὰ τοιαῦτα παραδείγματα πρὸ ὀφθαλμῶν τεθέντα παύσει τὴν ἔκπληξιν. νυνὶ δὲ τὸ ἄηθες ταράττει τὴν αἴσθησιν καὶ δείκνυσιν ἀπειρίαν τῶν φύσει συμβαινόντων καὶ τοῦ βίου παντός, οἷον εἴ τις λέγοι τὰ περὶ Θήραν καὶ Θηρασίαν νήσους ἱδρυμένας ἐν τῷ μεταξὺ πόρῳ Κρήτης καὶ τῆς Κυρηναίας, ὧν ἡ Θήρα μητρόπολίς ἐστι τῆς Κυρήνης, καὶ τὴν Αἴγυπτον καὶ πολλὰ μέρη τοιαῦτα τῆς Ἑλλάδος. ἀνὰ μέσον γὰρ Θήρας καὶ Θηρασίας ἐκπεσοῦσαι φλόγες ἐκ τοῦ πελάγους ἐφʼ ἡμέρας τέτταρας, ὥστε πᾶσαν ζεῖν καὶ φλέγεσθαι τὴν θάλατταν, ἀνεφύσησαν κατʼ ὀλίγον ἐξαιρομένην ὡς ἂν ὀργανικῶς συντιθεμένην ἐκ μύδρων νῆσον ἐπέχουσαν δώδεκα σταδίων τὴν περίμετρον. μετὰ δὲ τὴν παῦλαν τοῦ πάθους ἐθάρρησαν πρῶτοι Ῥόδιοι θαλαττοκρατοῦντες ἐπιπροσπλεῦσαι τῷ τόπῳ καὶ Ποσειδῶνος Ἀσφαλίου ἱερὸν ἱδρύσασθαι κατὰ τὴν νῆσον. ἐν δὲ τῇ Φοινίκῃ φησὶ Ποσειδώνιος γενομένου σεισμοῦ καταποθῆναι πόλιν ἱδρυμένην ὑπὲρ Σιδῶνος, καὶ αὐτῆς δὲ Σιδῶνος σχεδόν τι τὰ δύο μέρη πεσεῖν, ἀλλʼ οὐκ ἀθρόως, ὥστε μὴ πολὺν φθόρον ἀνθρώπων γενέσθαι. τὸ δʼ αὐτὸ πάθος καὶ ἐπὶ τὴν Συρίαν ὅλην διέτεινε, μετρίως δέ πως. διέβη δὲ καὶ ἐπί τινας νήσους τάς τε Κυκλάδας καὶ τὴν Εὔβοιαν, ὥστε τῆς Ἀρεθούσης (ἔστι δʼ ἐν Χαλκίδι κρήνη) τὰς πηγὰς ἀποτυφλωθῆναι, συχναῖς δʼ ἡμέραις ὕστερον ἀναβλύσαι κατʼ ἄλλο στόμιον, μὴ παύεσθαι δὲ σειομένην τὴν νῆσον κατὰ μέρη πρὶν ἢ χάσμα γῆς ἀνοιχθὲν ἐν τῷ Ληλάντῳ πεδίῳ πηλοῦ διαπύρου ποταμὸν ἐξήμεσε.

[17] πολλῶν δὲ συναγωγὰς ποιησαμένων τοιαύτας, ἀρκέσει τὰ ὑπὸ τοῦ Σκηψίου Δημητρίου συνηγμένα οἰκείως παρατεθέντα. μνησθεὶς γὰρ τῶν ἐπῶν τούτων

κρουνὼ δʼ ἵκανον καλλιρρόω, ἔνθα τε πηγαὶ
δοιαὶ ἀναΐσσουσι Σκαμάνδρου δινήεντος.
ἡ μὲν γάρ θʼ ὕδατι λιαρῷ,
ἡ δʼ ἑτέρη θέρεϊ προρέει εἰκυῖα χαλάζῃ,

