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TRAGEDY, after various changes, reposed at length in the completion of its proper form.

Poetics. Aristotle. Thomas Twining (Translator). London, UK. 1789.

Sponsored by Perseus Project, Tufts University.

Current edition Experimental

Poetics (Thomas Twining, 1789) (OCR draft) (English) (Thomas Twining's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1789 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.)

Provisional text from uncorrected OCR; expect errors.

Editions (5)

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) (Aristotle, Poetics. Immanuel Bekker, editor, Aristotelis Opera, volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1837.) — 4 focus

Ἐοίκασι δὲ γεννῆσαι μὲν ὅλως τὴν ποιητικὴν αἰτίαι δύο τινές, καὶ αὗται φυσικαί.

Τό τε γὰρ μιμεῖσθαι σύμφυτον τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐκ παίδων ἐστί, καὶ τούτῳ διαφέρουσι τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ὅτι μιμητικώτατόν ἐστι καὶ τὰς μαθήσεις ποιεῖται διὰ μιμήσεως τὰς πρώτας, καὶ τὸ χαίρειν τοῖς μιμήμασι πάντας.

Σημεῖον δὲ τούτου τὸ συμβαῖνον ἐπὶ τῶν ἔργων· ἃ γὰρ αὐτὰ λυπηρῶς ὁρῶμεν, τούτων τὰς εἰκόνας τὰς μάλιστα ἠκριβωμένας χαίρομεν θεωροῦντες, οἷον θηρίων τε μορφὰς τῶν ἀτιμοτάτων καὶ νεκρῶν.

Αἴτιον δὲ καὶ τούτου, ὅτι μανθάνειν οὐ μόνον τοῖς φιλοσόφοις ἥδιστον ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὁμοίως· ἀλλ᾿ ἐπὶ βραχὺ κοινωνοῦσιν αὐτοῦ.

Διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο χαίρουσι τὰς εἰκόνας ὁρῶντες, ὅτι συμβαίνει θεωροῦντας μανθάνειν καὶ συλλογίζεσθαι τί ἕκαστον, οἷον ὅτι οὗτος ἐκεῖνος, ἐπεὶ ἐὰν μὴ τύχῃ προεωρακώς,

οὐ διὰ μίμημα ποιήσει τὴν ἡδονὴν ἀλλὰ διὰ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν ἢ τὴν χροιὰν ἢ διὰ τοιαύτην τινὰ ἄλλην αἰτίαν.

Κατὰ φύσιν δὲ ὄντος ἡμῖν τοῦ μιμεῖσθαι καὶ τῆς ἁρμονίας καὶ τοῦ ῥυθμοῦ (τὰ γὰρ μέτρα ὅτι μόρια τῶν ῥυθμῶν ἐστί, φανερόν) ἐξ ἀρχῆς οἱ πεφυκότες πρὸς αὐτὰ μάλιστα κατὰ μικρὸν προάγοντες ἐγέννησαν τὴν ποίησιν ἐκ τῶν αὐτοσχεδιασμάτων.

Διεσπάσθη δὲ κατὰ τὰ οἰκεῖα ἤθη ἡ ποιήσις· οἱ μὲν γὰρ σεμνότεροι τὰς καλὰς ἐμιμοῦντο πράξεις καὶ τὰς τῶν τοιούτων, οἱ δὲ εὐτελέστεροι τὰς τῶν φαύλων, πρῶτον ψόγους ποιοῦντες, ὥσπερ ἕτεροι ὕμνους καὶ ἐγκώμια.

Τῶν μὲν οὖν πρὸ Ὁμήρου οὐδενὸς ἔχομεν εἰπεῖν τοιοῦτον ποίημα, εἰκὸς δὲ εἶναι πολλούς·

ἀπὸ δὲ Ὁμήρου ἀρξαμένοις ἔστιν, οἷον ἐκείνου ὁ Μαργίτης καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα, ἐν οἷς καὶ τὸ ἁρμόττον ἰαμβεῖον ἦλθε μέτρον. Διὸ καὶ ἰαμβεῖον καλεῖται νῦν, ὅτι ἐν τῷ μέτρῳ τούτῳ ἰάμβιζον ἀλλήλους.

Καὶ ἐγένοντο τῶν παλαιῶν οἱ μὲν ἡρωϊκῶν οἱ δὲ ἰάμβων ποιηταί.

Ὥσπερ δὲ καὶ τὰ σπουδαῖα μάλιστα ποιητὴς Ὅμηρος ἦν (μόνος γὰρ οὐχ ὅτι εὖ, ἀλλ᾿ ὅτι καὶ μιμήσεις δραματικὰς ἐποίησεν), οὕτω καὶ τὰ τῆς κωμῳδίας σχήματα πρῶτος ὑπέδειξεν, οὐ ψόγον ἀλλὰ τὸ γελοῖον δραματοποιήσας· ὁ γὰρ Μαργίτης ἀνάλογον ἔχει, ὥσπερ Ἰλιὰς καὶ Ὀδύσσεια πρὸς τὰς τραγῳδίας, οὕτω καὶ οὗτος πρὸς τὰς κωμῳδίας.

Παραφανείσης δὲ τῆς τραγῳδίας καὶ κωμῳδίας οἱ ἐφ᾿ ἑκατέραν τὴν ποίησιν ὁρμῶντες κατὰ τὴν οἰκείαν φύσιν, οἱ μὲν ἀντὶ τῶν ἰάμβων κωμῳδοποιοὶ ἐγένοντο, οἱ δὲ ἀντὶ τῶν ἐπῶν τραγῳδοδιδάσκαλοι, διὰ τὸ μείζω καὶ ἐντιμότερα τὰ σχήματα εἶναι ταῦτα ἐκείνων. Τὸ μὲν οὖν ἐπισκοπεῖν εἰ ἄρα ἔχει ἤδη ἡ τραγῳδία τοῖς εἴδεσιν ἱκανῶς ἢ οὔ, αὐτό τε καθ᾿ αὑτὸ κρινόμενον καὶ πρὸς τὰ θέατρα, ἄλλος λόγος.

Γενομένη δ᾿ οὖν ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς αὐτοσχεδιαστικὴ καὶ αὐτὴ καὶ ἡ κωμῳδία, καὶ ἡ μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν ἐξαρχόντων τὸν διθύραμβον, ἡ δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν τὰ φαλλικά, ἃ ἔτι καὶ νῦν ἐν πολλαῖς τῶν πόλεων διαμένει νομιζόμενα, κατὰ μικρὸν ηὐξήθη προαγόντων ὅσον ἐγίγνετο φανερὸν αὐτῆς,

καὶ πολλὰς μεταβολὰς μεταβαλοῦσα ἡ τραγῳδία ἐπαύσατο, ἐπεὶ ἔσχε τὴν αὑτῆς φύσιν.

Καὶ τό τε τῶν ὑποκριτῶν πλῆθος ἐξ ἑνὸς εἰς δύο πρῶτος Αἰσχύλος ἤγαγε, καὶ τὰ τοῦ χοροῦ ἠλάττωσε, καὶ τὸν λόγον πρωταγωνιστὴν παρεσκεύασεν· τρεῖς δὲ καὶ σκηνογραφίαν Σοφοκλῆς.

Ἔτι δὲ τὸ μέγεθος ἐκ μικρῶν μύθων καὶ λέξεως γελοίας, διὰ τὸ ἐκ σατυρικοῦ μεταβαλεῖν, ὀψὲ ἀπεσεμνύνθη, τό τε μέτρον ἐκ τετραμέτρου ἰαμβεῖον ἐγένετο·

τὸ μὲν γὰρ πρῶτον τετραμέτρῳ ἐχρῶντο διὰ τὸ σατυρικὴν καὶ ὀρχηστικωτέραν εἶναι τὴν ποίησιν, λέξεως δὲ γενομένης αὐτὴ ἡ φύσις τὸ οἰκεῖον μέτρον εὗρεν· μάλιστα γὰρ λεκτικὸν τῶν μέτρων τὸ ἰαμβεῖόν ἐστιν. Σημεῖον δὲ τούτου·

πλεῖστα γὰρ ἰαμβεῖα λέγομεν ἐν τῇ διαλέκτῳ τῇ πρὸς ἀλλήλους, ἑξάμετρα δὲ ὀλιγάκις καὶ ἐκβαίνοντες τῆς λεκτικῆς ἁρμονίας.

Ἔτι δὲ ἐπεισοδίων πλήθη καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ὡς ἕκαστα κοσμηθῆναι λέγεται.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τούτων τοσαῦτα ἔστω ἡμῖν εἰρημένα· πολὺ γὰρ ἂν ἴσως ἔργον εἴη διεξιέναι καθ᾿ ἕκαστον.

