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[1] These alone, then, of all the tribes that are marked off by the Ister and by the Illyrian and Thracian mountains, deserve to be mentioned, occupying as they do the whole of the Adriatic seaboard beginning at the recess, and also the sea-board that is called “the left parts of the Pontus,” and extends from the Ister River as far as Byzantium. But there remain to be described the southerly parts of the aforesaid¹ mountainous country and next thereafter the districts that are situated below them, among which are both Greece and the adjacent barbarian country as far as the mountains. Now Hecataeus of Miletus says of the Peloponnesus that before the time of the Greeks it was inhabited by barbarians. Yet one might say that in the ancient times the whole of Greece was a settlement of barbarians, if one reasons from the traditions themselves: Pelops² brought over peoples³ from Phrygia to the Peloponnesus that received its name from him; and Danaüs⁴ from Egypt; whereas the Dryopes, the Caucones, the Pelasgi, the Leleges, and other such peoples, apportioned among themselves the parts that are inside the isthmus—and also the parts outside, for Attica was once held by the Thracians who came with Eumolpus,⁵ Daulis in Phocis by Tereus,⁶ Cadmeia⁷ by the Phoenicians who came with Cadmus, and Boeotia itself by the Aones and Temmices and Hyantes. According to Pindar,

“there was a time when the Boeotian tribe was called “Syes.”

⁸⁹ Moreover, the barbarian origin of some is indicated by their names—Cecrops, Godrus, Aïclus, Cothus, Drymas, and Crinacus. And even to the present day the Thracians, Illyrians, and Epeirotes live on the flanks of the Greeks (though this was still more the case formerly than now); indeed most of the country that at the present time is indisputably Greece is held by the barbarians—Macedonia and certain parts of Thessaly by the Thracians, and the parts above Acarnania and Aetolia by the Thesproti, the Cassopaei, the Amphilochi, the Molossi, and the Athamanes—Epeirotic tribes.

[2] As for the Pelasgi, I have already discussed them.¹⁰ As for the Leleges, some conjecture that they are the same as the Carians, and others that they were only fellow-inhabitants and fellow-soldiers of these; and this, they say, is why, in the territory of Miletus, certain settlements are called settlements of the Leleges, and why, in many places in Caria, tombs of the Leleges and deserted forts, known as “Lelegian forts,” are so called. However, the whole of what is now called Ionia used to be inhabited by Carians and Leleges; but the Ionians themselves expelled them and took possession of the country, although in still earlier times the captors of Troy had driven the Leleges from the region about Ida that is near Pedasus and the Satnioïs River. So then, the very fact that the Leleges made common cause with the Carians might be considered a sign that they were barbarians. And Aristotle, in his Polities,¹¹ also clearly indicates that they led a wandering life, not only with the Carians, but also apart from them, and from earliest times; for instance, in the Polity of the Acarnanians he says that the Curetes held a part of the country, whereas the Leleges, and then the Teleboae, held the westerly part; and in the Polity of the Aetolians (and likewise in that of the Opuntii and the Megarians) he calls the Locri of today Leleges and says that they took possession of Boeotia too; again, in the Polity of the Leucadians he names a certain indigenous Lelex, and also Teleboas, the son of a daughter of Lelex, and twenty-two sons of Teleboas, some of whom, he says, dwelt in Leucas.¹² But in particular one might believe Hesiod when he says concerning them:

“For verily Locrus was chieftain of the peoples of the Leleges, whom once Zeus the son of Cronus, who knoweth devices imperishable, gave to Deucalion—peoples¹³ picked out of earth”;

¹⁴ for by his etymology¹⁵ he seems to me to hint that from earliest times they were a collection of mixed peoples and that this was why the tribe disappeared. And the same might be said of the Caucones, since now they are nowhere to be found, although in earlier times they were settled in several places.

[3] Now although in earlier times the tribes in question were small, numerous, and obscure, still, because of the density of their population and because they lived each under its own king, it was not at all difficult to determine their boundaries; but now that most of the country has become depopulated and the settlements, particularly the cities, have disappeared from sight, it would do no good, even if one could determine their boundaries with strict accuracy, to do so, because of their obscurity and their disappearance. This process of disappearing began a long time ago, and has not yet entirely ceased in many regions because the people keep revolting; indeed, the Romans, after being set up as masters by the inhabitants, encamp in their very houses.¹⁶ Be this as it may, Polybius¹⁷ says that Paulus,¹⁸ after his subjection of Perseus and the Macedonians, destroyed seventy cities of the Epeirotes (most of which, he adds, belonged to the Molossi),¹⁹ and reduced to slavery one hundred and fifty thousand people. Nevertheless, I shall attempt, in so far as it is appropriate to my description and as my knowledge reaches, to traverse the several different parts, beginning at the seaboard of the Ionian Gulf—that is, where the voyage out of the Adrias ends.

[4] Of this seaboard, then, the first parts are those about Epidamnus and Apollonia. From Apollonia to Macedonia one travels the Egnatian Road, towards the east; it has been measured by Roman miles and marked by pillars as far as Cypsela²⁰ and the Hebrus²¹ River—a distance of five hundred and thirty-five miles. Now if one reckons as most people do, eight stadia to the mile, there would be four thousand two hundred and eighty stadia, whereas if one reckons as Polybius does, who adds two plethra, which is a third of a stadium, to the eight stadia, one must add one hundred and seventy-eight stadia—the third of the number of miles. And it so happens that travellers setting out from Apollonia and Epidamnus meet at an equal distance from the two places on the same road.²² Now although the road as a whole is called the Egnatian Road, the first part of it is called the Road to Candavia (an Illyrian mountain) and passes through Lychnidus,²³ a city, and Pylon, a place on the road which marks the boundary between the Illyrian country and Macedonia. From Pylon the road runs to Barnus²⁴ through Heracleia²⁵ and the country of the Lyncestae and that of the Eordi into Edessa²⁶ and Pella²⁷ and as far as Thessaloniceia;²⁸ and the length of this road in miles, according to Polybius, is two hundred and sixty-seven. So then, in travelling this road from the region of Epidamnus and Apollonia, one has on the right the Epeirotic tribes whose coasts are washed by the Sicilian Sea and extend as far as the Ambracian Gulf,²⁹ and, on the left, the mountains of Illyrla, which I have already described in detail, and those tribes which live along them and extend as far as Macedonia and the country of the Paeonians. Then, beginning at the Ambracian Gulf, all the districts which, one after another, incline towards the east and stretch parallel to the Peloponnesus belong to Greece; they then leave the whole of the Peloponnesus on the right and project into the Aegaean Sea. But the districts which extend from the beginning of the Macedonian and the Paeonian mountains as far as the Strymon³⁰ River are inhabited by the Macedonians, the Paeonians, and by some of the Thracian mountaineers; whereas the districts beyond the Strymon, extending as far as the mouth of the Pontus and the Haemus, all belong to the Thracians, except the seaboard. This seaboard is inhabited by Greeks, some being situated on the Propontis,³¹ others on the Hellespont and the Gulf of Melas,³² and others on the Aegaean. The Aegaean Sea washes Greece on two sides: first, the side that faces towards the east and stretches from Sunium,³³ towards the north as far as the Thermaean Gulf³⁴ and Thessaloniceia, a Macedonian city, which at the present time is more populous than any of the rest; and secondly, the side that faces towards the south, I mean the Macedonian country, extending from Thessaloniceia as far as the Strymon. Some, however, also assign to Macedonia the country that extends from the Strymon as far as the Nestus River,³⁵ since Philip was so specially interested in these districts that he appropriated them to himself, and since he organized very large revenues from the mines and the other natural resources of the country. But from Sunium to the Peloponnesus lie the Myrtoan, the Cretan, and the Libyan Seas, together with their gulfs, as far as the Sicilian Sea; and this last fills out the Ambracian, the Corinthian, and the Crisaean³⁶ Gulfs.

[5] Now as for the Epeirotes, there are fourteen tribes of them, according to Theopompus, but of these the Chaones and the Molossi are the most famous, because of the fact that they once ruled over the whole of the Epeirote country—the Chaones earlier and later the Molossi; and the Molossi grew to still greater power, partly because of the kinship of their kings, who belonged to the family of the Aeacidae,³⁷ and partly because of the fact that the oracle at Dodona³⁸ was in their country, an oracle both ancient and renowned. Now the Chaones and the Thesproti and, next in order after these, the Cassopaei (these, too, are Thesproti) inhabit the seaboard which extends from the Ceraunian Mountains as far as the Ambracian Gulf, and they have a fertile country. The voyage, if one begins at the country of the Chaones and sails towards the rising sun and towards the Ambracian and Corinthian Gulfs, keeping the Ausonian Sea³⁹ on the right and Epeirus on the left, is one thousand three hundred stadia, that is, from the Ceraunian Mountains to the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf. In this interval is Panormus,⁴⁰ a large harbor at the center of the Ceraunian Mountains, and after these mountains one comes to Onchesmus,⁴¹ another harbor, opposite which lie the western extremities of Corcyraea,⁴² and then still another harbor, Cassiope,⁴³ from which the distance to Brentesium is one thousand seven hundred stadia. And the distance to Taras from another cape, which is farther south than Cassiope and is called Phalacrum,⁴⁴ is the same. After Onchesmus comes Poseidium,⁴⁵ and also Buthrotum⁴⁶ (which is at the mouth of what is called Pelodes Harbor, is situated on a place that forms a peninsula, and has alien settlers consisting of Romans), and the Sybota.⁴⁷ The Sybota are small islands situated only a short distance from the mainland and opposite Leucimma, the eastern headland of Corcyraea. And there are still other small islands as one sails along this coast, but they are not worth mentioning. Then comes Gape Cheimerium, and also Glycys Limen,⁴⁸ into which the River Acheron⁴⁹ empties. The Acheron flows from the Acherusian Lake⁵⁰ and receives several rivers as tributaries, so that it sweetens the waters of the gulf. And also the Thyamis⁵¹ flows near by. Cichyrus,⁵² the Ephyra of former times, a city of the Thesprotians, lies above this gulf, whereas Phoenice⁵³ lies above that gulf which is at Buthrotum. Near Cichyrus is Buchetium, a small town of the Cassopaeans, which is only a short distance above the sea; also Elatria, Pandosia, and Batiae, which are in the interior, though their territory reaches down as far as the gulf. Next in order after Glycys Limen come two other harbors—Comarus,⁵⁴ the nearer and smaller of the two, which forms an isthmus of sixty stadia⁵⁵ with the Ambracian Gulf, and Nicopolis, a city founded by Augustus Caesar, and the other, the more distant and larger and better of the two, which is near the mouth of the gulf and is about twelve stadia distant from Nicopolis.⁵⁶

[6] Next comes the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf. Although the mouth of this gulf is but slightly more than four stadia wide, the circumference is as much as three hundred stadia; and it has good harbors everywhere. That part of the country which is on the right as one sails in is inhabited by the Greek Acarnanians. Here too, near the mouth, is the sacred precinct of the Actian Apollo—a hill on which the temple stands; and at the foot of the hill is a plain which contains a sacred grove and a naval station, the naval station where Caesar dedicated as first fruits of his victory⁵⁷ the squadron of ten ships—from vessel with single bank of oars to vessel with ten; however, not only the boats, it is said, but also the boat-houses have been wiped out by fire. On the left of the mouth are Nicopolis and the country of the Epeirote Cassopaeans, which extends as far as the recess of the gulf near Ambracia.⁵⁸ Ambracia lies only a short distance above the recess; it was founded by Gorgus, the son of Cypselus. The River Aratthus⁵⁹ flows past Ambracia; it is navigable inland for only a few stadia, from the sea to Ambracia, although it rises in Mount Tymphe and the Paroraea. Now this city enjoyed an exceptional prosperity in earlier times (at any rate the gulf was named after it), and it was adorned most of all by Pyrrhus, who made the place his royal residence. In later times, however, the Macedonians and the Romans, by their continuous wars, so completely reduced both this and the other Epeirote cities because of their disobedience that finally Augustus, seeing that the cities had utterly failed, settled what inhabitants were left in one city together the city on this gulf which was called by him Nicopolis;⁶⁰ and he so named it after the victory which he won in the naval battle before the mouth of the gulf over Antonius and Cleopatra the queen of the Egyptians, who was also present at the fight. Nicopolis is populous, and its numbers are increasing daily, since it has not only a considerable territory and the adornment taken from the spoils of the battle, but also, in its suburbs, the thoroughly equipped sacred precinct—one part of it being in a sacred grove that contains a gymnasium and a stadium for the celebration of the quinquennial games,⁶¹ the other part being on the hill that is sacred to Apollo and lies above the grove. These games—the Actia, sacred to Actian Apollo—have been designated as Olympian,⁶² and they are superintended by the Lacedaemonians. The other settlements are dependencies of Nicopolis. In earlier times also the Actian Games were wont to be celebrated in honor of the god by the inhabitants of the surrounding country—games in which the prize was a wreath—but at the present time they have been set in greater honor by Caesar.