οὐκ ἐᾷ θαυμάζειν, εἰ νῦν ἡ μὲν τοῦ ψυχροῦ ὕδατος μένει πηγή, ἡ δὲ τοῦ θερμοῦ οὐχ ὁρᾶται. δεῖν γάρ φησιν αἰτιᾶσθαι τὴν ἔκλειψιν τοῦ θερμοῦ ὕδατος. μιμνήσκεται δὲ πρὸς ταῦτα τῶν ὑπὸ Δημοκλέους λεγομένων, σεισμούς τινας μεγάλους τοὺς μὲν πάλαι περὶ Λυδίαν γενομένους καὶ Ἰωνίαν μέχρι τῆς Τρωάδος ἱστοροῦντος, ὑφʼ ὧν καὶ κῶμαι κατεπόθησαν καὶ Σίπυλος κατεστράφη κατὰ τὴν Ταντάλου βασιλείαν καὶ ἐξ ἑλῶν λίμναι ἐγένοντο, τὴν δὲ Τροίαν ἐπέκλυσε κῦμα. ἡ δὲ Φάρος ἡ κατʼ Αἴγυπτον ἦν ποτε πελαγία, νῦν δὲ τρόπον τινὰ χερρόνησος γέγονεν· ὡς δʼ αὕτως καὶ Τύρος καὶ Κλαζομεναί. ἡμῶν δʼ ἐπιδημούντων ἐν Ἀλεξανδρείᾳ τῇ πρὸς Αἰγύπτῳ, περὶ Πηλούσιον καὶ τὸ Κάσιον ὄρος μετεωρισθὲν τὸ πέλαγος ἐπέκλυσε τὴν γῆν καὶ νῆσον ἐποίησε τὸ ὄρος, ὥστε πλωτὴν γενέσθαι τὴν παρὰ τὸ Κάσιον ὁδὸν τὴν ἐς Φοινίκην. οὐδὲν οὖν θαυμαστὸν οὐδʼ εἴ ποτε διαστὰς ὁ ἰσθμὸς ἢ ἵζημα λαβὼν ὁ διείργων τὸ Αἰγύπτιον πέλαγος ἀπὸ τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς θαλάττης ἀποφανεῖ πορθμὸν καὶ σύρρουν ποιήσει τὴν ἐκτὸς θάλατταν τῇ ἐντός, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ κατὰ τὰς Ἡρακλέους στήλας πορθμοῦ συνέβη. εἴρηται δὲ περὶ τῶν τοιούτων τινὰ καὶ ἐν ἀρχαῖς τῆς πραγματείας, ἃ δεῖ συμφέρειν εἰς ἓν καὶ τὴν πίστιν ἰσχυρὰν κατασκευάζειν τῶν τε τῆς φύσεως ἔργων καὶ τῶν ἄλλως γινομένων μεταβολῶν.

[18] τόν τε Πειραιᾶ νησιάζοντα πρότερον καὶ πέραν τῆς ἀκτῆς κείμενον οὕτως φασὶν ὀνομασθῆναι· ὑπεναντίως δʼ ἡ Λευκὰς Κορινθίων τὸν ἰσθμὸν διακοψάντων νῆσος γέγονεν, ἀκτὴ πρότερον οὖσα· περὶ ταύτης γάρ φασι λέγειν τὸν Λαέρτην οἷος Νήριτον εἷλον ἐυκτίμενον πτολίεθρον, ἀκτὴν ἠπείροιο· ἐνταῦθα μὲν δὴ διακοπαὶ χειρότμητοι γεγόνασιν, ἀλλαχόθι δὲ προσχώσεις ἢ γεφυρώσεις, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῆς πρὸς Συρακούσαις νήσου νῦν μὲν γέφυρά ἐστιν ἡ συνάπτουσα αὐτὴν πρὸς τὴν ἤπειρον, πρότερον δὲ χῶμα, ὥς φησιν Ἴβυκος, λογαίου λίθου, ὃν καλεῖ ἐκλεκτόν. Βοῦρα δὲ καὶ Ἑλίκη ἡ μὲν ὑπὸ χάσματος ἡ δʼ ὑπὸ κύματος ἠφανίσθη. περὶ Μεθώνην δὲ τὴν ἐν τῷ Ἑρμιονικῷ κόλπῳ ὄρος ἑπταστάδιον τὸ ὕψος ἀνεβλήθη γενηθέντος ἀναφυσήματος φλογώδους, μεθʼ ἡμέραν μὲν ἀπρόσιτον ὑπὸ τοῦ θερμοῦ καὶ τῆς θειώδους ὀδμῆς, νύκτωρ δʼ ἐκλάμπον πόρρω καὶ θερμαῖνον ὥστε ζεῖν τὴν θάλατταν ἐπὶ σταδίους πέντε, θολερὰν δʼ εἶναι καὶ ἐπὶ εἴκοσι σταδίους, προσχωσθῆναι δὲ πέτραις ἀπορρῶξι πύργων οὐκ ἐλάττοσιν. ὑπὸ δὲ τῆς Κωπαΐδος λίμνης ἥ τε Ἄρνη κατεπόθη καὶ Μίδεια, ἃς ὠνόμακεν ὁ ποιητὴς ἐν τῷ καταλόγῳ οἵ τε πολυστάφυλον Ἄρνην ἔχον, οἵ τε Μίδειαν. καὶ ὑπὸ τῆς Βιστονίδος δὲ καὶ τῆς νῦν Ἀφνίτιδος λίμνης ἐοίκασι κατακεκλύσθαι πόλεις τινὲς Θρᾳκῶν, οἱ δὲ καὶ Τρηρῶν, ὡς συνοίκων τοῖς Θρᾳξὶν ὄντων. καὶ ἡ πρότερον δὲ Ἀρτεμίτα λεγομένη μία τῶν Ἐχινάδων νήσων ἤπειρος γέγονε· καὶ ἄλλας δὲ τῶν περὶ τὸν Ἀχελῶον νησίδων τὸ αὐτὸ πάθος φασὶ παθεῖν ἐκ τῆς ὑπὸ τοῦ ποταμοῦ προχώσεως τοῦ πελάγους, συγχοῦνται δὲ καὶ αἱ λοιπαί, ὡς Ἡρόδοτός φησι. καὶ Αἰτωλικαὶ δέ τινες ἄκραι εἰσὶ νησίζουσαι πρότερον· καὶ ἡ Ἀστερία ἤλλακται, ἣν Ἀστερίδα φησὶν ὁ ποιητής