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) Perseus (Aristotle, De arte poetica liber. Rudolf Kassel, editor. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965. Reference edition for passage alignment.) — 4 focus

ἐοίκασι δὲ γεννῆσαι μὲν ὅλως τὴν ποιητικὴν αἰτίαι 5 δύο τινὲς καὶ αὗται φυσικαί.

τό τε γὰρ μιμεῖσθαι σύμφυτον τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐκ παίδων ἐστὶ καὶ τούτῳ διαφέρουσι τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ὅτι μιμητικώτατόν ἐστι καὶ τὰς μαθήσεις ποιεῖται διὰ μιμήσεως τὰς πρώτας, καὶ τὸ χαίρειν τοῖς μιμήμασι πάντας.

σημεῖον δὲ τούτου, τὸ συμβαῖνον 10 ἐπὶ τῶν ἔργων· ἃ γὰρ αὐτὰ λυπηρῶς ὁρῶμεν, τούτων τὰς εἰκόνας τὰς μάλιστα ἠκριβωμένας χαίρομεν θεωροῦντες, οἷον θηρίων τε μορφὰς τῶν ἀτιμοτάτων καὶ νεκρῶν.

αἴτιον δὲ καὶ τούτου, ὅτι μανθάνειν οὐ μόνον τοῖς φιλοσόφοις ἥδιστον ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὁμοίως, ἀλλ’ ἐπὶ βραχὺ 15 κοινωνοῦσιν αὐτοῦ.

διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο χαίρουσι τὰς εἰκόνας ὁρῶντες, ὅτι συμβαίνει θεωροῦντας μανθάνειν καὶ συλλογίζεσθαι τί ἕκαστον, οἷον ὅτι οὗτος ἐκεῖνος·

ἐπεὶ ἐὰν μὴ τύχῃ προεωρακώς, οὐχ ᾗ μίμημα ποιήσει τὴν ἡδονὴν ἀλλὰ διὰ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν ἢ τὴν χροιὰν ἢ διὰ τοιαύτην τινὰ ἄλλην αἰτίαν.

20 κατὰ φύσιν δὲ ὄντος ἡμῖν τοῦ μιμεῖσθαι καὶ τῆς ἁρμονίας καὶ τοῦ ῥυθμοῦ (τὰ γὰρ μέτρα ὅτι μόρια τῶν ῥυθμῶν ἐστι φανερὸν) ἐξ ἀρχῆς οἱ πεφυκότες πρὸς αὐτὰ μάλιστα κατὰ μικρὸν προάγοντες ἐγέννησαν τὴν ποίησιν ἐκ τῶν αὐτοσχεδιασμάτων.

διεσπάσθη δὲ κατὰ τὰ οἰκεῖα ἤθη ἡ ποίησις· 25 οἱ μὲν γὰρ σεμνότεροι τὰς καλὰς ἐμιμοῦντο πράξεις καὶ τὰς τῶν τοιούτων, οἱ δὲ εὐτελέστεροι τὰς τῶν φαύλων, πρῶτον ψόγους ποιοῦντες, ὥσπερ ἕτεροι ὕμνους καὶ ἐγκώμια.

τῶν μὲν οὖν πρὸ Ὁμήρου οὐδενὸς ἔχομεν εἰπεῖν τοιοῦτον ποίημα, εἰκὸς δὲ εἶναι πολλούς,

ἀπὸ δὲ Ὁμήρου ἀρξαμένοις 30 ἔστιν, οἷον ἐκείνου ὁ Μαργίτης καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. ἐν οἷς κατὰ τὸ ἁρμόττον καὶ τὸ ἰαμβεῖον ἦλθε μέτρον—διὸ καὶ ἰαμβεῖον καλεῖται νῦν, ὅτι ἐν τῷ μέτρῳ τούτῳ ἰάμβιζον ἀλλήλους.

καὶ ἐγένοντο τῶν παλαιῶν οἱ μὲν ἡρωικῶν οἱ δὲ ἰάμβων ποιηταί.

ὥσπερ δὲ καὶ τὰ σπουδαῖα μάλιστα ποιητὴς Ὅμηρος 35 ἦν (μόνος γὰρ οὐχ ὅτι εὖ ἀλλὰ καὶ μιμήσεις δραματικὰς ἐποίησεν), οὕτως καὶ τὸ τῆς κωμῳδίας σχῆμα πρῶτος ὑπέδειξεν, οὐ ψόγον ἀλλὰ τὸ γελοῖον δραματοποιήσας· ὁ γὰρ Μαργίτης ἀνάλογον ἔχει, ὥσπερ Ἰλιὰς 1449a 1 καὶ ἡ Ὀδύσσεια πρὸς τὰς τραγῳδίας, οὕτω καὶ οὗτος πρὸς τὰς κωμῳδίας.

παραφανείσης δὲ τῆς τραγῳδίας καὶ κωμῳδίας οἱ ἐφ’ ἑκατέραν τὴν ποίησιν ὁρμῶντες κατὰ τὴν οἰκείαν φύσιν οἱ μὲν ἀντὶ τῶν ἰάμβων κωμῳδοποιοὶ ἐγένοντο, 5 οἱ δὲ ἀντὶ τῶν ἐπῶν τραγῳδοδιδάσκαλοι, διὰ τὸ μείζω καὶ ἐντιμότερα τὰ σχήματα εἶναι ταῦτα ἐκείνων. τὸ μὲν οὖν ἐπισκοπεῖν εἰ ἄρα ἔχει ἤδη ἡ τραγῳδία τοῖς εἴδεσιν ἱκανῶς ἢ οὔ, αὐτό τε καθ’ αὑτὸ κρῖναι καὶ πρὸς τὰ θέατρα, ἄλλος λόγος.

γενομένη δ’ οὖν ἀπ’ ἀρχῆς 10 αὐτοσχεδιαστικῆς — καὶ αὐτὴ καὶ ἡ κωμῳδία, καὶ ἡ μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν ἐξαρχόντων τὸν διθύραμβον, ἡ δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν τὰ φαλλικὰ ἃ ἔτι καὶ νῦν ἐν πολλαῖς τῶν πόλεων διαμένει νομιζόμενα — κατὰ μικρὸν ηὐξήθη προαγόντων ὅσον ἐγίγνετο φανερὸν αὐτῆς·

καὶ πολλὰς μεταβολὰς μεταβαλοῦσα ἡ 15 τραγῳδία ἐπαύσατο, ἐπεὶ ἔσχε τὴν αὑτῆς φύσιν.

καὶ τό τε τῶν ὑποκριτῶν πλῆθος ἐξ ἑνὸς εἰς δύο πρῶτος Αἰσχύλος ἤγαγε καὶ τὰ τοῦ χοροῦ ἠλάττωσε καὶ τὸν λόγον πρωταγωνιστεῖν παρεσκεύασεν· τρεῖς δὲ καὶ σκηνογραφίαν Σοφοκλῆς.

ἔτι δὲ τὸ μέγεθος· ἐκ μικρῶν μύθων καὶ 20 λέξεως γελοίας διὰ τὸ ἐκ σατυρικοῦ μεταβαλεῖν ὀψὲ ἀπεσεμνύνθη, τό τε μέτρον ἐκ τετραμέτρου ἰαμβεῖον ἐγένετο.

τὸ μὲν γὰρ πρῶτον τετραμέτρῳ ἐχρῶντο διὰ τὸ σατυρικὴν καὶ ὀρχηστικωτέραν εἶναι τὴν ποίησιν, λέξεως δὲ γενομένης αὐτὴ ἡ φύσις τὸ οἰκεῖον μέτρον εὗρε· μάλιστα γὰρ 25 λεκτικὸν τῶν μέτρων τὸ ἰαμβεῖόν ἐστιν· σημεῖον δὲ τούτου,

ἔτι δὲ ἐπεισοδίων πλήθη. καὶ τὰ ἄλλ’ ὡς ἕκαστα κοσμηθῆναι λέγεται ¹ 30 ἔστω ἡμῖν εἰρημένα·

πολὺ γὰρ ἂν ἴσως ἔργον εἴη διεξιέναι καθ’ ἕκαστον.

Poetics, Greek text (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's Greek text of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 4 focus

Ἐοίκασι δὲ γεννῆσαι μὲν ὅλως τὴν ποιητικὴν αἰτίαι
δύο τινὲς καὶ αὗται φυσικαί·

τό τε γὰρ μιμεῖσθαι σύμφυτον
τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐκ παίδων ἐστὶ καὶ τούτῳ διαφέρουσι
τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ὅτι μιμητικώτατόν ἐστι καὶ τὰς μαθήσεις
ποιεῖται διὰ μιμήσεως τὰς πρώτας, καὶ τὸ χαίρειν
τοῖς μιμήμασι πάντας.