[7] After Ambracia comes Argos Amphilochicum, founded by Alcmaeon and his children. According to Ephorus, at any rate, Alcmaeon, after the expedition of the Epigoni against Thebes, on being invited by Diomedes, went with him into Aetolia and helped him acquire both this country and Acarnania; and when Agamemnon summoned them to the Trojan war, Diomedes went, but Alcmaeon stayed in Acarnania, founded Argos, and named it Amphilochicum after his brother; and he named the river which flows through the country into the Ambracian Gulf “Inachus,” after the river in the Argeian country. But according to Thucydides,⁶³ Amphilochus himself, after his return from Troy, being displeased with the state of affairs at Argos, passed on into Acarnania, and on succeeding to his brother’s dominion founded the city that is named after him.

[8] The Amphilochians are Epeirotes; and so are the peoples who are situated above them and border on the Illyrian mountains, inhabiting a rugged country—I mean the Molossi, the Athamanes, the Aethices, the Tymphaei, the Orestae, and also the Paroraei and the Atintanes, some of them being nearer to the Macedonians and others to the Ionian Gulf. It is said that Orestes once took possession of Orestias—when is, exile on account of the murder of his mother—and left the country bearing his name; and that he also founded a city and called it Argos Oresticum. But the Illyrian tribes which are near the southern part of the mountainous country and those which are above the Ionian Gulf are intermingled with these peoples; for above Epidamnus and Apollonia as far as the Ceraunian Mountains dwell the Bylliones, the Taulantii, the Parthini, and the Brygi. Somewhere near by are also the silver mines of Damastium,⁶⁴ around which the Dyestae and the Encheleii (also called Sesarethii) together established their dominion; and near these people are also the Lyncestae, the territory Deuriopus, Pelagonian Tripolitis, the Eordi, Elimeia, and Eratyra. In earlier times these peoples were ruled separately, each by its own dynasty. For instance, it was the descendants of Cadmus and Harmonia who ruled over the Encheleii; and the scenes of the stories told about them are still pointed out there. These people, I say, were not ruled by men of native stock; and the Lyncestae became subject to Arrabaeus, who was of the stock of the Bacchiads (Eurydice, the mother of Philip, Amyntas’ son, was Arrabaeus’ daughter’s daughter and Sirra was his daughter); and again, of the Epeirotes, the Molossi became subject to Pyrrhus, the son of Neoptolemus the son of Achilles, and to his descendants, who were Thessalians. But the rest were ruled by men of native stock. Then, because one tribe or another was always getting the mastery over others, they all ended in the Macedonian empire, except a few who dwelt above the Ionian Gulf. And in fact the regions about Lyncus, Pelagonia, Orestias, and Elimeia, used to be called Upper Macedonia, though later on they were by some also called Free Macedonia. But some go so far as to call the whole of the country Macedonia, as far as Corcyra, at the same time stating as their reason that in tonsure, language, short cloak, and other things of the kind, the usages of the inhabitants are similar,⁶⁵ although, they add, some speak both languages. But when the empire of the Macedonians was broken up, they fell under the power of the Romans. And it is through the country of these tribes that the Egnatian Road⁶⁶ runs, which begins at Epidamnus and Apollonia. Near the Road to Candavia⁶⁷ are not only the lakes which are in the neighborhood of Lychnidus,⁶⁸ on the shores of which are salt-fish establishments that are independent of other waters, but also a number of rivers, some emptying into the Ionian Gulf and others flowing in a southerly direction—I mean the Inachus, the Aratthus, the Acheloüs and the Evenus (formerly called the Lycormas); the Aratthus emptying into the Ambracian Gulf, the Inachus into the Acheloüs, the Acheloüs itself and the Evenus into the sea—the Acheloüs after traversing Acarnania and the Evenus after traversing Aetolia. But the Erigon, after receiving many streams from the Illyrian mountains and from the countries of the Lyncestae, Brygi, Deuriopes, and Pelagonians, empties into the Axius.

[9] In earlier times there were also cities among these tribes; at any rate, Pelagonia used to be called Tripolitis,⁶⁹ one of which was Azorus; and all the cities of the Deuriopes on the Erigon River were populous, among which were Bryanium, Alalcomenae, and Stubara. And Cydrae belonged to the Brygi, while Aeginium, on the border of Aethicia and Tricca,⁷⁰ belonged to the Tymphaei. When one is already near to Macedonia and to Thessaly, and in the neighborhood of the Poeus and the Pindus Mountains, one comes to the country of the Aethices and to the sources of the Peneius River, the possession of which is disputed by the Tymphaei and those Thessalians who live at the foot of the Pindus, and to the city Oxineia, situated on the Ion River one hundred and twenty stadia from Azorus in Tripolitis. Near by are Alalcomenae, Aeginium, Europus, and the confluence of the Ion River with the Peneius. Now although in those earlier times, as I have said, all Epeirus and the Illyrian country were rugged and full of mountains, such as Tomarus and Polyanus and several others, still they were populous; but at the present time desolation prevails in most parts, while the parts that are still inhabited survive only in villages and in ruins. And even the oracle at Dodona,⁷¹ like the rest, is virtually extinct.

[10] This oracle, according to Ephorus, was founded by the Pelasgi. And the Pelasgi are called the earliest of all peoples who have held dominion in Greece. And the poet speaks in this way:

“O Lord Zeus, Dodonaean, Pelasgian”;

⁷² and Hesiod:

“He came to Dodona and the oak-tree, seat of the Pelasgi.”

⁷³ The Pelasgi I have already discussed in my description of Tyrrhenia;⁷⁴ and as for the people who lived in the neighborhood of the temple of Dodona, Homer too makes it perfectly clear from their mode of life, when he calls them “men with feet unwashen, men who sleep upon the ground,”⁷⁵ that they were barbarians; but whether one should call them “Helli,” as Pindar does, or “Selli,” as is conjectured to be the true reading in Homer, is a question to which the text, since it is doubtful, does not permit a positive answer. Philochorus says that the region round about Dodona, like Euboea, was called Hellopia, and that in fact Hesiod speaks of it in this way:

“There is a land called Hellopia, with many a corn-field and with goodly meadows; on the edge of this land a city called Dodona hath been built.”

⁷⁶ It is thought, Apollodorus says, that the land was so called from the marshes⁷⁷ around the temple; as for the poet, however, Apollodorus takes it for granted that he did not call the people who lived about the temple “Helli,” but “Selli,” since (Apollodorus adds) the poet also named a certain river Selleeïs. He names it, indeed, when he says,

“From afar, out of Ephyra, from the River Selleeïs”

⁷⁸; however, as Demetrius of Scepsis says, the poet is not referring to the Ephyra among the Thesprotians, but to that among the Eleians, for the Selleeïs is among the Eleians, he adds, and there is no Selleeïs among the Thesprotians, nor yet among the Molossi. And as for the myths that are told about the oak-tree and the doves, and any other myths of the kind, although they, like those told about Delphi, are in part more appropriate to poetry, yet they also in part properly belong to the present geographical description.

[11] In ancient times, then, Dodona was under the rule of the Thesprotians; and so was Mount Tomarus,⁷⁹ or Tmarus (for it is called both ways), at the base of which the temple is situated. And both the tragic poets and Pindar have called Dodona “Thesprotian Dodona.” But later on it came under the rule of the Molossi. And it is after the Tomarus, people say, that those whom the poet calls interpreters of Zeus—whom he also calls “men with feet unwashen, men who sleep upon the ground”⁸⁰—were called “tomouroi”; and in the Odyssey some so write the words of Amphinomus, when he counsels the wooers not to attack Telemachus until they inquire of Zeus:

“If the tomouroi of great Zeus approve, I myself shall slay, and I shall bid all the rest to aid, whereas if god averts it, I bid you stop.”

⁸¹ For it is better, they argue, to write “tomouroi” than “themistes”; at any rate, nowhere in the poet are the oracles called “themistes,” but it is the decrees, statutes, and laws that are so called; and the people have been called “tomouroi” because “tomouroi” is a contraction of “tomarouroi,” the equivalent of “tomarophylakes.”⁸² Now although the more recent critics say “tomouroi,” yet in Homer one should interpret “themistes” (and also “boulai”) in a simpler way, though in a way that is a misuse of the term, as meaning those orders and decrees that are oracular, just as one also interprets “themistes” as meaning those that are made by law. For example, such is the case in the following:

“to give ear to the decree⁸³ of Zeus from the oak-tree of lofty foliage.

⁸⁴

[12] At the outset, it is true, those who uttered the prophecies were men (this too perhaps the poet indicates, for he calls them “hypophetae,”⁸⁵ and the prophets might be ranked among these), but later on three old women were designated as prophets, after Dione also had been designated as temple-associate of Zeus. Suidas,⁸⁶ however, in his desire to gratify the Thessalians with mythical stories, says that the temple was transferred from Thessaly, from the part of Pelasgia which is about Scotussa (and Scotussa does belong to the territory called Thessalia Pelasgiotis), and also that most of the women whose descendants are the prophetesses of today went along at the same time; and it is from this fact that Zeus was also called “Pelasgian.” But Cineas tells a story that is still more mythical. . .

Geography. Strabo. Horace Leonard Jones (Translator). London. 1924-1929.

Sponsored by Perseus Project, Tufts University.

Funding provided by The Annenberg CPB/Project.

Current edition Perseus

Geography (Books 6-14) (English) (Strabo. The Geography of Strabo, Vols. 3-6. Jones, Horace Leonard, translator. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd., 1924-1929 (printing).)