ἔστι δέ τις νῆσος μέσσῃ ἁλὶ πετρήεσσα, Ἀστερίς, οὐ μεγάλη, λιμένες δʼ ἐνὶ ναύλοχοι αὐτῇ ἀμφίδυμοι·

νυνὶ δὲ οὐδʼ ἀγκυροβόλιον εὐφυὲς ἔχει. ἔν τε τῇ Ἰθάκῃ οὐδέν ἐστιν ἄντρον τοιοῦτον οὐδὲ νυμφαῖον, οἷόν φησιν Ὅμηρος· βέλτιον δὲ αἰτιᾶσθαι μεταβολὴν ἢ ἄγνοιαν ἢ κατάψευσιν τῶν τόπων κατὰ τὸ μυθῶδες. τοῦτο μὲν δὴ ἀσαφὲς ὃν ἐῶ ἐν κοινῷ σκοπεῖν.

[19] ̔η δὲ Ἄντισσα νῆσος ἦν πρότερον, ὡς Μυρσίλος φησί· τῆς δὲ Λέσβου καλουμένης πρότερον Ἴσσης, καὶ τὴν νῆσον Ἄντισσαν καλεῖσθαι συνέβη· νῦν δὲ τῆς Λέσβου πόλις ἐστίν. οἱ δὲ καὶ τὴν Λέσβον τῆς Ἴδης ἀπερρωγέναι πεπιστεύκασι, καθάπερ τὴν Προχύτην καὶ τὴν Πιθηκοῦσσαν τοῦ Μισηνοῦ, τὰς δὲ Καπρέας τοῦ Ἀθηναίου, τὴν Σικελίαν δὲ τῆς Ῥηγίνης, τὴν Ὄσσαν δὲ τοῦ Ὀλύμπου. γεγόνασι δὲ καὶ περὶ ταῦτα τοιαῦται μεταβολαί. καὶ ὁ Λάδων δὲ ὁ ἐν Ἀρκαδίᾳ ἐπέσχε ποτὲ τὸ ῥεῦμα. Δοῦρις δὲ τὰς Ῥάγας τὰς κατὰ Μηδίαν ὠνομάσθαι φησὶν ὑπὸ σεισμῶν ῥαγείσης τῆς περὶ τὰς Κασπίους πύλας γῆς, ὥστε ἀνατραπῆναι πόλεις συχνὰς καὶ κώμας καὶ ποταμοὺς ποικίλας μεταβολὰς δέξασθαι. Ἴων δὲ περὶ τῆς Εὐβοίας φησὶν ἐν Ὀμφάλῃ Σατύροις

Εὐβοΐδα μὲν γῆν λεπτὸς εὐρίπου κλύδων Βοιωτίας ἐχώρισʼ, ἀκτὴν ἐκτεμὼν προβλῆτα πορθμῷ.