σημεῖον δὲ τούτου τὸ συμβαῖνον
ἐπὶ τῶν ἔργων· ἃ γὰρ αὐτὰ λυπηρῶς ὁρῶμεν, τούτων τὰς
εἰκόνας τὰς μάλιστα ἠκριβωμένας χαίρομεν θεωροῦντες, οἷον
θηρίων τε μορφὰς τῶν ἀτιμοτάτων καὶ νεκρῶν.

αἴτιον δὲ
καὶ τοῦτο, ὅτι μανθάνειν οὐ μόνον τοῖς φιλοσόφοις ἥδιστον
ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὁμοίως, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ βραχὺ κοινωνοῦσιν
αὐτοῦ.

διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο χαίρουσι τὰς εἰκόνας ὁρῶντες, ὅτι
συμβαίνει θεωροῦντας μανθάνειν καὶ συλλογίζεσθαι τί ἕκαστον,
οἷον ὅτι οὗτος ἐκεῖνος·

ἐπεὶ ἐὰν μὴ τύχῃ προεωρακώς,
οὐχ ᾗ μίμημα ποιήσει τὴν ἡδονὴν ἀλλὰ διὰ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν
ἢ τὴν χροιὰν ἢ διὰ τοιαύτην τινὰ ἄλλην αἰτίαν.

κατὰ φύσιν δὲ ὄντος ἡμῖν τοῦ μιμεῖσθαι καὶ τῆς ἁρμονίας
καὶ τοῦ ῥυθμοῦ (τὰ γὰρ μέτρα ὅτι μόρια τῶν ῥυθμῶν ἐστι
φανερὸν) ἐξ ἀρχῆς οἱ πεφυκότες πρὸς αὐτὰ μάλιστα κατὰ
μικρὸν προάγοντες ἐγέννησαν τὴν ποίησιν ἐκ τῶν αὐτοσχεδιασμάτων.

διεσπάσθη δὲ κατὰ τὰ οἰκεῖα ἤθη ἡ ποίησις·
οἱ μὲν γὰρ σεμνότεροι τὰς καλὰς ἐμιμοῦντο πράξεις καὶ
τὰς τῶν τοιούτων, οἱ δὲ εὐτελέστεροι τὰς τῶν φαύλων,
πρῶτον ψόγους ποιοῦντες, ὥσπερ ἕτεροι ὕμνους καὶ ἐγκώμια.

τῶν μὲν οὖν πρὸ Ὁμήρου οὐδενὸς ἔχομεν εἰπεῖν τοιοῦτον
ποίημα, εἰκὸς δὲ εἶναι πολλούς,

ἀπὸ δὲ Ὁμήρου ἀρξαμένοις
ἔστιν, οἷον ἐκείνου ὁ Μαργίτης καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. ἐν οἷς κατὰ
τὸ ἁρμόττον καὶ τὸ ἰαμβεῖον ἦλθε μέτρον—διὸ καὶ ἰαμβεῖον καλεῖται
νῦν, ὅτι ἐν τῷ μέτρῳ τούτῳ ἰάμβιζον ἀλλήλους.

καὶ
ἐγένοντο τῶν παλαιῶν οἱ μὲν ἡρωικῶν οἱ δὲ ἰάμβων ποιηταί.

ὥσπερ δὲ καὶ τὰ σπουδαῖα μάλιστα ποιητὴς Ὅμηρος
ἦν (μόνος γὰρ οὐχ ὅτι εὖ ἀλλὰ καὶ μιμήσεις δραματικὰς
ἐποίησεν), οὕτως καὶ τὸ τῆς κωμῳδίας σχῆμα
πρῶτος ὑπέδειξεν οὐ ψόγον ἀλλὰ τὸ γελοῖον δραματοποιήσας·
ὁ γὰρ Μαργίτης ἀνάλογον ἔχει, ὥσπερ Ἰλιὰς
καὶ ἡ Ὀδύσσεια πρὸς τὰς τραγῳδίας, οὕτω καὶ οὗτος πρὸς
τὰς κωμῳδίας.

παραφανείσης δὲ τῆς τραγῳδίας καὶ κωμῳδίας
οἱ ἐφ᾽ ἑκατέραν τὴν ποίησιν ὁρμῶντες κατὰ τὴν
οἰκείαν φύσιν οἱ μὲν ἀντὶ τῶν ἰάμβων κωμῳδοποιοὶ ἐγένοντο,
οἱ δὲ ἀντὶ τῶν ἐπῶν τραγῳδοδιδάσκαλοι, διὰ τὸ
μείζονα καὶ ἐντιμότερα τὰ σχήματα εἶναι ταῦτα ἐκείνων.
τὸ μὲν οὖν ἐπισκοπεῖν εἰ ἄρα ἔχει ἤδη ἡ τραγῳδία τοῖς
εἴδεσιν ἱκανῶς ἢ οὔ, αὐτό τε καθ᾽ αὑτὸ κρῖναι καὶ πρὸς
τὰ θέατρα, ἄλλος λόγος.

γενομένης δ᾽ οὖν ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς αὐτοσχεδιαστικῆς—καὶ
αὐτὴ καὶ ἡ κωμῳδία, καὶ ἡ μὲν ἀπὸ
τῶν ἐξαρχόντων τὸν διθύραμβον, ἡ δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν τὰ φαλλικά,
ἃ ἔτι καὶ νῦν ἐν πολλαῖς τῶν πόλεων διαμένει νομιζόμενα—κατὰ
μικρὸν ηὐξήθη προαγόντων ὅσον ἐγίγνετο
φανερὸν αὐτῆς·

καὶ πολλὰς μεταβολὰς μεταβαλοῦσα ἡ
τραγῳδία ἐπαύσατο, ἐπεὶ ἔσχε τὴν αὑτῆς φύσιν.

καὶ τό
τε τῶν ὑποκριτῶν πλῆθος ἐξ ἑνὸς εἰς δύο πρῶτος Αἰσχύλος
ἤγαγε καὶ τὰ τοῦ χοροῦ ἠλάττωσε καὶ τὸν λόγον
πρωταγωνιστὴν παρεσκεύασεν· τρεῖς δὲ καὶ σκηνογραφίαν
Σοφοκλῆς.

ἔτι δὲ τὸ μέγεθος· ἐκ μικρῶν μύθων καὶ λέξεως
γελοίας διὰ τὸ ἐκ σατυρικοῦ μεταβαλεῖν ὀψὲ ἀπεσεμνύνθη,
τό τε μέτρον ἐκ τετραμέτρου ἰαμβεῖον ἐγένετο.

τὸ μὲν γὰρ πρῶτον τετραμέτρῳ ἐχρῶντο διὰ τὸ σατυρικὴν
καὶ ὀρχηστικωτέραν εἶναι τὴν ποίησιν, λέξεως δὲ γενομένης
αὐτὴ ἡ φύσις τὸ οἰκεῖον μέτρον εὗρε· μάλιστα γὰρ λεκτι-
κὸν τῶν μέτρων τὸ ἰαμβεῖόν ἐστιν·

σημεῖον δὲ τούτου,
πλεῖστα γὰρ ἰαμβεῖα λέγομεν ἐν τῇ διαλέκτῳ τῇ πρὸς
ἀλλήλους, ἑξάμετρα δὲ ὀλιγάκις καὶ ἐκβαίνοντες τῆς λεκτικῆς
ἁρμονίας.

ἔτι δὲ ἐπεισοδίων πλήθη.
καὶ τὰ ἄλλ᾽ ὡς ἕκαστα κοσμηθῆναι λέγεται ἔστω ἡμῖν εἰρημένα·

πολὺ γὰρ ἂν ἴσως ἔργον εἴη διεξιέναι καθ᾽ ἕκαστον.

Poetics, Greek text (S. H. Butcher, 1911) (OCR draft) Experimental (S. H. Butcher's Greek text from Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, fourth edition, 1911.) — 4 focus

[7] 24 διεσπάσθη δὲ κατὰ τὰ οἰκεῖα ἤθη ἡ ποίησις· 25 οἱ μὲν γὰρ σεμνότεροι τὰς καλὰς ἐμιμοῦντο πράξεις καὶ τὰς τῶν τοιούτων, οἱ δὲ εὐτελέστεροι τὰς τῶν φαύλων, πρῶτον ψόγους ποιοῦντες, ὥσπερ ἅτεροι ἕτεροι ὕμνους καὶ ἐγκώμια.

[8] τῶν μὲν οὖν πρὸ Ὁμήρου οὐδενὸς ἔχομεν εἰπεῖν τοιοῦτον 29 ποίημα, εἰκὸς δὲ εἶναι πολλούς, ἀπὸ δὲ Ὁμήρου ἀρξαμένοις ἔστιν, οἷον ἐκείνου ὁ Μαργίτης καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα.