Editions (1)

Γεωγραφικά Perseus (Strabo. Strabonis Geographica, Vols. 1-3. Meineke, August, editor. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877.) — 7.7 focus

[1] τὰ μὲν οὖν ἀφοριζόμενα ἔθνη τῷ τε Ἴστρῳ καὶ τοῖς Ἰλλυρικοῖς ὄρεσι καὶ Θρᾳκίοις ταῦτʼ ἔστιν ὧν ἄξιον μνησθῆναι, κατέχοντα τὴν Ἀδριατικὴν παραλίαν πᾶσαν ἀπὸ τοῦ μυχοῦ ἀρξάμενα, καὶ τὴν τὰ ἀριστερὰ τοῦ Πόντου λεγομένην ἀπὸ Ἴστρου ποταμοῦ μέχρι Βυζαντίου. λοιπὰ δέ ἐστι τὰ νότια μέρη τῆς λεχθείσης ὀρεινῆς καὶ ἑξῆς τὰ ὑποπίπτοντα χωρία, ἐν οἷς ἐστιν ἥ τε Ἑλλὰς καὶ ἡ προσεχὴς βάρβαρος μέχρι τῶν ὀρῶν. Ἑκαταῖος μὲν οὖν ὁ Μιλήσιος περὶ τῆς Πελοποννήσου φησὶν διότι πρὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων ᾤκησαν αὐτὴν βάρβαροι. σχεδὸν δέ τι καὶ ἡ σύμπασα Ἑλλὰς κατοικία βαρβάρων ὑπῆρξε τὸ παλαιόν, ἀπʼ αὐτῶν λογιζομένοις τῶν μνημονευομένων, Πέλοπος μὲν ἐκ τῆς Φρυγίας ἐπαγαγομένου λαοὺς εἰς τὴν ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ κληθεῖσαν Πελοπόννησον, Δαναοῦ δὲ ἐξ Αἰγύπτου, Δρυόπων τε καὶ Καυκώνων καὶ Πελασγῶν καὶ Λελέγων καὶ ἄλλων τοιούτων κατανειμαμένων τὰ ἐντὸς Ἰσθμοῦ καὶ τὰ ἐκτὸς δέ· τὴν μὲν γὰρ Ἀττικὴν οἱ μετὰ Εὐμόλπου Θρᾷκες ἔσχον, τῆς δὲ Φωκίδος τὴν Δαυλίδα Τηρεύς, τὴν δὲ Καδμείαν οἱ μετὰ Κάδμου Φοίνικες, αὐτὴν δὲ τὴν Βοιωτίαν Ἄονες καὶ Τέμμικες καὶ Ὕαντες·¹ καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν ὀνομάτων δὲ ἐνίων τὸ βάρβαρον ἐμφαίνεται, Κέκροψ καὶ Κόδρος καὶ Ἄικλος καὶ Κόθος καὶ Δρύμας καὶ Κρίνακος. οἱ δὲ Θρᾷκες καὶ Ἰλλυριοὶ καὶ Ἠπειρῶται καὶ μέχρι νῦν ἐν πλευραῖς εἰσιν· ἔτι μέντοι μᾶλλον πρότερον ἢ νῦν, ὅπου γε καὶ τῆς ἐν τῷ παρόντι Ἑλλάδος ἀναντιλέκτως οὔσης τὴν πολλὴν οἱ βάρβαροι ἔχουσι, Μακεδονίαν μὲν Θρᾷκες καί τινα μέρη τῆς Θετταλίας, Ἀκαρνανίας δὲ καὶ Αἰτωλίας τὰ ἄνω Θεσπρωτοὶ καὶ Κασσωπαῖοι καὶ Ἀμφίλοχοι καὶ Μολοττοὶ καὶ Ἀθαμᾶνες, Ἠπειρωτικὰ ἔθνη.

[2] περὶ μὲν οὖν Πελασγῶν εἴρηται, τοὺς δὲ Λέλεγας τινὲς μὲν τοὺς αὐτοὺς Καρσὶν εἰκάζουσιν, οἱ δὲ συνοίκους μόνον καὶ συστρατιώτας· διόπερ ἐν τῇ Μιλησίᾳ, Λελέγων κατοικίας λέγεσθαί τινας, πολλαχοῦ δὲ τῆς Καρίας τάφους Λελέγων καὶ ἐρύματα ἔρημα Λελέγεια καλούμενα. ἥ τε Ἰωνία νῦν λεγομένη πᾶσα ὑπὸ Καρῶν ᾠκεῖτο καὶ Λελέγων· ἐκβαλόντες δὲ τούτους οἱ Ἴωνες αὐτοὶ τὴν χώραν κατέσχον, ἔτι δὲ πρότερον οἱ τὴν Τροίαν ἑλόντες ἐξήλασαν τοὺς Λέλεγας ἐκ τῶν περὶ τὴν Ἴδην τόπων τῶν κατὰ Πήδασον καὶ τὸν Σατνιόεντα ποταμόν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν βάρβαροι ἦσαν οὗτοι, καὶ αὐτὸ τὸ κοινωνῆσαι τοῖς Καρσὶ νομίζοιτʼ ἂν σημεῖον· ὅτι δὲ πλάνητες καὶ μετʼ ἐκείνων καὶ χωρὶς καὶ ἐκ παλαιοῦ, καὶ αἱ Ἀριστοτέλους πολιτεῖαι δηλοῦσιν. ἐν μὲν γὰρ τῇ Ἀκαρνάνων φησὶ τὸ μὲν ἔχειν αὐτῆς Κουρῆτας, τὸ δὲ προσεσπέριον Λέλεγας, εἶτα Τηλεβόας· ἐν δὲ τῇ Αἰτωλῶν τοὺς νῦν Λοκροὺς Λέλεγας καλεῖ, κατασχεῖν δὲ καὶ τὴν Βοιωτίαν αὐτούς φησιν· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐν τῇ Ὀπουντίων καὶ Μεγαρέων· ἐν δὲ τῇ Λευκαδίων καὶ αὐτόχθονά τινα Λέλεγα ὀνομάζει, τούτου δὲ θυγατριδοῦν Τηλεβόαν, τοῦ δὲ παῖδας δύο καὶ εἴκοσι Τηλεβόας, ὧν τινὰς οἰκῆσαι τὴν Λευκάδα. μάλιστα δʼ ἄν τις Ἡσιόδῳ πιστεύσειεν οὕτως περὶ αὐτῶν εἰπόντι

ἤτοι γὰρ Λοκρὸς Λελέγων ἡγήσατο λαῶν,

τούς ῥά ποτε Κρονίδης, Ζεὺς ἄφθιτα μήδεα εἰδώς,

λεκτοὺς ἐκ γαίης λάους πόρε Δευκαλίωνι.

² τῇ γὰρ ἐτυμολογίᾳ τὸ συλλέκτους γεγονέναι τινὰς ἐκ παλαιοῦ καὶ μιγάδας αἰνίττεσθαί μοι δοκεῖ καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἐκλελοιπέναι τὸ γένος· ἅπερ ἄν τις καὶ περὶ Καυκώνων λέγοι, νῦν οὐδαμοῦ ὄντων πρότερον δʼ ἐν πλείοσι τόποις κατῳκισμένων.

[3] πρότερον μὲν οὖν καίπερ μικρῶν καὶ πολλῶν καὶ ἀδόξων ὄντων τῶν ἐθνῶν, ὅμως διὰ τὴν εὐανδρίαν καὶ τὸ βασιλεύεσθαι κατὰ σφᾶς οὐ πάνυ ἦν χαλεπὸν διαλαβεῖν τοὺς ὅρους αὐτῶν, νυνὶ δʼ ἐρήμου τῆς πλείστης χώρας γεγενημένης καὶ τῶν κατοικιῶν καὶ μάλιστα τῶν πόλεων ἠφανισμένων, οὐδʼ εἰ δύναιτό τις ἀκριβοῦν ταῦτα, οὐδὲν ἂν ποιοίη χρήσιμον διὰ τὴν ἀδοξίαν καὶ τὸν ἀφανισμὸν αὐτῶν, ὃς ἐκ πολλοῦ χρόνου λαβὼν τὴν ἀρχὴν οὐδὲ νῦν πω πέπαυται κατὰ πολλὰ μέρη διὰ τὰς ἀποστάσεις, ἀλλʼ ἐνστρατοπεδεύουσιν αὐτοῖς Ῥωμαῖοι τοῖς οἴκοις, κατασταθέντες ὑπʼ αὐτῶν δυνάσται. τῶν γοῦν Ἠπειρωτῶν ἑβδομήκοντα πόλεις Πολύβιός φησιν ἀνατρέψαι Παῦλον μετὰ τὴν Μακεδόνων καὶ Περσέως κατάλυσιν (Μολοττῶν δʼ ὑπάρξαι τὰς πλείστας), πέντε δὲ καὶ δέκα μυριάδας ἀνθρώπων ἐξανδραποδίσασθαι. ὅμως δʼ οὖν ἐγχειρήσομεν, ἐφʼ ὅσον τῇ γραφῇ τε προσήκει καὶ ἡμῖν ἐφικτόν, ἐπελθεῖν τὰ καθʼ ἕκαστα, ἀρξάμενοι ἀπὸ τῆς κατὰ τὸν Ἰόνιον κόλπον παραλίας· αὕτη δʼ ἐστὶν εἰς ἣν ὁ ἔκπλους ὁ ἐκ τοῦ Ἀδρίου τελευτᾷ.