[20] δημήτριος δʼ ὁ Καλλατιανὸς τοὺς καθʼ ὅλην τὴν Ἑλλάδα γενομένους ποτὲ σεισμοὺς διηγούμενος τῶν τε Λιχάδων νήσων καὶ τοῦ Κηναίου τὰ πολλὰ καταδῦναί φησι, τά τε θερμὰ τὰ ἐν Αἰδηψῷ καὶ Θερμοπύλαις ἐπὶ τρεῖς ἡμέρας ἐπισχεθέντα πάλιν ῥυῆναι, τὰ δʼ ἐν Αἰδηψῷ καὶ καθʼ ἑτέρας ἀναρραγῆναι πηγάς· Ὠρεοῦ δὲ τὸ πρὸς θαλάττῃ τεῖχος καὶ τῶν οἰκιῶν περὶ ἑπτακοσίας συμπεσεῖν, Ἐχίνου τε καὶ Φαλάρων καὶ Ἡρακλείας τῆς Τραχῖνος, τῶν μὲν πολὺ μέρος πεσεῖν, Φαλάρων δὲ καὶ ἐξ ἐδάφους ἀνατραπῆναι τὸ κτίσμα. παραπλήσια δὲ συμβῆναι καὶ Λαμιεῦσι καὶ Λαρισαίοις· καὶ Σκάρφειαν δʼ ἐκ θεμελίων ἀναρριφῆναι, καὶ καταδῦναι σώματα χιλίων καὶ ἑπτακοσίων οὐκ ἐλάττω, Θρονίους δʼ ὑπὲρ ἥμισυ τούτων· κῦμά τε ἐξαρθὲν τριχῆ τὸ μὲν πρὸς Τάρφην ἐνεχθῆναι καὶ Θρόνιον, τὸ δὲ πρὸς Θερμοπύλας, ἄλλο δὲ εἰς τὸ πεδίον ἕως τοῦ Φωκικοῦ Δαφνοῦντος, πηγάς τε ποταμῶν ξηρανθῆναι πρὸς ἡμέρας τινάς· τὸν δὲ Σπερχειὸν ἀλλάξαι τὸ ῥεῖθρον καὶ ποιῆσαι πλωτὰς τὰς ὁδούς, τὸν δὲ Βοάγριον κατʼ ἄλλης ἐνεχθῆναι φάραγγος, καὶ Ἀλόπης δὲ καὶ Κύνου καὶ Ὀποῦντος πολλὰ καταβλαβῆναι μέρη, Οἶον δὲ τὸ ὑπερκείμενον φρούριον πᾶν ἀνατραπῆναι, Ἐλατείας δὲ τοῦ τείχους καταρραγῆναι μέρος, περὶ δὲ Ἄλπωνον θεσμοφορίων ὄντων πέντε καὶ εἴκοσι παρθένους ἀναδραμούσας εἰς πύργον τῶν ἐλλιμενίων κατὰ θέαν, πεσόντος τοῦ πύργου, πεσεῖν καὶ αὐτὰς εἰς τὴν θάλατταν. λέγουσι δὲ καὶ τῆς Ἀταλάντης τῆς πρὸς Εὐβοίᾳ τὰ μέσα ῥήγματος γενομένου διάπλουν δέξασθαι, μεταξὺ καὶ τῶν πεδίων ἔνια καὶ μέχρι εἴκοσι σταδίων ἐπικλυσθῆναι, καὶ τριήρη τινὰ ἐκ τῶν νεωρίων ἐξαιρεθεῖσαν ὑπερπεσεῖν τοῦ τείχους.

[21] προστιθέασι δὲ καὶ τὰς ἐκ τῶν μεταστάσεων μεταβολὰς ἐπὶ πλέον τὴν ἀθαυμαστίαν ἡμῖν κατασκευάζειν ἐθέλοντες, ἣν ὑμνεῖ Δημόκριτος καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι φιλόσοφοι πάντες· παράκειται γὰρ τῷ ἀθαμβεῖ καὶ ἀταράχῳ καὶ ἀνεκπλήκτῳ. οἷον Ἰβήρων μὲν τῶν ἑσπερίων εἰς τοὺς ὑπὲρ τοῦ Πόντου καὶ τῆς Κολχίδος τόπους μετῳκισμένων (οὓς ὁ Ἀράξης, ὥς φησιν Ἀπολλόδωρος, ἀπὸ τῆς Ἀρμενίας ὁρίζει, Κῦρος δὲ μᾶλλον καὶ τὰ ὄρη τὰ Μοσχικά), Αἰγυπτίων δʼ εἴς τε Αἰθίοπας καὶ Κόλχους, Ἑνετῶν δʼ ἐκ Παφλαγονίας ἐπὶ τὸν Ἀδρίαν. ἅπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν Ἑλληνικῶν ἐθνῶν συνέβη, Ἰώνων καὶ Δωριέων καὶ Ἀχαιῶν καὶ Αἰολέων· καὶ Αἰνιᾶνες οἱ νῦν Αἰτωλοῖς ὅμοροι περὶ τὸ Δώτιον ᾤκουν καὶ τὴν Ὄσσαν μετὰ Περραιβῶν· καὶ αὐτοὶ δὲ Περραιβοὶ μετανάσται τινές. πλήρης δέ ἐστι τῶν τοιούτων παραδειγμάτων ἡ νῦν ἐνεστῶσα πραγματεία. τινὰ μὲν οὖν καὶ πρόχειρα τοῖς πολλοῖς ἐστιν· αἱ δὲ τῶν Καρῶν καὶ Τρηρῶν καὶ Τεύκρων μεταναστάσεις καὶ Γαλατῶν, ὁμοῦ δὲ καὶ τῶν ἡγεμόνων οἱ ἐπὶ πολὺ ἐκτοπισμοί, Μάδυός τε τοῦ Σκυθικοῦ καὶ Τεαρκὼ τοῦ Αἰθίοπος καὶ Κώβου τοῦ Τρηρὸς καὶ Σεσώστριος καὶ Ψαμμιτίχου τῶν Αἰγυπτίων καὶ Περσῶν τῶν ἀπὸ Κύρου μέχρι Ξέρξου οὐχ ὁμοίως ἐν ἑτοίμῳ πᾶσίν εἰσιν. οἵ τε Κιμμέριοι, οὓς καὶ Τρῆρας ὀνομάζουσιν, ἢ ἐκείνων τι ἔθνος, πολλάκις ἐπέδραμον τὰ δεξιὰ μέρη τοῦ Πόντου καὶ τὰ συνεχῆ αὐτοῖς, τοτὲ μὲν ἐπὶ Παφλαγόνας τοτὲ δὲ καὶ Φρύγας ἐμβαλόντες, ἡνίκα Μίδαν αἷμα ταύρου πιόντα φασὶν ἀπελθεῖν εἰς τὸ χρεών. Λύγδαμις δὲ τοὺς αὑτοῦ ἄγων μέχρι Λυδίας καὶ Ἰωνίας ἤλασε καὶ Σάρδεις εἷλεν, ἐν Κιλικίᾳ δὲ διεφθάρη. πολλάκις δὲ καὶ οἱ Κιμμέριοι καὶ οἱ Τρῆρες ἐποιήσαντο τὰς τοιαύτας ἐφόδους· τοὺς δὲ Τρῆρας καὶ Κῶβον ὑπὸ Μάδυος τὸ τελευταῖον ἐξελαθῆναί φασι τοῦ τῶν Σκυθῶν βασιλέως. ταῦτα μὲν εἰρήσθω πρὸς ἅπασαν κοινῇ τὴν περίοδον τῆς γῆς ἔχοντα οἰκείαν ἱστορίαν.