[9] 31 ἐν οἷς καὶ τὸ ἁρμόττον [ἰαμβεῖον]¹ ἦλθε μέτρον, διὸ καὶ ἰαμβεῖον καλεῖται νῦν, ὅτι ἐν τῷ μέτρῳ τούτῳ ἰάμβιζον ἀλλήλους. καὶ ἐγένοντο τῶν παλαιῶν οἱ μὲν ἡρωικῶν οἱ δὲ ἰάμβων ποιηταί.

[10] 34 ὥσπερ δὲ καὶ τὰ σπουδαῖα μάλιστα ποιητὴς Ὅμηρος ἦν (μόνος γὰρ οὐχ ὅτι εὖ ἀλλὰ ἀλλ' ὅτι ἀλλ' ἔτι [ὅτι] καὶ μιμήσεις δραματικάς δραματικῶς ἐποίησεν), οὕτως καὶ τὰ τῆς κωμῳδίας σχήματα πρῶτος ὑπέδειξεν, οὐ ψόγον ἀλλὰ τὸ γελοῖον δραματοποιήσας· 1449a ὁ γὰρ Μαργίτης ἀνάλογον ἔχει, ὥσπερ Ἰλιὰς καὶ ἡ Ὀδύσσεια πρὸς τὰς τραγῳδίας, οὕτω καὶ οὗτος πρὸς τὰς κωμῳδίας.

[11] 2 παραφανείσης δὲ τῆς τραγῳδίας καὶ κωμῳδίας οἱ ἐφ᾽ ἑκατέραν τὴν ποίησιν ὁρμῶντες κατὰ τὴν οἰκείαν φύσιν οἱ μὲν ἀντὶ τῶν ἰάμβων κωμῳδοποιοὶ ἐγένοντο, οἱ δὲ ἀντὶ τῶν ἐπῶν τραγῳδοδιδάσκαλοι, διὰ τὸ μείζονα μείζω καὶ ἐντιμότερα τὰ σχήματα εἶναι ταῦτα ἐκείνων.

[12] 7 τὸ μὲν οὖν ἐπισκοπεῖν εἰ ἄρ᾽ ἔχει εἰ ἄρα ἔχει παρέχει ἤδη ἡ τραγῳδία τοῖς εἴδεσιν ἱκανῶς ἢ οὔ, αὐτό τε καθ᾽ αὑτὸ †κρίνεται ἢ ναὶ† κρῖναι² καὶ πρὸς τὰ θέατρα, ἄλλος λόγος.

9 γενομένη δ᾽ οὖν γενομένης οὖν οὖν ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς αὐτοσχεδιαστική αὐτοσχεδιαστικῆς, καὶ αὐτὴ καὶ ἡ κωμῳδία...

[13] 15 καὶ πολλὰς μεταβολὰς μεταβαλοῦσα ἡ τραγῳδία ἐπαύσατο, ἐπεὶ ἔσχε τὴν αὐτῆς ἑαυτῆς φύσιν. καὶ τό τε τῶν ὑποκριτῶν πλῆθος ἐξ ἑνὸς εἰς δύο πρῶτος Αἰσχύλος ἤγαγε καὶ τὰ τοῦ χοροῦ ἠλάττωσε καὶ τὸν λόγον πρωταγωνιστὴν παρεσκεύασεν, τρεῖς δὲ καὶ σκηνογραφίαν Σοφοκλῆς.

[14] 19 ἔτι δὲ τὸ μέγεθος ἐκ μικρῶν μύθων καὶ λέξεως ἡ λέξις ἐκ λέξεως³ γελοίας διὰ τὸ ἐκ σατυρικοῦ σατυριακοῦ μεταβαλεῖν ὀψὲ ἀπεσεμνύνθη.

Poetics, Greek text (Franz Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's 1839 Greek edition, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 4 focus

Ἐοίκασι δὲ γεννῆσαι μὲν ὅλως τὴν ποιητικὴν αἰτίαι δύο τινές, καὶ αὗται φυσικαί.

τό τε γὰρ μιμεῖσθαι σύμφυτον τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐκ παίδων ἐστὶ (καὶ τούτῳ διαφέρουσι τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ὅτι μιμητικώτατόν ἐστι καὶ τὰς μαθήσεις ποιεῖται διὰ μιμήσεως τὰς πρώτας) καὶ τὸ χαίρειν τοῖς μιμήμασι πάντας.

σημεῖον δὲ τούτου τὸ συμβαῖνον ἐπὶ τῶν ἔργων· ἃ γὰρ αὐτὰ λυπηρῶς ὁρῶμεν, τούτων τὰς εἰκόνας τὰς μάλιστα ἠκριβωμένας χαίρομεν θεωροῦντες, οἷον θηρίων τε μορφὰς τῶν ἀτιμοτάτων καὶ νεκρῶν.

αἴτιον δὲ καὶ τούτου, ὅτι μανθάνειν οὐ μόνον τοῖς φιλοσόφοις ἥδιστον ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὁμοίως· ἀλλ' ἐπὶ βραχὺ κοινωνοῦσιν αὐτοῦ.

διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο χαίρουσι τὰς εἰκόνας ὁρῶντες, ὅτι συμβαίνει θεωροῦντας μανθάνειν καὶ συλλογίζεσθαι τί ἕκαστον, οἷον ὅτι οὗτος ἐκεῖνος,

ἐπεὶ ἐὰν μὴ τύχῃ προεωρακώς, οὐχὶ μίμημα ποιήσει τὴν ἡδονὴν ἀλλὰ διὰ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν ἢ τὴν χροιὼν ἢ διὰ τοιαύτην τινὰ ἄλλην αἰτίαν.

κατὰ φύσιν δὲ ὄντος ἡμῖν τοῦ μιμεῖσθαι καὶ τῆς ἁρμονίας καὶ τοῦ ῥυθμοῦ (τὰ γὰρ μέτρα ὅτι μόρια τῶν ῥυθμῶν ἐστί, φανερόν), ἐξ ἀρχῆς πεφυκότες καὶ αὐτὰ μάλιστα κατὰ μικρὸν προάγοντες ἐγέννησαν τὴν ποίησιν ἐκ τῶν αὐτοσχεδιασμάτων.

Διεσπάσθη δὲ κατὰ τὰ οἰκεῖα ἤθη ἡ ποίησις· οἱ μὲν γὰρ σεμνότεροι τὰς καλὰς ἐμιμοῦντο πράξεις καὶ τὰς τῶν τοιούτων, οἱ δὲ εὐτελέστεροι τὰς τῶν φαύλων, πρῶτον ψόγους ποιοῦντες, ὥσπερ ἕτεροι ὕμνους καὶ ἐγκώμια.

τῶν μὲν οὖν πρὸ Ὁμήρου οὐδενὸς ἔχομεν εἰπεῖν τοιοῦτον ποίημα, εἰκὸς δὲ εἶναι πολλούς·

ἀπὸ δὲ Ὁμήρου ἀρξαμένοις ἔστιν, οἷον ἐκείνου ὁ Μαργίτης, καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα ἐν οἷς καὶ τὸ ἁρμόττον ἰαμβεῖον ἦλθε μέτρον. διὸ καὶ ἰαμβεῖον καλεῖται νῦν, ὅτι ἐν τῷ μέτρῳ τούτῳ ἰάμβιζον ἀλλήλους.

καὶ ἐγένοντο τῶν παλαιῶν οἱ μὲν ἡρωϊκῶν οἱ δὲ ἰάμβων ποιηταί.

ὥσπερ δὲ καὶ¹ τὰ σπουδαῖα μάλιστα ποιητὴς Ὅμηρος ἦν (μόνος γὰρ οὐχ ὅτι εὖ, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι καὶ μιμήσεις δραματικὰς ἐποίησεν), οὕτω καὶ τὰ τῆς κωμῳδίας σχήματα πρῶτος ὑπέδειξεν, οὐ ψόγον ἀλλὰ τὸ γελοῖον δραματοποιήσας· ὁ γὰρ Μαργίτης ἀνάλο γον ἔχει, ὥσπερ Ἰλιὰς καὶ Ὀδύσσεια πρὸς τὰς τραγῳδίας, οὕτω καὶ οὗτος πρὸς τὰς κωμῳδίας.

παραφανείσης δὲ τῆς τραγῳδίας καὶ κωμῳδίας οἱ ἐφ᾽ ἑκατέραν τὴν ποίησιν ὁρμῶντες κατὰ τὴν οἰκείαν φύσιν, οἱ μὲν ἀντὶ τῶν ἰάμβων κωμῳδοποιοὶ ἐγένοντο, οἱ δὲ ἀντὶ τῶν ἐπῶν τραγῳδοδιδάσκαλοι, διὰ τὸ μείζω καὶ ἐντιμότερα τὰ σχήματα εἶναι ταῦτα ἐκείνων. Τὸ μὲν οὖν ἐπισκοπεῖν εἰ ἄρ' ἔχει ἤδη ἡ τραγῳδία τοῖς εἴδεσιν ἱκανῶς ἢ οὔ, αὐτό τε καθ᾽ αὑτὸ κρινόμενον καὶ πρὸς τὰ θέατρα, ἄλλος λόγος.