[4] ταύτης δὴ τὰ πρῶτα μέρη τὰ περὶ Ἐπίδαμνον καὶ Ἀπολλωνίαν ἐστίν. ἐκ δὲ τῆς Ἀπολλωνίας εἰς Μακεδονίαν ἡ Ἐγνατία ἐστὶν ὁδὸς πρὸς ἕω, βεβηματισμένη κατὰ μίλιον καὶ κατεστηλωμένη μέχρι Κυψέλων καὶ Ἕβρου ποταμοῦ· μιλίων δʼ ἐστὶ πεντακοσίων τριάκοντα πέντε· λογιζομένῳ δέ, ὡς μὲν οἱ πολλοί, τὸ μίλιον ὀκταστάδιον τετρακισχίλιοι ἂν εἶεν στάδιοι καὶ ἐπʼ αὐτοῖς διακόσιοι ὀγδοήκοντα, ὡς δὲ Πολύβιος προστιθεὶς τῷ ὀκτασταδίῳ δίπλεθρον, ὅ ἐστι τρίτον σταδίου, προσθετέον ἄλλους σταδίους ἑκατὸν ἑβδομήκοντα ὀκτώ, τὸ τρίτον τοῦ τῶν μιλίων ἀριθμοῦ. συμβαίνει δʼ ἀπὸ ἴσου διαστήματος συμπίπτειν εἰς τὴν αὐτὴν ὁδὸν τούς τʼ ἐκ τῆς Ἀπολλωνίας ὁρμηθέντας καὶ τοὺς ἐξ Ἐπιδάμνου. ἡ μὲν οὖν πᾶσα Ἐγνατία καλεῖται, ἡ δὲ πρώτη ἐπὶ Κανδαουίας λέγεται ὄρους Ἰλλυρικοῦ, διὰ Λυχνιδοῦ πόλεως καὶ Πυλῶνος τόπου ὁρίζοντος ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ τήν τε Ἰλλυρίδα καὶ τὴν Μακεδονίαν· ἐκεῖθεν δʼ ἐστὶ παρὰ Βαρνοῦντα διὰ Ἡρακλείας καὶ Λυγκηστῶν καὶ Ἐορδῶν εἰς Ἔδεσσαν καὶ Πέλλαν μέχρι Θεσσαλονικείας· μίλια δʼ ἐστί, φησὶ Πολύβιος, ταῦτα διακόσια ἑξήκοντα ἑπτά. ταύτην δὴ τὴν ὁδὸν ἐκ τῶν περὶ τὴν Ἐπίδαμνον καὶ τὴν Ἀπολλωνίαν τόπων ἰοῦσιν ἐν δεξιᾷ μέν ἐστι τὰ Ἠπειρωτικὰ ἔθνη κλυζόμενα τῷ Σικελικῷ πελάγει μέχρι τοῦ Ἀμβρακικοῦ κόλπου, ἐν ἀριστερᾷ δὲ τὰ ὄρη τὰ τῶν Ἰλλυριῶν ἃ προδιήλθομεν, καὶ τὰ ἔθνη τὰ παροικοῦντα μέχρι Μακεδονίας καὶ Παιόνων. εἶτʼ ἀπὸ μὲν Ἀμβρακικοῦ κόλπου τὰ νεύοντα ἐφεξῆς πρὸς ἕω, τὰ ἀντιπαρήκοντα τῇ Πελοποννήσῳ, τῆς Ἑλλάδος ἐστίν· εἶτʼ ἐκπίπτει εἰς τὸ Αἰγαῖον πέλαγος ἀπολιπόντα ἐν δεξιᾷ τὴν Πελοπόννησον ὅλην. ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς ἀρχῆς τῶν Μακεδονικῶν ὀρῶν καὶ τῶν Παιονικῶν μέχρι Στρυμόνος ποταμοῦ Μακεδόνες τε οἰκοῦσι καὶ Παίονες καί τινες τῶν ὀρεινῶν Θρᾳκῶν· τὰ δὲ πέραν Στρυμόνος ἤδη μέχρι τοῦ Ποντικοῦ στόματος καὶ τοῦ Αἵμου πάντα Θρᾳκῶν ἔστι πλὴν τῆς παραλίας· αὕτη δʼ ὑφʼ Ἑλλήνων οἰκεῖται, τῶν μὲν ἐπὶ τῇ Προποντίδι ἱδρυμένων, τῶν δὲ ἐφʼ Ἑλλησπόντῳ καὶ τῷ Μέλανι κόλπῳ, τῶν δʼ ἐπὶ τῷ Αἰγαίῳ. τὸ δʼ Αἰγαῖον πέλαγος δύο κλύζει πλευρὰς τῆς Ἑλλάδος, τὴν μὲν πρὸς ἕω βλέπουσαν, τείνουσαν δὲ ἀπὸ Σουνίου πρὸς τὴν ἄρκτον μέχρι τοῦ Θερμαίου κόλπου καὶ Θεσσαλονικείας Μακεδονικῆς πόλεως, ἣ νῦν μάλιστα τῶν ἄλλων εὐανδρεῖ, τὴν δὲ πρὸς νότον τὴν Μακεδονικὴν ἀπὸ Θεσσαλονικείας μέχρι Στρυμόνος· τινὲς δὲ καὶ τὴν ἀπὸ Στρυμόνος μέχρι Νέστου τῇ Μακεδονίᾳ προσνέμουσιν, ἐπειδὴ Φίλιππος ἐσπούδασε διαφερόντως περὶ ταῦτα τὰ χωρία ὥστʼ ἐξιδιώσασθαι, καὶ συνεστήσατο προσόδους μεγίστας ἐκ τῶν μετάλλων καὶ τῆς ἄλλης εὐφυΐας τῶν τόπων. ἀπὸ δὲ Σουνίου μέχρι Πελοποννήσου τὸ Μυρτῷον ἔστι καὶ Κρητικὸν πέλαγος καὶ Λιβυκὸν σὺν τοῖς κόλποις μέχρι τοῦ Σικελικοῦ· τοῦτο δὲ καὶ τὸν Ἀμβρακικὸν καὶ Κορινθιακὸν καὶ Κρισαῖον ἐκπληροῖ κόλπον.

[5] τῶν μὲν οὖν Ἠπειρωτῶν ἔθνη φησὶν εἶναι Θεόπομπος τετταρεσκαίδεκα, τούτων δʼ ἐνδοξότατα Χάονες καὶ Μολοττοὶ διὰ τὸ ἄρξαι ποτὲ πάσης τῆς Ἠπειρώτιδος πρότερον μὲν Χάονας, ὕστερον δὲ Μολοττούς, οἳ καὶ διὰ τὴν συγγένειαν τῶν βασιλέων ἐπὶ πλέον ηὐξήθησαν (τῶν γὰρ Αἰακιδῶν ἦσαν), καὶ διὰ τὸ παρὰ τούτοις εἶναι τὸ ἐν Δωδώνῃ μαντεῖον, παλαιόν τε καὶ ὀνομαστὸν ὄν. Χάονες μὲν οὖν καὶ Θεσπρωτοὶ καὶ μετὰ τούτους ἐφεξῆς Κασσωπαῖοι (καὶ οὗτοι δʼ εἰσὶ Θεσπρωτοὶ) τὴν ἀπὸ τῶν Κεραυνίων ὀρῶν μέχρι τοῦ Ἀμβρακικοῦ κόλπου παραλίαν νέμονται χώραν εὐδαίμονα ἔχοντες· ὁ δὲ πλοῦς ἀπὸ τῶν Χαόνων ἀρξαμένῳ πρὸς ἀνίσχοντα ἥλιον καὶ πρὸς τὸν Ἀμβρακικὸν κόλπον καὶ τὸν Κορινθιακόν, ἐν δεξιᾷ ἔχοντι τὸ Αὐσόνιον πέλαγος, ἐν ἀριστερᾷ δὲ τὴν Ἤπειρον, εἰσὶ χίλιοι καὶ τριακόσιοι στάδιοι ἀπὸ τῶν Κεραυνίων ἐπὶ τὸ στόμα τοῦ Ἀμβρακικοῦ κόλπου. ἐν τούτῳ δʼ ἐστὶ τῷ διαστήματι Πάνορμός τε λιμὴν μέγας ἐν μέσοις τοῖς Κεραυνίοις ὄρεσι, καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα Ὄγχησμος λιμὴν ἄλλος, καθʼ ὃν τὰ δυσμικὰ ἄκρα τῆς Κορκυραίας ἀντίκειται, καὶ πάλιν ἄλλος Κασσιόπη, ἀφʼ οὗ ἐπὶ Βρεντέσιον χίλιοι ἑπτακόσιοι στάδιοι· οἱ δʼ ἴσοι καὶ ἐπὶ Τάραντα ἀπὸ ἄλλου ἀκρωτηρίου νοτιωτέρου τῆς Κασσιόπης ὃ καλοῦσι Φαλακρόν. μετὰ δὲ Ὄγχησμον Ποσείδιον καὶ Βουθρωτὸν ἐπὶ τῷ στόματι τοῦ Πηλώδους καλουμένου λιμένος ἱδρυμένον ἐν τόπῳ χερρονησίζοντι, ἐποίκους ἔχον Ῥωμαίους, καὶ τὰ Σύβοτα. εἰσὶ δὲ νησῖδες τὰ Σύβοτα τῆς μὲν Ἠπείρου μικρὸν ἀπέχουσαι, κατὰ δὲ τὸ ἑῷον ἄκρον τῆς Κορκυραίας τὴν Λευκίμμαν κείμεναι. καὶ ἄλλαι δʼ ἐν τῷ παράπλῳ νησῖδες εἰσὶν οὐκ ἄξιαι μνήμης. ἔπειτα ἄκρα Χειμέριον καὶ Γλυκὺς λιμήν, εἰς ὃν ἐμβάλλει ὁ Ἀχέρων ποταμός, ῥέων ἐκ τῆς Ἀχερουσίας λίμνης καὶ δεχόμενος πλείους ποταμοὺς ὥστε καὶ γλυκαίνειν τὸν κόλπον· ῥεῖ δὲ καὶ ὁ Θύαμις πλησίον. ὑπέρκειται δὲ τούτου μὲν τοῦ κόλπου Κίχυρος, ἡ πρότερον Ἐφύρα, πόλις Θεσπρωτῶν· τοῦ δὲ κατὰ Βουθρωτὸν ἡ Φοινίκη. ἐγγὺς δὲ τῆς Κιχύρου πολίχνιον Βουχέτιον Κασσωπαίων μικρὸν ὑπὲρ τῆς θαλάττης ὄν, καὶ Ἐλάτρια καὶ Πανδοσία καὶ Βατίαι ἐν μεσογαίᾳ, καθήκει δʼ αὐτῶν ἡ χώρα μέχρι τοῦ κόλπου. μετὰ δὲ Γλυκὺν λιμένα ἐφεξῆς εἰσι δύο ἄλλοι λιμένες, ὁ μὲν ἐγγυτέρω καὶ ἐλάττων Κόμαρος ἰσθμὸν ποιῶν ἑξήκοντα σταδίων πρὸς τὸν Ἀμβρακικὸν κόλπον καὶ τὸ τοῦ Σεβαστοῦ Καίσαρος κτίσμα τὴν Νικόπολιν· ὁ δὲ ἀπωτέρω καὶ μείζων καὶ ἀμείνων πλησίον τοῦ στόματος τοῦ κόλπου, διέχων τῆς Νικοπόλεως ὅσον δώδεκα σταδίους.