[22] Ἐπάνιμεν δʼ ἐπὶ τὰ ἑξῆς ἀφʼ ὧν παρέβημεν. τοῦ γὰρ Ἡροδότου μηδένας ὑπερβορείους εἶναι φήσαντος, μηδὲ γὰρ ὑπερνοτίους, γελοίαν φησὶν εἶναι τὴν ἀπόδειξιν καὶ ὁμοίαν ὁ Ἐρατοσθένης τῷ σοφίσματι τούτῳ, εἴ τις λέγοι μηδένας εἶναι ἐπιχαιρεκάκους, μηδὲ γὰρ ἐπιχαιραγάθους. κατὰ τύχην τε εἶναι καὶ ὑπερνοτίους· κατὰ γοῦν τὴν Αἰθιοπίαν μὴ πνεῖν νότον, ἀλλὰ κατωτέρω. θαυμαστὸν δʼ εἰ καθʼ ἕκαστον κλίμα πνέοντος ἀνέμου καὶ πανταχοῦ τοῦ ἀπὸ μεσημβρίας νότου προσαγορευομένου, ἔστι τις οἴκησις ἐν ᾗ τοῦτο μὴ συμβαίνει. τοὐναντίον γὰρ οὐ μόνον Αἰθιοπία ἔχοι ἂν τὸν καθʼ ἡμᾶς νότον, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἡ ἀνωτέρω πᾶσα μέχρι τοῦ ἰσημερινοῦ. εἰ δʼ ἄρα, τοῦ Ἡροδότου τοῦτʼ ἐχρῆν αἰτιᾶσθαι, ὅτι τοὺς ὑπερβορείους τούτους ὑπέλαβε λέγεσθαι, παρʼ οἷς ὁ βορέας οὐ πνεῖ. καὶ γὰρ εἰ οἱ ποιηταὶ μυθικώτερον οὕτω φασίν, οἵ γʼ ἐξηγούμενοι τὸ ὑγιὲς ἂν ἀκούσαιεν, ὑπερβορείους τοὺς βορειοτάτους λέγεσθαι. ὅρος δὲ τῶν μὲν βορείων ὁ πόλος, τῶν δὲ νοτίων ὁ ἰσημερινός· καὶ τῶν ἀνέμων δʼ ὁ αὐτὸς ὅρος.

[23] ̔εξῆς δὲ λέγει πρὸς τοὺς φανερῶς πεπλασμένα καὶ ἀδύνατα λέγοντας, τὰ μὲν ἐν μύθου σχήματι τὰ δʼ ἱστορίας, περὶ ὧν οὐκ ἄξιον μεμνῆσθαι· οὐδʼ ἐκεῖνον ἐχρῆν ἐν ὑποθέσει τοιαύτῃ φλυάρους ἐπισκοπεῖν.

Notes on the current edition

Geography

1. Antiphanes of Berga, a city of Thrace. This writer was so noted for his falsehoods, that βεοͅγαἷζειν came to be a proverbial term for designating that vice.

2. Thirty years before the time of this Damastes, Herodotus had demonstrated to the Greeks the real nature of the Arabian Gulf.

3. This river, called by the Turks Kara-sui, rises somewhere in Mount Taurus, and before emptying itself into the sea, runs through Tarsus

4. The Ab-Zal of oriental writers.

5. The ancient capital of the kings of Persia, now Schuss.

6. The very idea that Diotimus could sail from the Cydnus into the Euphrates is most absurd, since, besides the distance between the two rivers, they are separated by lofty mountain-ridges.

7. Now the Bay of Ajazzo.

8. Iskuriah.

9. Gosselin justly remarks that this is a mere disputing about terms, since, though it is true the Mediterranean and Euxine flow into each other, it is fully admissible to describe them as separate. The same authority proves that we ought to read 3600 and not 3000 stadia, which he supposes to be a transcriber’s error.