γενομένη δ᾽ οὖν ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς αὐτοσ²χεδιαστικὴ καὶ αὐτὴ καὶ ἡ κωμῳδία, καὶ ἡ μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν ἐξαρχόντων τὸν διθύραμβον, ἡ δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν τὰ φαλλικά, ἃ ἔτι καὶ νῦν ἐν πολλαῖς τῶν πόλεων διαμένει νομιζόμενα, κατὰ μικρὸν ηὐξήθη προαγόντων ὅσον ἐγίγνετο φανερὸν αὐτῆς,

καὶ πολλὰς μεταβολὰς μεταβαλοῦσα ἡ τραγῳδία ἐπαύσατο, ἐπεὶ ἔσχε τὴν αὑτῆς φύσιν.

καὶ τό τε τῶν ὑποκριτῶν πλῆθος ἐξ ἑνὸς εἰς δύο πρῶτος Αἰσχύλος ἤγαγε, καὶ τὰ τοῦ χοροῦ ἠλάττωσε, καὶ τὸν λόγον πρωταγωνιστὴν παρεσκεύασεν· τρεῖς δὲ καὶ σκηνογραφίαν Σοφοκλῆς.

ἔτι δὲ τὸ μέγεθος ἐκ μικρῶν μύθων καὶ λέξεως γελοίας, διὰ τὸ ἐκ σατυρικοῦ μεταβαλεῖν, ὀψὲ ἀπεσεμνύνθη, τό τε μέτρον ἐκ τετραμέτρου ἰαμβεῖον ἐγένετο (

πλεῖστα γὰρ ἰαμβεῖα λέγομεν ἐν τῇ διαλέκτῳ τῇ πρὸς ἀλλήλ³ους, ἑξάμετρα δὲ ὀλιγάκις καὶ ἐκβαίνοντες τῆς λεκτικῆς ἁρο μονίας)·

ἔτι δὲ ἐπεισοδίων πλήθη καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ὡς ἕκαστα κοσμηθῆναι λέγεται. περὶ μὲν οὖν τούτων τοσαῦτα ἔστω ἡμῖν εἰρημένα·

πολὺ γὰρ ἂν ἴσως ἔργον εἴη διεξιέναι καθ' ἕκαστον.

Translations (13)

Poetics (W. H. Fyfe) (OCR draft) Perseus (William Hamilton Fyfe's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, Loeb Classical Library, 1939 printing.) — 4 focus

Speaking generally, poetry seems to owe its origin to two particular causes, both natural.

From childhood men have an instinct for representation, and in this respect, differs from the other animals that he is far more imitative and learns his first lessons by representing things. And then there is the enjoyment people always get from representations.

What happens in actual experience proves this, for we enjoy looking at accurate likenesses of things which are themselves painful to see, obscene beasts, for instance, and corpses.

The reason is this: Learning things gives great pleasure not only to philosophers but also in the same way to all other men, though they share this pleasure only to a small degree.

The reason why we enjoy seeing likenesses is that, as we look, we learn and infer what each is, for instance, that is so and so.

If we have never happened to see the original, our pleasure is not due to the representation as such but to the technique or the color or some other such cause.

20 We have, then, a natural instinct for representation and for tune and rhythm¹—for the metres are obviously sections of rhythms²—and starting with these instincts men very gradually developed them until they produced poetry out of their improvisations.

Poetry then split into two kinds according to the poet’s nature. For the more serious poets represented fine doings and the doings of fine men, while those of a less exalted nature represented the actions of inferior men, at first writing satire just as the others at first wrote hymns and eulogies.

Before Homer we cannot indeed name any such poem, though there were probably many satirical poets,

but starting from Homer, there is, for instance, his Margites³ and other similar poems. For these the iambic metre was fittingly introduced and that is why it is still called iambic, because it was the metre in which they lampooned each other.⁴

Of the ancients some wrote heroic verse and some iambic.

And just as Homer was a supreme poet in the serious style, since he alone made his representations not only good but also dramatic, so, too, he was the first to mark out the main lines of comedy, since he made his drama not out of personal satire but out of the laughable as such. His Margites indeed provides an analogy: as are the Iliad and Odyssey to our tragedies, 1449a 1 so is the Margites to our comedies.

When tragedy and comedy came to light, poets were drawn by their natural bent towards one or the other. Some became writers of comedies instead of lampoons, the others produced tragedies instead of epics; the reason being that the former is in each case a higher kind of art and has greater value.

To consider whether tragedy is fully developed by now in all its various species or not, and to criticize it both in itself and in relation to the stage, that is another question.

At any rate it originated in improvisation—both tragedy itself and comedy. The one came from the prelude⁵ to the dithyramb and the other from the prelude to the phallic songs which still survive as institutions in many cities. Tragedy then gradually evolved as men developed each element that came to light

and after going through many changes, it stopped when it had found its own natural form.

Thus it was Aeschylus who first raised the number of the actors from one to two. He also curtailed the chorus and gave the dialogue the leading part. Three actors and scene-painting Sophocles introduced.

Then as to magnitude. 20 Being a development of the Satyr play,⁶ it was quite late before tragedy rose from short plots and comic diction to its full dignity, and that the iambic metre was used instead of the trochaic tetrameter.

At first they used the tetrameter because its poetry suited the Satyrs and was better for dancing, but when dialogue was introduced, Nature herself discovered the proper metre. The iambic is indeed the most conversational of the metres,

and the proof is that in talking to each other we most often use iambic lines but very rarely hexameters and only when we rise above the ordinary pitch of conversation.

Then there is the number of acts. The further embellishments⁷ and the story of their introduction one by one we may take as told,

for it would probably be a long task to go through them in detail.

Arabic Poetics (Badawī edition, 1953) (OCR draft) (The ancient Arabic translation of Aristotle's Poetics in ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Badawī's 1953 edition.) — 4 focus

〈نشأة الشعر وأجناسه〉

ويشبه أن تكون العلل المولدة لصناعة الشعر التى هى بالطبع: علتان. والتشبيه والمحاكاة مما ينشأ مع الناس منذ أول الأمر وهم أطفال. وهذا مما يخالف به الناس الحيوانات الأخر، من قبل أن الانسان يشبه ويستعمل المحاكاة أكثر ويتتلمذ ويجعل التلمذات بالتشبيه والمحاكاة للأشياء المتقدمة والأوائل، وذلك أن جميعهم يسر ويفرح بالتشبيه والمحاكاة.

والدليل على ذلك هذا، وهو الذى يعرض فى الأفعال أيضاً، وذلك أن التى نراها وتكون رؤياها على جهة الاغتمام فإنا نسر بصورتها وتماثيلها؛ أما إذا نحن رأيناها كالتى هى أشد استقصاءاً — مثال ذلك صور وخلق الحيوانات المهينة المائتة.

والعلة فى ذلك هى هذه: وهى أن إرباب التعليم ليس إنما هو لذيذاً لفيلسوف فقط، لكن لهؤلاء الأخر على مثال واحد، إلا أنه من أنهم يشاركنه مشاركة يسيرة. فلهذا السبب يسرون إذا ما هم رأوا الصور والتماثيل، من قبل أنه يعرض أنهم يرون فيتعلمون؛ وهو قياس ما لكل إنسان إنسان، مثال ذلك أن هذا ذاك من قبل أنه إن لم يتقدم فيرى ليس يعمل للذى شبه، لكن من أجل الفعل والتفعل، أو للمواضع أو من أجل علة ما مثل هذه.

وأما بالطبع فلنا أن نتشبه بالتأليف واللحون (وذلك أنه أما أن الأوزان مشابهات الألحان، فهو بين) للذين هم مفطورون على ذلك منذ الابتداء، وخاصة أنهم ولدوا صناعة الشعر من حيث يأتون بذلك ويمنعون قليلا قليلاً، وولدوها من الذين ألفوها دفعةً ومن ساعته.

وانجزأت بحسب عادتها الخاصية، أعنى صناعة الشعر. وذلك أن بعض الشعراء ومن كان منهم أكثر عفافاً يتشبهون بالأعمال الحسنة الجميلة وفيما أشبه ذلك، وبعضهم ممن قد كان منهم أرذل عندما كانوا يهجون أولاً الأشرار كانوا يعملون بعد ذلك المديح والثناء لقوم آخرين أشرار.