[6] ἐφεξῆς δὲ τὸ στόμα τοῦ Ἀμβρακικοῦ κόλπου· τούτου δὲ τοῦ κόλπου τὸ μὲν στόμα μικρῷ τοῦ τετρασταδίου μεῖζον, ὁ δὲ κύκλος καὶ τριακοσίων σταδίων, εὐλίμενος δὲ πᾶς. οἰκοῦσι δὲ τὰ μὲν ἐν δεξιᾷ εἰσπλέουσι τῶν Ἑλλήνων Ἀκαρνᾶνες· καὶ ἱερὸν τοῦ Ἀκτίου Ἀπόλλωνος ἐνταῦθά ἐστι πλησίον τοῦ στόματος, λόφος τις ἐφʼ ᾧ ὁ νεώς, καὶ ὑπʼ αὐτῷ πεδίον ἄλσος ἔχον καὶ νεώρια, ἐν οἷς ἀνέθηκε Καῖσαρ τὴν δεκαναΐαν ἀκροθίνιον, ἀπὸ μονοκρότου μέχρι δεκήρους· ὑπὸ πυρὸς δʼ ἠφανίσθαι καὶ οἱ νεώσοικοι λέγονται καὶ τὰ πλοῖα· ἐν ἀριστερᾷ δὲ ἡ Νικόπολις καὶ τῶν Ἠπειρωτῶν οἱ Κασσωπαῖοι μέχρι τοῦ μυχοῦ τοῦ κατὰ Ἀμβρακίαν· ὑπέρκειται δὲ αὕτη τοῦ μυχοῦ μικρόν, Γόργου τοῦ Κυψέλου κτίσμα· παραρρεῖ δʼ αὐτὴν ὁ Ἄρατθος ποταμὸς ἀνάπλουν ἔχων ἐκ θαλάττης εἰς αὐτὴν ὀλίγων σταδίων, ἀρχόμενος ἐκ Τύμφης ὄρους καὶ τῆς Παρωραίας. ηὐτύχει μὲν οὖν καὶ πρότερον ἡ πόλις αὕτη διαφερόντως (τὴν γοῦν ἐπωνυμίαν ἐντεῦθεν ἔσχηκεν ὁ κόλπος), μάλιστα δʼ ἐκόσμησεν αὐτὴν Πύρρος βασιλείῳ χρησάμενος τῷ τόπῳ· Μακεδόνες δʼ ὕστερον καὶ Ῥωμαῖοι καὶ ταύτην καὶ τὰς ἄλλας κατεπόνησαν τοῖς συνεχέσι πολέμοις διὰ τὴν ἀπείθειαν, ὥστε τὸ τελευταῖον ὁ Σεβαστὸς ὁρῶν ἐκλελειμμένας τελέως τὰς πόλεις εἰς μίαν συνῴκισε τὴν ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ κληθεῖσαν Νικόπολιν ἐν τῷ κόλπῳ τούτῳ, ἐκάλεσε δʼ ἐπώνυμον τῆς νίκης, ἐν ᾗ κατεναυμάχησεν Ἀντώνιον πρὸ τοῦ στόματος τοῦ κόλπου καὶ τὴν Αἰγυπτίων βασίλισσαν Κλεοπάτραν παροῦσαν ἐν τῷ ἀγῶνι καὶ αὐτήν. ἡ μὲν οὖν Νικόπολις εὐανδρεῖ καὶ λαμβάνει καθʼ ἡμέραν ἐπίδοσιν, χώραν τε ἔχουσα πολλὴν καὶ τὸν ἐκ τῶν λαφύρων κόσμον, τό τε κατασκευασθὲν τέμενος ἐν τῷ προαστείῳ τὸ μὲν εἰς τὸν ἀγῶνα τὸν πεντετηρικὸν ἐν ἄλσει ἔχοντι γυμνάσιόν τε καὶ στάδιον, τὸ δʼ ἐν τῷ ὑπερκειμένῳ τοῦ ἄλσους ἱερῷ λόφῳ τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος. ἀποδέδεικται δʼ ὁ ἀγὼν Ὀλύμπιος, τὰ Ἄκτια, ἱερὸς τοῦ Ἀκτίου Ἀπόλλωνος, τὴν δʼ ἐπιμέλειαν ἔχουσιν αὐτοῦ Λακεδαιμόνιοι. αἱ δʼ ἄλλαι κατοικίαι περιπόλιοι τῆς Νικοπόλεώς εἰσιν. ἤγετο δὲ καὶ πρότερον τὰ Ἄκτια τῷ θεῷ, στεφανίτης ἀγών, ὑπὸ τῶν περιοίκων· νυνὶ δʼ ἐντιμότερον ἐποίησεν ὁ Καῖσαρ.

[7] μετὰ δὲ τὴν Ἀμβρακίαν τὸ Ἄργος ἐστὶ τὸ Ἀμφιλοχικόν, κτίσμα Ἀλκμαίωνος καὶ τῶν παίδων. Ἔφορος μὲν οὖν φησὶ τὸν Ἀλκμαίωνα μετὰ τὴν Ἐπιγόνων ἐπὶ τὰς Θήβας στρατείαν παρακληθέντα ὑπὸ Διομήδους συνελθεῖν εἰς Αἰτωλίαν αὐτῷ καὶ συγκατακτήσασθαι ταύτην τε καὶ τὴν Ἀκαρνανίαν· καλοῦντος δʼ αὐτοὺς ἐπὶ τὸν Τρωικὸν πόλεμον Ἀγαμέμνονος, τὸν μὲν Διομήδη πορευθῆναι, τὸν δʼ Ἀλκμαίωνα μείναντα ἐν τῇ Ἀκαρνανίᾳ τὸ Ἄργος κτίσαι, καλέσαι δʼ Ἀμφιλοχικὸν ἐπώνυμον τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ, Ἴναχον δὲ τὸν διὰ τῆς χώρας ῥέοντα ποταμὸν εἰς τὸν κόλπον ἀπὸ τοῦ κατὰ τὴν Ἀργείαν προσαγορεῦσαι. Θουκυδίδης δέ φησιν αὐτὸν Ἀμφίλοχον μετὰ τὴν ἐκ Τροίας ἐπάνοδον δυσαρεστοῦντα τοῖς ἐν Ἄργει παρελθεῖν εἰς τὴν Ἀκαρνανίαν, διαδεξάμενον δὲ τὴν τἀδελφοῦ δυναστείαν κτίσαι τὴν πόλιν ἐπώνυμον ἑαυτοῦ.

[8] Ἠπειρῶται δʼ εἰσὶ καὶ Ἀμφίλοχοι καὶ οἱ ὑπερκείμενοι καὶ συνάπτοντες τοῖς Ἰλλυρικοῖς ὄρεσι, τραχεῖαν οἰκοῦντες χώραν, Μολοττοί τε καὶ Ἀθαμᾶνες καὶ Αἴθικες καὶ Τυμφαῖοι καὶ Ὀρέσται Παρωραῖοί τε καὶ Ἀτιντᾶνες, οἱ μὲν πλησιάζοντες τοῖς Μακεδόσι μᾶλλον οἱ δὲ τῷ Ἰονίῳ κόλπῳ. λέγεται δὲ τὴν Ὀρεστιάδα κατασχεῖν ποτε Ὀρέστης φεύγων τὸν τῆς μητρὸς φόνον καὶ καταλιπεῖν ἐπώνυμον ἑαυτοῦ τὴν χώραν, κτίσαι δὲ καὶ πόλιν, καλεῖσθαι δʼ αὐτὴν Ἄργος Ὀρεστικόν. ἀναμέμικται δὲ τούτοις τὰ Ἰλλυρικὰ ἔθνη τὰ πρὸς τῷ νοτίῳ μέρει τῆς ὀρεινῆς καὶ τὰ ὑπὲρ τοῦ Ἰονίου κόλπου· τῆς γὰρ Ἐπιδάμνου καὶ τῆς Ἀπολλωνίας μέχρι τῶν Κεραυνίων ὑπεροικοῦσι Βυλλίονές τε καὶ Ταυλάντιοι καὶ Παρθῖνοι καὶ Βρῦγοι· πλησίον δέ που καὶ τὰ ἀργυρεῖα τὰ ἐν Δαμαστίῳ, περὶ ἃ Δυέσται συνεστήσαντο τὴν δυναστείαν καὶ Ἐγχέλειοι, οὓς καὶ Σεσαρηθίους καλοῦσι· πρὸς δὲ τούτοις Λυγκῆσταί τε καὶ ἡ Δευρίοπος καὶ ἡ τρίπολις Πελαγονία καὶ Ἐορδοὶ καὶ Ἐλίμεια καὶ Ἐράτυρα. ταῦτα δὲ πρότερον μὲν κατεδυναστεύετο ἕκαστα, ὧν ἐν τοῖς Ἐγχελείοις οἱ Κάδμου καὶ Ἁρμονίας ἀπόγονοι ἦρχον, καὶ τὰ μυθευόμενα περὶ αὐτῶν ἐκεῖ δείκνυται. οὗτοι μὲν οὖν οὐχ ὑπὸ ἰθαγενῶν ἤρχοντο· οἱ δὲ Λυγκῆσται ὑπʼ Ἀρραβαίῳ ἐγένοντο τοῦ Βακχιαδῶν γένους ὄντι· τούτου δʼ ἦν θυγατριδῆ ἡ Φιλίππου μήτηρ τοῦ Ἀμύντου Εὐρυδίκη, Σίρρα δὲ θυγάτηρ· καὶ τῶν Ἠπειρωτῶν δὲ Μολοττοὶ ὑπὸ Πύρρῳ τῷ Νεοπτολέμου τοῦ Ἀχιλλέως καὶ τοῖς ἀπογόνοις αὐτοῦ Θετταλοῖς οὖσι γεγονότες· οἱ λοιποὶ δὲ ὑπὸ ἰθαγενῶν ἤρχοντο· εἶτʼ ἐπικρατούντων ἀεί τινων κατέστρεψεν ἅπαντα εἰς τὴν Μακεδόνων ἀρχήν, πλὴν ὀλίγων τῶν ὑπὲρ τοῦ Ἰονίου κόλπου. καὶ δὴ καὶ τὰ περὶ Λύγκον καὶ Πελαγονίαν καὶ Ὀρεστιάδα καὶ Ἐλίμειαν τὴν ἄνω Μακεδονίαν ἐκάλουν, οἱ δʼ ὕστερον καὶ ἐλευθέραν· ἔνιοι δὲ καὶ σύμπασαν τὴν μέχρι Κορκύρας Μακεδονίαν προσαγορεύουσιν, αἰτιολογοῦντες ἅμα ὅτι καὶ κουρᾷ καὶ διαλέκτῳ καὶ χλαμύδι καὶ ἄλλοις τοιούτοις χρῶνται παραπλησίως· ἔνιοι δὲ καὶ δίγλωττοί εἰσι. καταλυθείσης δὲ τῆς Μακεδόνων ἀρχῆς ὑπὸ Ῥωμαίους ἔπεσε. διὰ δὲ τούτων ἐστὶ τῶν ἐθνῶν ἡ Ἐγνατία ὁδὸς ἐξ Ἐπιδάμνου καὶ Ἀπολλωνίας· περὶ δὲ τὴν ἐπὶ Κανδαουίας ὁδὸν αἵ τε λίμναι εἰσὶν αἱ περὶ Λυχνιδὸν ταριχείας ἰχθύων αὐτάρκεις ἔχουσαι, καὶ ποταμοὶ οἵ τε εἰς τὸν Ἰόνιον κόλπον ἐκπίπτοντες καὶ οἱ ἐπὶ τὰ νότια μέρη, ὅ τʼ Ἴναχος καὶ ὁ Ἄρατθος καὶ ὁ Ἀχελῶος καὶ ὁ Εὔηνος ὁ Λυκόρμας πρότερον καλούμενος, ὁ μὲν εἰς τὸν κόλπον τὸν Ἀμβρακικὸν ἐμβάλλων ὁ δὲ εἰς τὸν Ἀχελῶον, αὐτὸς δὲ ὁ Ἀχελῶος εἰς τὴν θάλατταν καὶ ὁ Εὔηνος, ὁ μὲν τὴν Ἀκαρνανίαν διεξιὼν ὁ δὲ τὴν Αἰτωλίαν· ὁ δὲ Ἐρίγων πολλὰ δεξάμενος ῥεύματα ἐκ τῶν Ἰλλυρικῶν ὀρῶν καὶ Λυγκηστῶν καὶ Βρύγων καὶ Δευριόπων καὶ Πελαγόνων εἰς τὸν Ἀξιὸν ἐκδίδωσι.