10. Castor and Pollux.

11. Castor and Pollux were amongst the number of the Argonauts. On their return they destroyed the pirates who infested the seas of Greece and the Archipelago, and were in consequence worshipped by sailors as tutelary deities.

12. The Phoenicians or Carthaginians despatched Hanno to found certain colonies on the western coast of Africa, about a thousand years before the Christian era.

13. Strabo here follows the general belief that Aeneas escaped to Italy after the sack of Troy, a fact clearly disproved by Homer, Iliad xx. 307, who states that the posterity of Aeneas were in his time reigning at Troy. To this passage Strabo alludes in his 13th book, and, contrary to his general custom, hesitates whether to follow Homer’s authority or that of certain grammarians who had mutilated the passage in order to flatter the vanity of the Romans, who took pride in looking up to Aeneas and the Trojans as their ancestors.

14. Antenor having betrayed his Trojan countrymen was forced to fly. It is generally stated that, taking with him a party of the Heneti, (a people of Asia Minor close to the Euxine,) who had come to the assistance of Priam, he founded the city of Padua in Italy. From this people the district in which Padua is situated received the name of Henetia, afterwards Venetia or Venice.

15. The coasts of Italy.

16. It is generally admitted that the events of the Trojan war gave rise to numerous colonies.

17. The word λιμνοθάλασσα frequently signifies a salt marsh. The French editors remark that it was a name given by the Greeks to lagoons mostly found in the vicinity of the sea, though entirely separated therefrom. Those which communicated with the sea were termed στομλἰμναι.

18. See book xvii. c. iii.

19. A country close upon the Euxine.

20. The Strait of the Dardanelles.

21. At the time of Diodorus Siculus, the people of the Isle of Samothracia preserved the tradition of an inundation caused by a sudden rising of the waters of the Mediterranean, which compelled the inhabitants to fly for refuge to the summits of the mountains; and long after, the fishermen’s nets used to be caught by columns, which, prior to the catastrophe, had adorned their edifices. It is said that the inundation originated in a rupture of the chain of mountains which enclosed the valley which has since become the Thracian Bosphorus or Strait of Constantinople, through which the waters of the Black Sea flow into the Mediterranean.

22. Now Midjeh, in Roumelia, on the borders of the Black Sea. Strabo alludes rather to the banks surrounding Salmydessus than to the town itself.

23. The part of Bulgaria next the sea, between Varna and the Danube, now Dobrudzie.

24. Tineh.

25. El-Kas.

26. Lake Sebaket-Bardoil.

27. Probably the present Maseli. Most likely the place was so named from the γέῤῥα, or wattled huts, of the troops stationed there to prevent the ingress of foreign armies into Egypt.

28. This city of Calpe was near Mount Calpe, one of the Pillars of Hercules.

29. Sea of Marmora.

30. The Aegaean.

31. Danube.

32. Mingrelia.

33. The river Fasz.

34. Now Djanik.

35. The river Thermeh.

36. The Jekil-Irmak.

37. Sidin, or Valisa, is comprised in the territory of Djanik, being part of the ancient kingdom of Pontus.

38. The river Geihun.

39. Gosselin remarks that the alluvial deposit of this river is now no nearer to Cyprus than it was at the time of the prediction.

40. Cilicia and Cataonia are comprised in the modern Aladeuli.

41. Iliad ix. 7.

42.

Being swollen it rises high around the projecting points, and spits from it the foam of the sea.

Iliad iv. 425.

43.

The lofty shores resound, the wave being ejected [upon the beach].

Iliad xvii. 265.

44. The word ὄργυια, here rendered fathoms, strictly means the length of the outstretched arms. As a measure of length it equals four πήχεις, or six feet one inch. Gosselin seems to doubt with reason whether they ever sounded such a depth as this would give, and proposes to compute it by a smaller stadium in use at the time of Herodotus, which would have the effect of diminishing the depth by almost one half.

45. A city of Achaia near to the Gulf of Corinth. Pliny tells us it was submerged during an earthquake, about 371 years before the Christian era. According to Pausanias, it was a second time destroyed by the shock of an earthquake, but again rebuilt by the inhabitants who survived.

46. A city placed by some in Thrace, but by others in Pontus; a more probable opinion seems to be that Bizone was in Lower Moesia, on the western side of the Euxine. Pomponius Mela asserts that Bizone was entirely destroyed by an earthquake, but according to Strabo, (lib. vii.,) who places it about 40 stadia from the sea, it was only partially demolished.

47. Ischia.

48. We have here followed the earlier editions, as preferable to Kramer, who supplies μὴ before μαθημστικὸς.

49. Demetrius Poliorcetes: the same intention is narrated by Pliny and other historians of Julius Caesar, Caligula, and Nero.

50. Kankri.

51. Strait of Messina.

52. The sea which washes the shores of Tuscany. Strabo applies the term to the whole sea from the mouth of the Arno to Sicily.