غير أنه ليس لنا أن نقول فى إنسان قبل أوميروس إنه عمل مثل هذه الصناعة من صناعة الشعراء؛ وإلا قد كان شعراء أخر كثيرون غير أن [من] أوميروس هو المبدأ، مثال ذلك مارغاتس والنسق والجارية ما من هذه التى هى هكذا التى أتى بها الوزن، كما أتى بيامبو، ولذلك ما لقب مثل هذا الوزن إيامبوس، وبهذا الوزن كانوا يتهاونون بعضهم ببعض [وصارالقدماء] وصار من القدماء بعضهم شعراء فى الفن إيامبو والفن المسمى بأوريقا.

كما أن الشاعر فى الأشياء الفاضلة المجتهدة خاصة إنما كان أوميروس وحده فقط (وذلك أنه هو وحده فقط إنما عمل أشياء أحسن فيها، لكن قد عمل التشبيهات والحكايات المعروفة بد〈را〉ماطيقيا) وهكذا هو أول [يا] من أظهر شكل صناعة هجاء ليس فيه الهجاء فقط، لكن فى باب الاستهزاء والمطانزة، فانه عمل فيها النشيد المسمى باليونانية دراماطا، ذلك أن 〈مارغيطا〉 حالها حال يجرى مجرى التسقيم: فكما أن «ايليادا» غير التبكيت والمسماة «أودوسيا» غير المديحات، كذلك هذا غير أبواب الهجاء.

ولما ظهر أمر مذهب الهجاء والمديح، ومذهب الهجاء والذين نحوا وقصدوا به بصناعة الشعر كلتا هاتين بحسب خصوصية الطبع بعضهم كانوا يعملون مكان المذهب من الشعر المسمى ايامبو أبواب الهجاء، وبعضهم كانوا يعملون مكان هذه التى للمسماة أفى أبواب المديح، وصاروا معلمين لذلك من قبل أنه قد كانت هذه أعظم كثيراً وأشرف فى شكل هذه. فانه أن يعمل هو هو مبدأ الصناعة المديح وبالأنواع على الكفاية. وذلك أنه إما أن يكون بأنك تجين بهذه، أو يكون عند كلتيهما بنسبة أخرى.

فلما حدثت منذ الابتداء ونشأت دفعةً (هى وصناعة الهجاء أيضاً: أما تلك فعندما كانت تبتدئ من العلل الأول التى للمذهب المسمى الديثورمبو وأما هذه المزبورة، وهذه [هى] الثانية فى كثير من المدائن إلى الآن) أحدث النمو والتربية قليلا قليلا من حيث قد كانت قديمة، كما أنه ظهرت أيضاً هذه التى هى الآن وعندما غيرت من تغايير كثيرة وتناهبت عند ذلك صناعة المديح من قبل أنه قد كانت الطبيعة التى تخصها. وأما تلك فلأكثر المنافقين والمرائين فمن واحد للاثنين.

و〈إسخيلوس كان〉 أول من أدخل هذه المذاهب التى للصفوف وللدستبند. وهو أيضاً أول من أعد مذاهب الجهادات. وأيضاً أول من أظهر هذه الأصناف من اللهو واللعب كان سوفوقلس. وأيضاً هو أول من أظهر من النشائد الصغار عظم الكلام الضجيج والرهج فى الكلام والمقولات الداخلة فى باب الاستهزاء والهزل. وعمل ذلك بأن غير شىء من شكل الفن المسمى سطاورقو، وإما بالأخرة وبالابطاء فاستعملوا العفة.

وهذا الوزن من الرباعية التى ليامبو. وأما منذ أول العمل فكانوا يستعملون رباعية الوزن بسبب الرقص المعروف بساطوراى، لكيما يتشبه به الشعر أكثر و[ما] عندما كانت تنشأ مقولة وكلام فالطبيعة كانت تجد وزنها، ولا سيما من قبل أن الوزن يعمل الأجزاء أنفسها وقد يجارى بعضنا بعضاً بالمخاطبة والمكايلة، دليل هذه السبيل المسماة ايامبو منذ قط، وأما الوزن فأقل ذاك وعندما ينحرف عن التأليف الجدلى؛ وأيضاً أكثر الكلام والمخاطبة الرافع.

وهذه الوحيدات الأخر إنما تقال نحو التخييل والحسن فى الاقتصاص لكل واحدة واحدة.

Poetics (S. H. Butcher, 1911) (OCR draft) Experimental (S. H. Butcher's English translation from Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, fourth edition, 1911.) — 4 focus

Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two
causes, each of them lying deep in our nature.

First, the instinct of imitation is implanted in man
from childhood, one difference between him and other
animals being that he is the most imitative of living
creatures, and through imitation learns his earliest
lessons; and no less universal is the pleasure felt in things imitated.

We have evidence of this in the facts of experience.
Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we
delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute
fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies.

The cause of this again is, that to
learn gives the liveliest pleasure, not only to philosophers
but to men in general; whose capacity, however, of
learning is more limited.

Thus the reason why men enjoy seeing a likeness is, that
in contemplating it they find themselves learning or
inferring, and saying perhaps, 'Ah, that is he.'

For if you happen not to have seen the original,
the pleasure will be due not to the imitation as
such, but to the execution, the colouring, or some such other cause.

Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next,
there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, metres
being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore,
starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their
special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry.

Poetry now diverged in two directions, according to
the individual character of the writers. The graver
spirits imitated noble actions, and the actions of
good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of meaner persons, at first composing satires, as the former did hymns to the gods and the praises of famous men.

A poem of the satirical kind cannot indeed be put down to
any author earlier than Homer; though many such writers probably there were.

But from Homer onward, instances
can be cited, his own Margites, for example, and other
similar compositions. The appropriate metre was also
here introduced; hence the measure is still called the iambic or lampooning measure, being that in which people lampooned one another.

Thus the older poets were distinguished as
writers of heroic or of iambic verse.

As, in the serious style, Homer is pre-eminent among
poets, for he alone combined dramatic form with
excellence of imitation, so he too first sketched out
the main lines of Comedy, by dramatising the ludicrous
instead of writing personal satire. His Margites bears
the same relation to Comedy that the Iliad and Odyssey
do to Tragedy.

But when Tragedy and Comedy came
to light, the two classes of poets still followed their
natural bent: the lampooners became writers of Comedy,
and the Epic poets were succeeded by Tragedians,
since the drama was a larger and higher form of art.

Whether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper types
or not; and whether it is to be judged in itself, or
in relation also to the audience, this raises another question.
Be that as it may, Tragedy—as also Comedy—was at first
mere improvisation. The one originated with the
authors of the Dithyramb, the other with those of the
phallic songs, which are still in use in many of
our cities. Tragedy advanced by slow degrees; each
new element that showed itself was in turn developed.

Having passed through many changes, it found its natural form, and there it stopped.

Aeschylus first introduced a second actor; he
diminished the importance of the Chorus, and assigned
the leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles raised
the number of actors to three, and added scene-painting.

Moreover, it was not till late that the short plot was
discarded for one of greater compass, and the grotesque
diction of the earlier satyric form for the stately manner of Tragedy.

The iambic measure then replaced the trochaic
tetrameter, which was originally employed when the
poetry was of the satyric order, and had greater
affinities with dancing. Once dialogue had come in,
Nature herself discovered the appropriate measure.

For the iambic is, of all measures, the most colloquial:
we see it in the fact that conversational speech runs
into iambic lines more frequently than into any other kind of verse; while alexandrines are rare, and only occur when we depart from the natural tone of utterance.

The additions to the number of 'episodes'
or acts, and the other accessories of which tradition
tells, must be taken as already described;

for to go through the details of their introduction would,
doubtless, be a large undertaking.

Aristotle on the Art of Poetry (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 4 focus

It is clear that the general origin of poetry was due to
two causes, each of them part of human nature.

Imitation
is natural to man from childhood, one of his advantages over
the lower animals being this, that he is the most imitative
creature in the world, and learns at first by imitation. And it
is also natural for all to delight in works of imitation.

The truth of this second point is shown by experience: though
the objects themselves may be painful to see, we delight to
view the most realistic representations of them in art, the
forms for example of the lowest animals and of dead bodies.

The explanation is to be found in a further fact: to be
learning something is the greatest of pleasures not only to
the philosopher but also to the rest of mankind, however
small their capacity for it;

the reason of the delight in seeing
the picture is that one is at the same time learning—gathering
the meaning of things, e.g. that the man there is so-and-so;

for if one has not seen the thing before, one's pleasure will
not be in the picture as an imitation of it, but will be due to
the execution or colouring or some similar cause.

Imitation, then, being natural to us—as also the sense of harmony
and rhythm, the metres being obviously species of rhythms—
it was through their original aptitude, and by a series of
improvements for the most part gradual on their first efforts,
that they created poetry out of their improvisations.

Poetry, however, soon broke up into two kinds according to the
differences of character in the individual poets; for
the graver among them would represent noble actions, and
those of noble personages; and the meaner sort the actions
of the ignoble. The latter class produced invectives at first,
just as others did hymns and panegyrics.