[9] πρότερον μὲν οὖν καὶ πόλεις ἦσαν ἐν τοῖς ἔθνεσι τούτοις· τρίπολις γοῦν ἡ Πελαγονία ἐλέγετο, ἧς καὶ Ἄζωρος ἦν, καὶ ἐπὶ τῷ Ἐρίγωνι πᾶσαι αἱ τῶν Δευριόπων πόλεις ᾤκηντο, ὧν τὸ Βρυάνιον καὶ Ἀλαλκομεναὶ καὶ Στύβαρα· Κύδραι δὲ Βρύγων, Αἰγίνιον δὲ Τυμφαίων, ὅμορον Αἰθικίᾳ καὶ Τρίκκῃ· πλησίον δʼ ἤδη τῆς τε Μακεδονίας καὶ τῆς Θετταλίας περὶ τὸ Ποῖον ὄρος καὶ τὴν Πίνδον Αἴθικές τε καὶ τοῦ Πηνειοῦ πηγαί, ὧν ἀμφισβητοῦσι Τυμφαῖοί τε καὶ οἱ ὑπὸ τῇ Πίνδῳ Θετταλοί· καὶ πόλις Ὀξύνεια παρὰ τὸν Ἴωνα ποταμὸν ἀπέχουσα Ἀζώρου τῆς τριπολίτιδος σταδίους ἑκατὸν εἴκοσι· πλησίον δὲ καὶ Ἀλαλκομεναὶ καὶ Αἰγίνιον καὶ Εὔρωπος καὶ αἱ τοῦ Ἴωνος εἰς τὸν Πηνειὸν συμβολαί. τότε μὲν οὖν, ὡς εἶπον, καίπερ οὖσα τραχεῖα καὶ ὀρῶν πλήρης, Τομάρου καὶ Πολυάνου καὶ ἄλλων πλειόνων, ὅμως εὐάνδρει ἥ τε Ἤπειρος πᾶσα καὶ ἡ Ἰλλυρίς· νῦν δὲ τὰ πολλὰ μὲν ἐρημία κατέχει, τὰ δʼ οἰκούμενα κωμηδὸν καὶ ἐν ἐρειπίοις λείπεται.

[10] ἐκλέλοιπε δέ πως καὶ τὸ μαντεῖον τὸ ἐν Δωδώνῃ, καθάπερ τἆλλα. ἔστι δʼ, ὥς φησιν Ἔφορος, Πελασγῶν ἵδρυμα· οἱ δὲ Πελασγοὶ τῶν περὶ τὴν Ἑλλάδα δυναστευσάντων ἀρχαιότατοι λέγονται· καὶ ὁ ποιητής φησιν οὕτω

Ζεῦ ἄνα Δωδωναῖε, Πελασγικέ,

³ ὁ δʼ Ἡσίοδος

Δωδώνην φηγόν τε, Πελασγῶν ἕδρανον ᾖεν.

⁴ περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν Πελασγῶν ἐν τοῖς Τυρρηνικοῖς εἴρηται, περὶ δὲ Δωδώνης τοὺς μὲν περιοικοῦντας τὸ ἱερὸν διότι βάρβαροι διασαφεῖ καὶ ὁ Ὅμηρος ἐκ τῆς διαίτης, ἀνιπτόποδας χαμαιεύνας λέγων· πότερον δὲ χρὴ λέγειν Ἑλλούς, ὡς Πίνδαρος, ἢ Σελλούς, ὡς ὑπονοοῦσι παρʼ Ὁμήρῳ κεῖσθαι, ἡ γραφὴ ἀμφίβολος οὖσα οὐκ ἐᾷ διισχυρίζεσθαι. Φιλόχορος δέ φησι καὶ τὸν περὶ Δωδώνην τόπον, ὥσπερ τὴν Εὔβοιαν, Ἑλλοπίαν κληθῆναι· καὶ γὰρ Ἡσίοδον οὕτω λέγειν

ἔστι τις Ἑλλοπίη, πολυλήιος ἠδʼ ἐυλείμων·

ἔνθα δὲ Δωδώνη τις ἐπʼ ἐσχατιῇ πεπόλισται.

⁵ οἴονται δέ, φησὶν ὁ Ἀπολλόδωρος, ἀπὸ τῶν ἑλῶν τῶν περὶ τὸ ἱερὸν οὕτω καλεῖσθαι· τὸν μέντοι ποιητὴν οὐχ οὕτω λέγειν Ἑλλοὺς ἀλλὰ Σελλοὺς ὑπολαμβάνει τοὺς περὶ τὸ ἱερόν, προσθεὶς ὅτι καὶ Σελλήεντα τινὰ ὀνομάζει ποταμόν. ὀνομάζει μὲν οὖν, ὅταν φῇ

τηλόθεν ἐξ Ἐφύρης ποταμοῦ ἄπο Σελλήεντος.

⁶ οὐ μέντοι, ὁ Σκήψιός φησι, τῆς ἐν Θεσπρωτοῖς Ἐφύρας, ἀλλὰ τῆς ἐν τοῖς Ἠλείοις· ἐκεῖ γὰρ εἶναι τὸν Σελλήεντα, ἐν δὲ Θεσπρωτοῖς οὐδένα, οὐδʼ ἐν Μολοττοῖς. τὰ δὲ μυθευόμενα περὶ τῆς δρυὸς καὶ τῶν πελειῶν καὶ εἴ τινα ἄλλα τοιαῦτα, καθάπερ καὶ τὰ περὶ Δελφῶν, τὰ μὲν ποιητικωτέρας ἐστὶ διατριβῆς τὰ δʼ οἰκεῖα τῆς νῦν περιοδείας.

[11] ἡ Δωδώνη τοίνυν τὸ μὲν παλαιὸν ὑπὸ Θεσπρωτοῖς ἦν καὶ τὸ ὄρος ὁ Τόμαρος ἢ Τμάρος (ἀμφοτέρως γὰρ λέγεται), ὑφʼ ᾧ κεῖται τὸ ἱερόν· καὶ οἱ τραγικοὶ δὲ καὶ Πίνδαρος Θεσπρωτίδα εἰρήκασι τὴν Δωδώνην· ὕστερον δὲ ὑπὸ Μολοττοῖς ἐγένετο. ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ Τομάρου τοὺς ὑπὸ τοῦ ποιητοῦ λεγομένους ὑποφήτας τοῦ Διός, οὓς καὶ ἀνιπτόποδας χαμαιεύνας καλεῖ, τομούρους φασὶ λεχθῆναι· καὶ ἐν μὲν τῇ Ὀδυσσείᾳ οὕτω γράφουσί τινες ἅ φησιν Ἀμφίνομος, συμβουλεύων τοῖς μνηστῆρσι μὴ πρότερον ἐπιτίθεσθαι τῷ Τηλεμάχῳ πρὶν ἂν τὸν Δία ἔρωνται

εἰ μέν κʼ αἰνήσωσι Διὸς μεγάλοιο τομοῦροι,

αὐτός τε κτανέω, τούς τʼ ἄλλους πάντας ἀνώξω·

εἰ δέ κʼ ἀποτρεπέῃσι θεός, παύεσθαι ἄνωγα.

⁷ βέλτιον γὰρ εἶναι τομούρους ἢ θέμιστας γράφειν· οὐδαμοῦ γοῦν τὰ μαντεῖα θέμιστας λέγεσθαι παρὰ τῷ ποιητῇ, ἀλλὰ τὰς βουλὰς καὶ τὰ πολιτεύματα καὶ νομοθετήματα· τομούρους δʼ εἰρῆσθαι ἐπιτετμημένως⁸ οἷον τομαροφύλακας. οἱ μὲν οὖν νεώτεροι λέγουσιν τομούρους· παρʼ Ὁμήρῳ δʼ ἁπλούστερον δεῖ δέχεσθαι θέμιστας καταχρηστικῶς καὶ βουλάς, τὰ προστάγματα καὶ τὰ βουλήματα τὰ μαντικά, καθάπερ καὶ τὰ νόμιμα· τοιοῦτον γὰρ καὶ τό

ἐκ δρυὸς ὑψικόμοιο Διὸς βουλὴν ἐπακοῦσαι.

⁹

[12] κατʼ ἀρχὰς μὲν οὖν ἄνδρες ἦσαν οἱ προφητεύοντες· καὶ τοῦτʼ ἴσως καὶ ὁ ποιητὴς ἐμφαίνει· ὑποφήτας γὰρ καλεῖ, ἐν οἷς τάττοιντο κἂν οἱ προφῆται· ὕστερον δʼ ἀπεδείχθησαν τρεῖς γραῖαι, ἐπειδὴ καὶ σύνναος τῷ Διὶ προσαπεδείχθη καὶ ἡ Διώνη. Σουίδας μέντοι Θετταλοῖς μυθώδεις λόγους προσχαριζόμενος ἐκεῖθέν τέ φησιν εἶναι τὸ ἱερὸν μετενηνεγμένον ἐκ τῆς περὶ Σκοτοῦσσαν Πελασγίας (ἔστι δʼ ἡ Σκοτοῦσσα τῆς Πελασγιώτιδος Θετταλίας), συνακολουθῆσαί τε γυναῖκας τὰς πλείστας, ὧν ἀπογόνους εἶναι τὰς νῦν προφήτιδας· ἀπὸ δὲ τούτου καὶ Πελασγικὸν Δία κεκλῆσθαι· Κινέας δʼ ἔτι μυθωδέστερον.

Translations (1)

Geography Perseus (Strabo. The Geography of Strabo, Vols. 1-3. Hamilton, Hans Claude, translator; Falconer, William, translator. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1854-1857.) — 7.7 focus

CHAPTER VII.

[1] THESE are the nations, bounded by the Danube and by the Illyrian and Thracian mountains, which are worthy of record. They occupy the whole coast of the Adriatic Sea, beginning from the recess of the gulf, and the left side, as it is called, of the Euxine Sea, from the river Danube to Byzantium.

The southern parts of the above-mentioned mountainous tract, and the countries which follow, lying below it, remain to be described. Among these are Greece, and the contiguous barbarous country extending to the mountains.

Hecataeus of Miletus says of the Peloponnesus, that, before the time of the Greeks, it was inhabited by barbarians. Perhaps even the whole of Greece was, anciently, a settlement of barbarians, if we judge from former accounts. For Pelops brought colonists from Phrygia into the Peloponnesus, which took his name; Danaus¹ brought colonists from Egypt; Dryopes, Caucones, Pelasgi, Leleges, and other barbarous nations, partitioned among themselves the country on this side of the isthmus.² The case was the same on the other side of the isthmus; for Thracians, under their leader Eumolpus,³ took possession of Attica; Tereus of Daulis in Phocaea; the Phoenicians, with their leader Cadmus,⁴ occupied the Cadmeian district; Aones, and Temmices, and Hyantes, Boeotia. Pindar says, there was a time when the Boeotian people were called Syes.⁵ Some names show their barbarous origin, as Cecrops, Codrus, Oeclus, Cothus, Drymas, and Crinacus.⁶ Thracians, Illyrians, and Epirotae are settled even at present on the sides of Greece. Formerly the territory they possessed was more extensive, although even now the barbarians possess a large part of the country, which, without dispute, is Greece. Macedonia is occupied by Thracians, as well as some parts of Thessaly; the country above Acarnania and Aetolia, by Thesproti, Cassopaei, Amphilochi, Molotti, and Athamanes, Epirotic tribes.

[2] We have already spoken of the Pelasgi.⁷ Some writers conjecture that the Leleges and Carians are the same people; others, that they were only joint settlers, and comrades in war, because there are said to be some settlements called Settlements of the Leleges in the Milesian territory, and in many parts of Caria there are burial-places of the Leleges, and deserted fortresses, called Lelegia.

The whole country called Ionia was formerly inhabited by Carians and Leleges; these were expelled by the Ionians, who themselves took possession of the country. In still earlier times, the captors of Troy⁸ had driven out the Leleges from the places about Ida near the rivers Pedasus and Satnioeis.