53. Strait of Messina.

54. Gosselin observes that Le Père Babin, who had carefully examined the currents of the Euripus of Chalcis, says that they are regular during eighteen or nineteen days of every month, the flux and reflux occurring twice in the twenty-four hours, and following the same laws as in the ocean; but from the ninth to the thirteenth, and from the twenty-first to the twenty-sixth, of each lunar month they become irregular, the flux occurring from twelve to fourteen times in the twenty-four hours, and the reflux as often.

55. See Plutarch, de Plac. Philos. lib. i. c. 14, and Stobaeus, Ecl. Phys. lib. i. c. 18.

56. El-Kas.

57. The Arabian Gulf. Mr. Stephenson, while examining the Temsah Lakes, anciently called the Bitter Lakes, discovered recent marine remains similar to those on the shores of the present sea, clearly showing that the basin of the Temsah Lakes was the head of the Arabian Gulf at a period geologically recent.

58. We have here followed MSS. which all read συνελθούσης δὲ τῆς θαλάττης. The French editors propose συνενδούσης δὲ τῆς θαλάττης, with the sense of but on the retiring of the Mediterranean, etc.

59. This accusation may not seem quite fair to the English reader. Touch is the nearest term in our language by which we can express the Greek συνάπτω, the use of which Strabo objects to in this passage; still the meaning of the English word is much too definite for the Greek.

60. The Atlantic.

61. Viz. the Mediterranean.

62. The western part of the town of Corinth situated in the sea of Crissa. Its modern name is Pelagio.

63. Kankri.

64. Viz. the temple of Jupiter Ammon, mentioned above.

65. Gosselin remarks, Cyrene was founded 631 years before the Christian era, and at that time the limits of the Mediterranean were the same as they are now. Amongst the Greeks, dolphins were the ordinary symbols of the principal seaport towns; and if the delegates from Cyrene set up this symbol of their country in the temple of Ammon, I see no reason why Eratosthenes and Strabo should regard the offering as a proof that the temple was on the sea-shore.

66. We have thought it necessary, with the French translators, to insert these words, since although they are found in no MS. of Strabo, the argument which follows is clearly unintelligible without them.

67. Hipparchus, believing that the Danube emptied itself by one mouth into the Euxine, and by another into the Adriatic Gulf, imagined that if the waters of the Mediterranean were raised in the manner proposed by Eratosthenes, the valley through which that river flows would have been submerged, and so formed a kind of strait by which the Euxine would have been connected to the Adriatic Gulf.

68. The Lipari Islands.

69. There is some mistake here. Strabo himself elsewhere tells us that the islands of Thera and Therasia were situated in the Aegaean Sea, near to the island of Nanfio.

70. Defending from danger. More probably, in this instance, the Securer of Foundations.

71. Egripo.

72. This plain was near the city of Chalcis, which at the present day bears the same name as the island itself.

73.

And reached the two fair-flowing springs, where the two springs of the eddying Scamander rise. The one, indeed, flows with tepid water, and a steam arises from it around, as of burning fire; whilst the other flows forth in the summer time, like unto hail, or cold snow, or ice from water

Iliad xxii. 147.

74. Tantalus lived about 1387, B. C.

75. Lydia and Ionia form the modern provinces of Aidin and Sarukan in Anadoli. A part of the Troad still preserves the name of Troiaki.

76. A mountain in Maeonia, close to the city of Magnesia.

77. Ilus, who ascended the throne about 1400 years before the Christian era, founded the city, to which he gave the name of Ilium. The old city of Troy stood on a hill, and was safe from the inundation.

78. These two cities were built on little islets adjoining the continent. Alexander connected them with the mainland by means of jetties. Clazomenae was situated on the Gulf of Smyrna, near to a place now called Vurla or Burla. The present appellation of Tyre, on the coast of Phoemicia, is Sur.

79. Tineh.

80. El-Kas.

81. Of Suez.

82. That part of the Mediterranean adjoining Egypt.

83. The Red Sea.

84. The Red Sea and Mediterranean.

85. Sta. Maura.

86. Odyss. xxiv. 376.

87. The island of Ortygia, now St. Marcian.

88. Diakopton.

89. Probably Bulika, according to others Trypia or Niora.

90. Methone is the same town which Pausanias (l. ii. c.32)names Methona, it was situated in the Argolis between Troezene and Epidaurus. The above writer tells us that in the reign of Antigonus, son of Demetrius king of Macedonia, there was a breaking out of subterranean fires close to Methona. This event, which it is probable Strabo alludes to, occurred some where between the year 277 and 244, before the Christian era. The town still exists under its ancient name of Methona.

91. An error in all the MSS. The Saronic Gulf is intended.

92. Vide Strabo, b. ix. c. ii. § 34, 35.

93. In Boeotia.

94. The Second Iliad, or Catalogue of Ships.

95.

And those who inhabited grape-clustered Arne, and those [who inhabited] Mideia.

Iliad ii. 507.

96. This Thracian lake or lagoon is now called Burum. It is formed by the mouths of several rivers, and lies to the north of the isle of Thaso.