We know of no
such poem by any of the pre-Homeric poets, though there
were probably many such writers among them;

instances,
however, may be found from Homer downwards, e.g. his
Margites, and the similar poems of others. In this poetry of
invective its natural fitness brought an iambic metre into use;
hence our present term 'iambic,' because it was the
metre of their 'iambs' or invectives against one another.

The result was that the old poets became some of them
writers of heroic and others of iambic verse.

Homer's
position, however, is peculiar: just as he was in the serious
style the poet of poets, standing alone not only through the
literary excellence, but also through the dramatic character
of his imitations, so too he was the first to outline for us the
general forms of Comedy by producing not a dramatic invec-
tive, but a dramatic picture of the Ridiculous; his Margites
in fact stands in the same relation to our comedies as the
Iliad and Odyssey to our tragedies.

As soon, however, as
Tragedy and Comedy appeared in the field, those naturally
drawn to the one line of poetry became writers of comedies
instead of iambs, and those naturally drawn to the other,
writers of tragedies instead of epics, because these new modes
of art were grander and of more esteem than the old.
If it be asked whether Tragedy is now all that it need be
in its formative elements, to consider that, and decide it
theoretically and in relation to the theatres, is a matter for
another inquiry.

It certainly began in improvisations—as did
also Comedy;
the one originating with
the authors of the Dithyramb, the other with those of the phallic
songs, which still survive as institutions in many of our cities.
And its advance after that was little by little, through their
improving on whatever they had before them at each stage.

And many
changes having been made, Tragedy stopped when it had
found its own nature.

The number of actors was first
increased to two by Aeschylus, who curtailed the business
of the Chorus, and made the dialogue, or spoken portion,
take the leading part in the play. A third actor and scenery
were due to Sophocles.

Further, there was the change in magnitude. From small plots
and ridiculous diction, because of its origin from satyr-drama,
it was only late that it became serious and attained dignity.
Its metre also changed from trochaic tetrameter to iambic.

The reason for their original use of the trochaic tetrameter
was that their poetry was satyric and more connected with
dancing than it now is.
As soon, however, as
a spoken part came in, nature herself found the appropriate
metre. The iambic, we know, is the most speakable of
metres,

as is shown by the fact that we very often fall into it
in conversation, whereas we rarely talk hexameters, and only
when we depart from the speaking tone of voice.

Another
change was a plurality of episodes or acts. As for the remaining
matters, the superadded embellishments and the account of
their introduction, these must be taken as said.

It would
probably be a long piece of work to go through the details.

The Poetic of Aristotle (Henry James Pye, revised 1792) (OCR draft) Experimental (Henry James Pye's revised 1792 English translation, corrected against the 1788 first edition, aligned to the Kassel reference edition, and supplied with a selective apparatus of substantive 1788 readings.) — 4.15 focus

And this process will appear manifest on examining (E) them. Tragedy, after undergoing many changes, stopped when it had attained its natural form.

The Poetic of Aristotle (Theodore Alois Buckley) (OCR draft) Experimental (Theodore Alois Buckley's English translation, first published in 1850 and represented from the Henry G. Bohn 1857 printing; corrected against a second OCR and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 4.15 focus

and it gradually increased as obvious improvements became known. And tragedy, having experienced many changes, rested when it had ar- rived at its proper nature. ¹

Poetica Latine conversa (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's Latin translation, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 4 focus

Genuisse autem videntur omnino poeticam causae duae quaedam, eaeque naturales.

nam et imitari innatum est hominibus a pueris (eoque differunt a ceteris animalibus, quod hoc ad imitandum aptissimum est primasque discendi vias imitando ingreditur), et ut imitamentis gaudeant omnes.

huius rei signum est quod, in operibus evenit: quae enim ipsa aegre cernimus, horum imagines accuratissime factas libenter spectamus, veluti bestiarum formas quamvis contemptissimarum et cadaverum.

causa autem huius ipsius rei, quod discere non solum philosophis iucundissimum sed item ceteris, nisi quod breve eius commercium continuant.

nam ob hoc cum gaudio imagines vident, quod contingit ut contemplantes discant et ratiocinentur quid unumquodque sit, veluti quod hic ille, siquidem nisi prius viderit,

non imitamentum * ⭑ voluptatem faciet sed per artificium vel colorem vel aliquam eiusmodi causam.

sed cum naturae nostrae consentaneum sit imitari simulque concentus et numerus (metra enim partes numerorum esse manifestum), a principio aevum agentes et illa potissimum sensim sensimque promoventes poesin procreaverunt ex subitis conaminibus.

Divisa est autem secundum proprios mores poesis: nam qui graviores, i honestas imitabantur actiones et honestorum, qui autem leviores ea quae pravi faciebant, primum convicia pangentes, sicut alii hymnos et encomia.

sane eorum qui ante Homerum fuere nullius nominare possumus huiusmodi poema, sed verisimile fuisse multos:

ab Homero autem exorti possumus, ut est illius Margites, et talia in quibus etiam apte iambicum prodiit metrum. ideo etiam nunc iambicum appellatur, quia hoc metro sese maledictis petebant.

itaque inter priscos hi quidem heroicorum, illi autem`iamborum poetae exstiterunt.

sed quemadmodum in gravibus argumentis prae ceteris poeta fuit Homerus (unus non modo quod recte, sed quod etiam dramaticas fecit imitationes), sic etiam comoediae formas primus submonstravit, non convicia sed quod ridiculum dramatice exhibendo: nam Margites se habet, sicut Ilias et Odyssea ad tragoedias, eadem ratione et ipse ad comoedias.

cum autem apparuisset tragoedia et comoedia, qui ad utramque poesin natura sua ferebantur, hi pro iambis comoedias, illi pro epicis carminibus tragoedias docere coeperunt, quod celsiores quam illae atque honoratiores hae species erant. Dispicere vero, an iam sufficiat tragoedia formis poeticae nec ne, sive hoc ipsum per se spectatur sive theatris adhibitis, alius est disputationis.

ab initio igitur cum extemporalis evasisset et ipsa et comoedia, haec ab iis qui dithyrambum praeibant, illa ab iis qui phallica, quae etiamnum in multis civitatibus usus tenet, paulatim aucta est, promoventibus quantum de ipsa innotuit, atque cum multas passa esset

tragoedia mutationes substitit, postquam assecuta erat suam naturam.

ac numerum histrionum ex uno ad duos primus produxit Aeschylus, et partes chori minuit, et actorem primarum partium instruxit; tres autem et scenae picturam Sophocles.

praeterea mensura ex brevibus fabulis et dictione ridicula, quoniam ex satyrorum ludicris mutavit, sero exculta est, et metrum ex tetrametro iambicum evasit (nam primum tetrametro utebantur propterea

quod satyrica et magis saltatoria erat poesis, sermone autem exorto ipsa natura proprium metrum invenit:. nam ex omnibus metris sermoni maxime aptum est iambicum.

cuius rei signum est quod saepissime iambica pronuntiamus in mutuo sermone, hexametros autem raro et excedentes communis sermonis modulationem); praeterea episodiorum copia et cetera ut quaeque exornata dicuntur.

de his igitur haec a nobis exposita sunto:

magnum enim forsitan opus fuerit singula percurrere.

La poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) Experimental (André Dacier's French translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1692.) — 4.15 focus

La Tragedie donc & la Comedie, étant nées des impromptu dont j'ay parlé, car la premiere doit ſa naiſſance aux Dithyrambes qu'on chantoit en l'honneur de Bacchus, & l'autre à ces chanſons obſcenes, qui autoriſées par la coûtume & par les loix, ſe chantent encore de nôtre temps dans pluſieurs Villes, elles ont receu l'une & l'autre leur accroiſſement peu à peu, chacun ajoûtant quelque choſe à leur beauté, à meſure que l'on découvroit ce qui convenoit à leur caractere.

Poetica d'Aristotile (Bernardo Segni, 1549) (OCR draft) Experimental (Bernardo Segni's 1549 Florentine Italian translation, aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 4 focus

A due ſon' le cagioni; & quelle naturalıſsime e l'imitatione, che con ciascuno huom' inſieme naſce infin' da fanciullo;¹

& per la quale eſsi huomini ſon' dagli altri animali differenti, per effer, dico, attiſsimi ad imi tare:& per farſi in loro le prime cognitioni per via della imitatione; & perchè ciaſcun' fi prende piacere dell imitatione. Di che è ſegno quello, che accade negli ſteſ fi fatti.

Perchè tutte quelle coſe, che cı danno moleſtia nel riguardarle, delle medeſime quando noi ſcorgiamo l'imagini diligentemente ſegnate;elle ci danno fommo piacere : come ſono l'imagini delle beſtie ſaluatiche, & de' morti. Et queſto naſce, perchè non pure a' Filofofi, quanto anchora à tutti gli altri huomini l'imparare è coſa dolcissima.