The fact of the association of these people with the Carians may be regarded as a proof of their being barbarians, and Aristotle, in his Politics, shows that they were a wandering nation, sometimes in company with the Carians, sometimes alone, and that from ancient times; for, in speaking of the polity of the Acarnanians, he says that the Curetes occupied a part of the country, and the Leleges (and after them the Teleboae) the western side. On the subject of the Aetolian polity, he calls the present Locri, Leleges, and observes that they occupy Boeotia. He repeats the same remark on the subject of the polity of the Opuntians and Megareans. In speaking of the polity of the Leucadians, he mentions an aboriginal by name, Leleges, and a grandson by his daughter of the name of Teleboas, and besides two and twenty of his sons of the name of Teleboas, some of whom inhabited Lucas. But we should chiefly rely upon Hesiod, who thus speaks of them:

For Locrus was the leader of the nation of the Leleges, whom Jupiter, the son of Saturn, in his infinite wisdom, once gave as subjects to Deucalion, a people gathered from among the nations of the earth.

For it seems to me to be obscurely intimated by the etymology of the name, Leleges, that they were a mixed people anciently collected together, which had become extinct. And this may be said of the Caucones, who exist no where at present, yet were formerly settled in several places.

[3] Although Greece was formerly composed of small nations, many in number, and obscure; nevertheless their valour, and their separate government by kings, prevented any difficulty in defining their boundaries. As the greatest part of the country, however, is at present uninhabited, and the settlements, especially the cities, have been destroyed, it would be of no service, even if it were possible, to ascertain the names of cities and regions occupied by obscure and extinct people. This destruction, which began a long time since, still continues in many parts in consequence of rebellion. It has been checked by the Romans, who accepted the supreme authority from the inhabitants and lodged soldiers in their houses. Polybius says that Paulus [Emilius], after the defeat of the Macedonians⁹ and their king Perseus, destroyed 70 cities of the Epirotae (most of which belonged to the Molotti) and reduced to slavery 150,000 of the inhabitants. Still, however, I shall endeavour, as far as it is compatible with the design of this work, to describe, as far as I am able, these places in detail, beginning from the sea-coast near the Ionian Gulf, where the navigation out of the Adriatic terminates.

[4] The first parts of this coast are those about Epidamnus and Apollonia. From Apollonia to Macedonia is the Egnatian Way; its direction is towards the east, and the distance is measured by pillars at every mile, as far as Cypselus¹⁰ and the river Hebrus.¹¹ The whole distance is 535 miles. But reckoning, as the generality of persons reckon, a mile at eight stadia, there may be 4280 stadia. And according to Polybius, who adds two plethra, that is, the third of a stadium, to every eight stadia, we must add 178 stadia more, a third part of the number of miles.¹² A traveller from Apollonia,¹³ and a traveller from Epidamnus,¹⁴ on the same road, meet midway between the two cities. The whole is called the Egnatian Way. The first part of it is called the road to Candavia, which is an Illyrian mountain. It passes through Lychnidus,¹⁵ a city, and Pylon, a place which separates Illyria from Macedonia. Thence its direction is beside Barnus through Heracleia, the Lyncestae, and the Eordi, to Edessa¹⁶ and Pella,¹⁷ as far as Thessalonica.¹⁸ Polybius says, that this is a distance of 267 miles. In travelling this road from the neighbourhood of Epidamnus and Apollonia, on the right hand are the Epirotic nations situated on the coast of the Sicilian Sea, and extending as far as the Gulf of Ambracia;¹⁹ on the left are the Illyrian mountains, which we have before described, and the nations that live near them, extending as far as Macedonia and the Paeones. From the Gulf of Ambracia the places next in order, inclining to the east, and extending opposite to Peloponnesus, belong to Greece; they terminate at the Aegean Sea, leaving the whole of Peloponnesus on the right hand.

The country, from the commencement of the Macedonian and Paeonian mountains, as far as the river Strymon,²⁰ is inhabited by Macedonians, and Paeones, and some of the Thracian mountain tribes. But all the country on the other side the Strymon, as far as the mouth of the Euxine Sea, and Mount Haemus,²¹ belong to the Thracians, except the coast, which is occupied by Greeks, some of whom are settled on the Propontis,²² others on the Hellespont and on the Gulf Melas,²³ and others on the Aegean Sea.

The Aegean Sea waters two sides of Greece; first, the eastern side, extending from the promontory Sunium²⁴ to the north as far as the Thermaean Gulf, and Thessalonica, a Macedonian city, which has, at present, the largest population in these parts. Then the southern side, which is a part of Macedonia, extending from Thessalonica to the Strymon. Some writers assign the coast from the Strymon as far as Nestus²⁵ to Macedonia. For Philip showed the greatest solicitude to obtain, and at length appropriated it to himself. He raised a very large revenue from the mines, and from other sources which the richness of the country afforded.

From Sunium to the Peloponnesus are the Myrtoan, the Cretan, and the Libyan Seas, together with the Gulfs, as far as the Sicilian Sea, which consist of the Gulfs of Ambracia, of Corinth, and of Crissa.

[5] Theopompus says, that there are fourteen Epirotic nations. Of these, the most celebrated are the Chaones and Molotti, because the whole of Epirus was at one time subject, first to Chaones, afterwards to Molotti. Their power was greatly strengthened by the family of their kings being descended from the Aeacidae, and because the ancient and famous oracle of Dodona²⁶ was in their country. Chaones, Thesproti, and next after these Cassopaei, (who are Thesproti,) occupy the coast, a fertile tract reaching from the Ceraunian mountains to the Ambracian Gulf.

The voyage commencing from the Chaones eastward towards the Gulfs of Ambracia and Corinth, and having the Ausonian Sea on the right, and Epirus on the left, comprises 1300 stadia to the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf. In this interval is Panormus,²⁷ a large port in the middle of the Ceraunian mountains. Next to this is Onchesmus,²⁸ another harbour, opposite to which are the western extremities of Corcyra,²⁹ and then again another port, Cassiope,³⁰ (Cassope?) whence to Brundusium³¹ are 1700 stadia. It is the same distance to Tarentum from another promontory more to the south than Cassiope, which is called Phalacrum. Next after Onchesmus are Posidium, and Buthrotum,³² (which is situated upon the mouth of the lake Pelodes, in a spot of a peninsula form, and has a Roman colony,) and the Sybota. The Sybota³³ are small islands at a little distance from Epirus, lying near Leucimme,³⁴ the eastern promontory of Corcyra. There are also other small islands, not worthy of notice, which are met with along the coast.

Next is the promontory Chimerium, and a harbour called Glycys-Limen, [or Sweet Harbour,] where the river Acheron, which receives several other rivers, empties itself and renders fresh the water of the gulf. The Thyamus³⁵ flows near it. Above this gulf is situated Cichyrus, formerly Ephyra, a city of the Thesproti, and above the gulf at Buthrotum, Phoenice.³⁶ Near Cichyrus is Buchetium, a small city of the Cassopaei, situated at a little distance from the sea; Elatria, Pandosia, and Batiae are in the inland parts. Their territory extends as far as the gulf. Next after the harbour Glycys-Limen are two others, Comarus,³⁷ the nearest and smallest, forming an isthmus of 60 stadia, near the Ambracian Gulf and Nicopolis,³⁸ founded by Augustus Caesar; the other, the more distant and larger, and better harbour, is near the mouth of the gulf, and distant from Nicopolis about 12 stadia.

[6] Then follows the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, which is a little more than four stadia in width. The circuit of the gulf is 400 stadia, and the whole has good harbours. On sailing into it, on the right hand are the Acarnanes, who are Greeks; and here near the entrance of the gulf is a temple of Apollo Actius, situated on an eminence; in the plain below is a sacred grove, and a naval station. Here Augustus Caesar³⁹ dedicated as offerings one-tenth of the vessels taken in war, from vessels of one bank to vessels of ten banks of oars. The vessels, and the buildings destined for their reception, were destroyed, it is said, by fire.

On the left hand are Nicopolis,⁴⁰ and the Cassopaei, a tribe of the Epirotae, extending as far as the recess of the gulf at Ambracia. Ambracia⁴¹ is situated a little above the recess of the bay, and was founded by Gorgus, (Torgus, Tolgus,) the son of Cypselus. The river Arathus flows beside it, which may be navigated up the stream to the city, a distance of a few stadia. It rises in Mount Tymphe, and the Paroraea. This city was formerly in a very flourishing condition, and hence the gulf received its name from the city. Pyrrhus, however, embellished it more than any other person, and made it a royal residence. In later times,⁴² the Macedonians and Romans harassed this and other cities by continual wars, caused by the refractory disposition of the inhabitants, so that Augustus, at length perceiving that these cities were entirely deserted, collected their remaining inhabitants into one city, which he called Nicopolis, situated upon the gulf. He called it after the victory which he obtained in front of the gulf, over Antony, and Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, who was present in the engagement.

Nicopolis is well peopled, and is improving every day. It has a large territory, and is adorned with the spoils of war. In the suburbs is a sacred enclosure; part of it is a grove, containing a gymnasium and a stadium, intended for the celebration of quinquennial games; the other part, on a rising ground overhanging the grove, is sacred to Apollo. The Olympian game, called the Actia,⁴³ is instituted there in honour of Apollo Actius. It is under the superintendence of the Lacedaemonians. The other surrounding settlements are dependent on Nicopolis. The Actian games⁴⁴ were formerly celebrated in honour of the god by the neighbouring people; it was a contest in which the victor was crowned; but Caesar has conferred on it greater honours.

[7] After Ambracia follows the Amphilochian Argos, founded by Alcmaeon and his sons. According to Ephorus, Alcmaeon, after the expedition of the Epigoni⁴⁵ against Thebes, upon the solicitation of Diomed, accompanied him in his invasion of Aetolia, and obtained joint possession of this country and of Acarnania. When Agamemnon invited them to come to the siege of Troy, Diomed went, but Alcmaeon remained in Acarnania, founded Argos, and gave it the name Amphilochian, after his brother Amphilochus. On the same authority the river Inachus, which flows through the country and empties itself into the bay, received its name from the river in the Argive territory. Thucydides, however, says that Amphilochus himself, upon his return from Troy, dissatisfied with the state of things at Argos, passed over into Acarnania, and having succeeded to the dynasty of his brother, founded the city which is called after his name.

[8] The Amphilochians are Epirotae, as also are those nations who inhabit a rugged country situated above and close to the Illyrian mountains, the Molotti, Athamanes, Aethices, Tymphaei, Orestae Paroraei, and Atintanes, some of whom approach nearer to Macedonia, others to the Ionian Gulf. It is said that Orestes possessed the territory Orestias at the time of his flight, after the murder of his mother, and left the country bearing his name, where also he had built a city called Orestic Argos. With these people are intermixed Illyrian nations, some of whom are situated on the southern part of the mountainous district, and others above the Ionian Gulf. For above Epidamnus and Apollonia, as far as the Ceraunian mountains, live the Bulliones, Taulantii, Parthini, and Brygi.⁴⁶

Somewhere near are the silver mines of Damastium. Here the Perisadyes had established their sway, and Enchelii, who are also called Sesarethii. Then come the Lyncestae, the territory Deuriopus, Pelagonia-Tripolitis, the Eordi, Elimia, and Eratyra. Formerly each of these nations was under its own prince. The chiefs of the Enchelii were descendants of Cadmus and Harmonia, and scenes of the fables respecting these persons are shown in the territory. This nation, therefore, was not governed by native princes. The Lyncestae were under Arrhabaeus, who was of the race of the Bacchiadae. Irra was his daughter, and his grand-daughter was Eurydice, the mother of Philip Amyntas.