97. Diaskillo, al. Biga.

98. These are certain little islands at the mouth of the river Achelous, the modern Aspropotamo, which formed the boundary between Acarnania and Aetolia. Now Curzolari.

99. It is supposed we should here read Herodotus. Conf. Herod. ii. 10.

100. Daskalio.

101.

Now there is a certain rocky island in the middle of the sea, between Ithaca and the rugged Samos, Asteris, not large; and in it there are havens fit for ships, with two entrances.

Odyssey iv. 844.

102. That is to say, the territory opposite Issa; probably the ruins near to Kalas Limenaias.

103. The present island of Metelino.

104. ̔η δὲ?̓́αντισσα νῆσος ὴ͂ν ποͅότεοͅον, ὡς μυοͅσίλος φησί τῆς [δὲ] λέσβου καλουμένης ποͅὀτεοͅον?̓́ισσης, καὶ τὴν νῆσον?̓́αντισσαν καλεῖσθσι συνέβη. Our rendering of this passage, though rather free, seemed necessary to the clear explication of the Greek.

105. Procita.

106. Ischia.

107. Miseno, the northern cape of the Gulf of Naples.

108. Capri.

109. Reggio.

110. These two mountains are separated from each other by the river Penaeus.

111. ̔παγάς, a rent or chink. This town was sixty miles from Ecbatana; it was named by the Arabs Raï, and is now in ruins. It is the Rhages in Tobias.

112. Certain mountain defiles, now called Firouz-Koh.

113. A western promontory of Euboea, called by the modern Greeks Kabo Lithari. The Lichadian Islands, which now bear the name of Litada, are close by.

114. A city of Euboea; hood. Dipso.

115. In Euboea, now Orio.

116. Now Echino; belonged to Thessaly and was near the sea.

117. Now Stillida; situated on the Bay of Zeitoun.

118. A little town situated in a plain amongst the mountains. It received its name from a tradition that Hercules abode there during the time that the pyre on Mount Oeta was being prepared, into which he cast himself.

119. Lamia in Thessaly.

120. A city of the Epi-Cnemidian Locrians in Achaia; its present name is Bondoniza.

121. A town close to Scarpheia; its ruins are said to be still visible at Palaio Kastro.

122. Now Agriomela or Ellada, a river descending from Mount Oeta, and emptying itself into the Bay of Zeitoun.

123. A torrent near Thronium; its present name is Boagrio.

124. Three cities of the Opuntian Locrians; Cynus, the port of Opus, is now called Kyno.

125. One of the principal cities of Phocis, near the river Cephissus; a little village called Leuta stands on the ancient site.

126. Probably the Alpene in Locris mentioned by Herodotus.

127. The modern Talanta.

128. Egripo.

129. The Western Iberians are the people who inhabited Spain, and were said to have removed into Eastern Iberia, a country situated in the centre of the isthmus which separates the Euxine from the Caspian Sea. The district is now called Carduel, and is a region of Georgia.

130. The river Aras.

131. The river Kur.

132. The mountains which border Colchis or Mingrelia on the south.

133. According to Herodotus, Sesostris was the only Egyptian monarch who ever reigned in Ethiopia. Pliny says he penetrated as far as the promontory of Mosylon.

134. Veneti.

135. A small people of Thessaly, who latterly dwelt near Mount Oeta, which separated them from Aetolia and Phocis.

136. A city and plain in Thessaly, near to Mount Ossa.

137. A people of Macedon, at the time of Strabo dwelling north of the river Peneius.

138. Few nations have wandered so far and wide as the Galatae. We meet with them in Europe, Asia, and Africa, under the various names of Galatae Galatians, Gauls, and Kelts. Galatia, in Asia Minor, was settled by one of these hordes.

139. There were many kings of Phrygia of this name.

140. The text of Kramer follows most MSS. in reading Kimmerians, but he points it out as a manifest error; and refers to Herodotus i. 103.

141. By Hyperboreans are meant people who dwelt beyond the point from whence the north wind proceeded: Hypernotii therefore should be those who lived beyond the point of the procession of the south wind. The remark of Herodotus will be found, lib. iv. § 36. It is simply this: Supposing Hyperboreans, there ought likewise to be Hypernotii.

142. Those who exult over the misfortunes of their neighbours.

143. Those who rejoice in others’ prosperity.

144. Gosselin observes, that what Strabo here says, is in accordance with the geographical system of the ancients, who supposed that Africa did not extend as far as the equator. As they distinguished the continent situated in the northern from a continent which they believed to exist in the southern hemisphere, and which they styled the Antichthones, they called the wind, blowing from the neighbourhood of the equator, in the direction of the two poles, a south wind for either hemisphere. For example, if sailors should be brought to the equator by a north wind, and that same wind should continue to waft them on their course after having passed the line, it would no longer be called a north, but a south wind.

Strabo Geography 1.3

Hans Claude Hamilton (Translator), William Falconer (Translator)

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