The Molotti also were Epirotae, and were subjects of Pyrrhus Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and of his descendants, who were Thessalians. The rest were governed by native princes. Some tribes were continually endeavouring to obtain the mastery over the others, but all were finally subdued by the Macedonians, except a few situated above the Ionian Gulf. They gave the name of Upper Macedonia to the country about Lyncestis, Pelagonia, Orestias, and Elimia. Later writers called it Macedonia the Free, and some extend the name of Macedonia to all the country as far as Corcyra, at the same time assigning as their reasons, the mode of cutting their hair, their language, the use of the chlamys, and similar things in which they resemble the Macedonians; some of them, however, speak two languages. On the dissolution of the Macedonian empire, they fell under the power of the Romans.

The Egnatian Way, from Epidamnus and Apollonia, passes through the territory of these people. Near the road to Candavia are the lakes about Lychnidus, which furnish large supplies of fish for salting, and rivers, some of which empty themselves into the Ionian Gulf. Some flow towards the south, as the Inachus, the Arathus, (Ratoiis,) the Achelous, and the Evenus, formerly called Lycormas. The Ratous discharges its waters into the Ambracian Gulf, the Inachus into the Achelous, the Achelous itself into the sea, as also the Evenus; the former traverses Acarnania, the latter Aetolia. The Erigon, after having received many streams which flow from the Illyrian mountains, and through the territories of Lyncestae, Brygi, Deuriopes, and Pelagonians, empties itself into the Axius.

[9] There were formerly cities among these nations. The district Pelagonia-Tripolitis contained (as the name signifies) three cities, of which Azorus was one. All the cities of the Deuriopes were situated on the banks of the Erigon; among which were Bryanium, Alalcomenae,⁴⁷ and Stymbara.⁴⁸ Cydriae belonged to the Brygi, and Aeginium on the confines of Aethicia, and Tricca, to the Tymphaei. Near Macedonia and Thessalia, about the mountains Poeus and Pindus, are the Aethices, and the sources of the Peneus, which are a subject of dispute between the Tymphei and the Thessalians, who are situated below Pindus.

On the banks of the river Ion is Oxynia, a city distant from Azorus in the Tripolitis 120 stadia. Near Oxynia are Alalcomenae, Aeginium, Europus, and the confluence of the Ion with the Peneus.

At that time then, as I said before, the whole of Epirus and Illyria were well peopled, although the country is rugged and full of mountains, such as Tomarus, and Polyanus, and many others. At present the greater part is uninhabited, and the inhabited parts are left in the state of villages, or in ruins. Even the oracle at Dodona has almost been deserted, like the rest.

[10] This oracle, according to Ephorus, was established by Pelasgi, who are said to be the most ancient people that were sovereigns in Greece. Thus the poet speaks,

O great Pelasgic Dodonaean Jove;⁴⁹

Iliad, book xvi. 233. and Hesiod,

He went to Dodona, the dwelling of the Pelasgi, and to the beech tree.

I have spoken of the Pelasgi in the account of Tyrrhenia.

With respect to Dodona, Homer clearly intimates that the people who lived about the temple were barbarians, from their mode of life, describing them as persons who do not wash their feet, and who sleep on the ground. Whether we should read Helli, with Pindar, or Selli, as it is conjectured the word existed in Homer, the ambiguity of the writing does not permit us to affirm confidently. Philochorus says, that the country about Dodona was called, like Euboea, Hellopia; for these are the words of Hesiod,

There is a country Hellopia, rich in corn-fields and pastures; at its extremity is built Dodona.

It is supposed, says Apollodorus, that it had this name from the hele, or marshes about the temple. He is of opinion that the poet did not call the people about the temple Helli, but Selli, adding, that Homer mentions a certain river (near) of the name of Selleis. He specifies the name in this line,

At a distance far from Ephyra, from the river Selleis.

[Demetrius of Skepsis contends that] Ephyra of Thesprotia is not here meant, but Ephyra of Elis. For the river Selleis is in Elis, and there is no river of this name either in Thesprotia or among the Molotti. The fable of the oak and the doves, and other similar things, like the stories connected with Delphi, although they are subjects more adapted to engage the attention of a poet, yet are appropriate to the description of the country with which we are now occupied.

[11] Dodona was formerly subject to the Thesproti, as was the mountain Tomarus, or Tmarus, (both names are in use,) be low which the temple is situated. The tragic writers and Pindar give the epithet of Thesprotis to Dodona. It was said to be subject, in later times, to the Molotti. Those called by the poet Jove’s interpreters,⁵⁰ and described by him as men with unwashen feet, who slept on the ground, were, it is said called Tomuri⁵¹ from Mount Tomarus, and the passage in the

Odyssey containing the advice of Amphinomus to the suitors not to attack Telemachus before they had inquired of Jupiter is as follows,

If the Tomuri of great Jove approve, I myself will kill him, and I will order all to join in the deed; but if the god forbid it, I command to withhold.

Odys. xvi. 403. For it is better, it is asserted, to write Tomuri⁵² than Themistae,⁵³ because in no passage whatever are oracles called by the poet Themistae, this term being applied to decrees,⁵⁴ or statutes and rules of civil government; and the persons are called Tomuri,⁵⁵ which is the contracted form of Tomaruri,⁵⁶ or guardians of Tomarus.

In Homer, however, we must understand θέμιστες in a more simple sense, and, like βουλαί, by the figure Catachresis, as meaning commands and oracular injunctions as well as laws; for such is the import of this line:

To listen to⁵⁷ the will of Jove, which comes forth from the lofty and verdant oak.

[12] The first prophets were men, and this the poet perhaps indicates, for he calls the persons interpreters,⁵⁸ among whom the prophets⁵⁹ might be classed. In after-times three old women were appointed to this office, after even Dione had a common temple with Jupiter.

Suidas, in order to court the favour of the Thessalians by fabulous stories, says, that the temple was transported from Scotussa of the Thessalian Pelasgiotis, accompanied by a great multitude, chiefly of women, whose descendants are the present prophetesses, and that hence Jupiter had the epithet Pelasgic. Cineas relates what is still more fabulous * * * * * * * * * *

[With the exception of the following Fragments, the rest of this book is lost.]

Notes on the current edition

Geography

1. See 7. 5. 1.

2. See 8. 3. 31, 4. 4, 5. 5 and 12. 8. 2.

3. See the quotation from Hesiod (2 following) and footnote on “peoples.”

4. See 8. 6. 9, 10.

5. son of Poseidon, king of the Thracians, and reputed founder of the Eleusinian Mysteries.

6. See 9. 3. 13.

7. Thebes and surrounding territory (9. 2. 3, 32).

8. Pind. Fr. Dith. 83 (Bergk)

9. Strabo identifies “Hyantes” with “Syes”=“Hyes,” i.e. “swine.”

10. 5. 2. 4.

11. Only fragments of this work are now extant (see Didot Edition, Vol. IV, pp. 219-296).

12. Now Santa Maura (cp. 10. 2. 2).

13. In the Greek word for “peoples” ( λαούς) Hesoid alludes to the Greek word for “stones” ( λᾶας). Pindar (Olymp. 9. 46 ff.) clearly derives the former word from the latter: “Pyrrha and Deucalion, without bed of marriage, founded a Stone Race, who were called Laoi.” One might now infer that the resemblance of the two words gave rise to the myth of the stones.

14. Hes. Fr. 141.3 (Paulson

15. That is, of “Lelges.” In the Greek the root leg appears in (1) “Leleges.” (2) “picked,” and (3) “collection.”

16. Now standing empty.

17. Polybius 30.16 .

18. Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus (consul 182 and 168 B.C.) in 168 B.C.

19. See 7. 7. 8.

20. Now Ipsala.

21. Now the Maritza.

22. Or, as we should say, the junction of the roas is equidistant from the two places.

23. Now Ochrida.

24. Now the Neretschka Planina Mountain.

25. Heracleia Lyncestis; now Monastir.

26. Now Vodena.

27. The capital of Macedonia; now in ruins and called Hagii Apostoli.

28. Now Thessaloniki or Saloniki.

29. The Gulf of Arta.

30. Now the Struma.

31. Now the Sea of Marmara.

32. Now the Gulf of Saros.

33. Now Cape Colonna.

34. Now the Gulf of Saloniki.

35. Now the Mesta.

36. See footnote on 6.. 1. 7.

37. Aeacus was son of Zeus and Aegina, was king of the Isle of Aegina, was noted for his justice and piety, and was finally made one of the three judges in Hades.

38. Dodona was situated to the south of Lake Pambotis (now Janina), near what is now Dramisi.

39. See 2. 5. 20, 2. 5. 29, 5. 3. 6.

40. Now Panormo.

41. Now Santi Quaranta.

42. Now Kerkyra or Corfu.

43. “Cassope” is probably the correct spelling; now Cassopo, the name of a harbor and cape of Corfu.

44. Now Cape Drasti, at the southern end of Corfu.

45. In Thesprotia (see Ptolemaeus 3.13.3 ); now Cape Scala.

46. Now Butrinto.

47. Now called the Syvota.

48. “Sweet Harbor”; now Port Splantza (Phanari).

49. Now the Phanariotikos.

50. Now Lago di Fusaro.

51. Now the Kalamas.

52. The exact side of Cichyrus is uncertain (see Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. “Ephyre”).

53. Now Phiniki.

54. Now Gomaro.

55. In width.

56. Now in ruins near Prevesa.

57. In the Battle of Actium, 31 B.C.

58. Now Arta.

59. Otherwise called Arachthus; now the Arta.

60. “Victory-city.”

61. the Ludi Quinquennales, celebrated every four years (see Dio Cassius 51.1 ).

62. So in the course of time games at numerous places (including Athens, Ephesus, Naples, Smyrna, Tarsus) came to be called “Olympian” in imitation of those at Olympia. The actual term used, for those at Tarsus at least, was Ἰσολύμπια, “equal to the Olympian” (C. I. 4472).

63. Thuc. 2.68 .

64. The site of Damstium is unknown. Imhoof-Blumer (Ztschr. f. Numism. 1874, Vol. I. pp. 99 ff.) think that is might be identified with what is now Tepeleni, on the Viosa River. But so far as is now known, there is no silver ore in Epeirus or Southern Illyria. Philippson (Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. “Damastion”) suggests that Argyrium (now Argyrocastro, on the Viosa) might be connected with the presence of silver.

65. That is, to those of the Macedonians.

66. See 7. 7. 4.

67. See 7. 7. 4.

68. Now Ochrida.

69. “Country of three cities.”

70. Now Trikala.

71. See articles s.v. “Dodona” in Pauly-Wissowa and Encyclopedia Britannica.

72. Hom. Il. 16.233

73. Hes. Fr. 212 (Rzach)

74. 5. 2. 4.

75. Hom. Il. 16.235 .

76. Hes. Fr. 134 (Rzach)

77. The Greek for marshes is “Hele.”

78. Hom. Il. 2.659; 15.531

79. Now Mt. Olytsika.

80. Hom. Il. 16.235.

81. Hom. Od. 16.403

82. “Guardians of Mt. Tomarus.”

83. “Boulê.”

84. Hom. 14.328

85. “interpreters.”

86. Little is known of this Suidas except that he wrote a History of Thessaly and a History of Euboea.

Strabo Geography 7.7

Horace Leonard Jones (Translator)

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