Ma perchè gli altri di tal'coſa poco par ticipano, però fi rallegramo eglino nel confiderar tali imagini per quello accidente, che interuien loro d'imparar' in quel mentre che eſsi le confiderano; & di fare la conclufione, che che ſia ciaſcheduna d'effe: cioè che queſta è quella coſa.

Perchè dou'egli interueniffe, che vno, che risguarda l'imagine, imprima nó haueffe quel la coſa veduta, e non ne piglierebbe piacer per via della imitatione;

ma fi bene per via dell'artificio, ò del colore: ò d'altra cagione fimigliate. Eſſendoci adunche l'i mitatione coſa naturalifsima, & l'armonia,e'l numero.

Et che i verſi ſien' parte di numero è manifeſtò. Però da principio interuene, che quegli, che per natura erano à tai coſe inclinati aſſai à poco a poco con andarle allargando generaſsino la Poefia con inuentioni fatte dapprima all'improuifo.

Et ſegui dappoi, che la Poefia fi diuiſe in piu membri ſecondo i coſtumi di ciaſchedu no, che vi atteſe. Imperochè gli huomini di piu grauità imitarono l'attion' virtuoſe, & quelle degli huomini ta li. Et li piu leggieri imitarono quelle degli huomini rei, vſando di far opere mordaci in cambio degli altri, che faceuono Himni, & opere, che lodauano altrui.

Ma innanzi à Homero non fi ritroua neſſun' Poema gia ta le: & pure è ragioneuol'coſa che e' ne fuſſero ſtati mol ti compoſti.

Et cominciandomi da Homero ſi ritroua il ſuo Margite, & altri Poemi di fimil fatta; ne' quali s'u sò il verſo lambo come à tal Poema accomodato. Onde è nato, che tal maniera di Poema ſi chiama Iambico; perchè có ſimil verſo s'uſaua di dir male l'un dell'altro.

Et infra i Poeti antichi alcuni d'eſsi furon' detti Poeti Heroici, & alcuni Poeti Iambici.

Ma cofi come Home ro infra tutti gli altri imitò maſsimamente l'attioni vir tuoſe, perchè egli folo dimoſtrò non tanto quello, che era buono, ma perchè egli anchora nel ſuo Poema, fece l'imitationi da rapreſentarſi in Scena. Medefimamente egli imprima di tutti gli altri moſtrò qual'doueffe effer la forma della Commedia, cioè che in eſſa fi doueuon' rappreſentare i ridiculi, & non i vituperii degli huomi ni. Che (à dire il vero) il ſuo Margite ha la medefima corriſpondenza con la Commedia, che ha l'Iliade, & l'Odiffea col Poema tragico.

Ma gli altri ſi ſpinſono all' una delle due forti di Poemi, ſecondo che la natura gli fe più all'uno, che all' altro inchinati:diuentando queſti Poeti Comici incambio di Poetı Iambici: Et quegli Poeti Tragici in cambio d'Heroici; per eſſere tali ſpetie di Poemi migliori, & più honorate di quegli. Ma il confiderare ſe il Poema Tragico habbia anchora, ò nó habbia la perfettion'ſua, ſi con il riſpetto afſoluto di ſe ſteſſo, & fi con il riſpetto del Teatro : di tutto queſto fia tempo da vederlo altra volta.

Et dicafi hora che hauendo la Tragedia, & la Commedia hauuto principio da coſe fatte all'improuiſo; & l'una hauendola hauuto da quegli, che principiarono i Ditirambı: & l'altra da quegli, che ſcriſſono li Poemi fallici, i quali anchor'hog gi fi conferuan per leggi in molte Città: à poco a poco, dico, ch'ella venne ampliando infino à quel tanto, che di lei è manifeſto à ogni huomo.

Et doppo aſſai mutationi, che ſopportò la Tragedia, ripoſofsi al fine, conſe guito ch'ell' hebbe la ſua natura.

Et allhora Eſchilo pri ma di tutti l'accrebbe il numero degli Iftrioni, cioè, d'u no, infino in due; & diminui quelle coſe, che apparten gono al Choro. Ordinò dipoi il parlare delle prime par ti. Et Sofocle dappoi aggiunſe il numero degli Ittrioni infino in tre, & aggiunfe dipiù l'ornamento alla Scena.

Oltradiqueſto eſſa Tragedia di piccola Fauola, ch'ell' era imprima, et di locution' ridicula venne in grandezza; & fcacciato da ſe il modo Satirico doppo vn' gran tempo finalmente riceuette in ſe grauità: & in cambio del verſo di otto piedi riceuette il Senario, ò Iambo che io mi voglia chiamarlo.

Che innanzi à lui s'uſaua il ver ſo di otto piedi, per effer tal Poeſia Satirica & conueniente alle feſte de ſalti, ò de balli. Et la natura ſteſſa, trouata che fu la locutione, inſegnò il verſo, che le era conueniente; concioſia che il ſenario infra tutti gli altri numeri ſia facile grandemente da poteruiſiragionar' dentro.

Di ciò è ſegno queſto, che io dirò; cioè, che nel parlar' ordinario, che fa l'un'con l'altro, molti ſenarii vi ſi profferiſcono:& degli Efametri radeuolte. De quali ſe pur ſe ne profferiſce alcuno,e' fi profferiſce tra paſſando il fuono del parlare ordinario.

Diceſi anchora, ch'ella fu accrefciuta di numero d'Epiſodii, & di tut te quelle coſe; ciaſcuna delle quali le reca ornamento. Et di queſte tai coſe ſieſene detto à baſtanza;

che forſe ſarebbe impreſa non piccola il voler'diſcorrere intorno à ciò particularmente ogni coſa. N

De poetica (Antonio Riccobono, 1587) (OCR draft) Experimental (Antonio Riccobono's Latin translation, first published in 1587; text represented from Immanuel Bekker's 1831 edition.) — 4 focus

Videntur autem genuisse in universum poëticam causae duae, atque ipsae naturales. nam imitari insitum hominibus a pueris est,

et hac re differunt ipsi ab aliis animalibus, quod homo est animal maxime accommodatum ad imitandum. et perceptiones faciunt primas per imitationem. et gaudent omnes rebus imitatione expressis.

signum autem huius rei est id quod contingit in operibus opificum: quae enim ipsa moleste cernimus, horum imagines exactissime expressas dum spectamus gandemus gaudemus, ut ferarum formas abiectissimarum et cadaverum.

ac signum huius rei etiam est, quod discere non solum philosophis iucundissimum est, sed etiam aliis similiter, qui tamen parum eius participes sunt: ob id enim gaudent cernentes imagines, quia contingit spectantes discere et ratiocinari quid unumquodque sit,

ut hunc illum esse; quoniam nisi contigerit eum prius vidisse, non propter id quod imitatione expressum est,

efficiet voluptatem, sed propter artificium aut colorem aut talem aliquam causam.

verum cum secundum naturam sit in nobis ipsum imitari et harmonia et numerus (nam metra particulas esse numerorum manifestum est), a principio, qui natura apti erant ad haec ipsa maxime, paulatim promoventes et genuerunt poësim ex iis quae subito dicebantur.

divisa autem est secundum proprios mores poësis:: nam grandiores honestas imitabantur actiones ac huiusmodi hominum, humiliores vero malorum, facientes primum vituperationes, quemadmodum alteri hymnos et encomia.

atque eorum quidem qui ante Homerum fuerunt, nullius possumus nominare poëma tale: verisimile autem est multos esse.

at ab Homero exorsis licet, ut est illius Margites et talia. quibus secundum id quod conveniebat, iambicum accessit metrum. itaque et iambicum vocatur nunc, quod et in hoc metro convicia inter se exercebant;

et fuerunt ex priscis alii quidem heroicorum, alii vero iamborum poëtae.

quemadmodum autem et in gravibus maxime poëta fuit Homerus (solus enim fuit non solum quia bene, sed etiam quia imitationes dramatice fecit), sic et comoediae figuras primus submonstravit, non vituperationem sed ridiculum dramate complectens: nam Margites propor tionem habet, ut Hias et Odyssea ad tragoedias, sic et ipse ad comoedias.

cum autem apparuisset tragoedia et comoedia, qui ad utranque poësim ferebantur secundum propriam naturam, partim quidem pro iambicis comici facti sunt, partim vero pro epicis tragici, quia maiores et honoratiores figurae essent hae quam illae. ac considerare quidem utrum sufficienter se habeat iam tragoedia in formis ipsius necne, tum si res ipsa per se iudicetur, tum ad theatra, alia ratio est.

nata igitur est a principio ex tempore et ipsa et comoedia, et una quidem ab iis qui dithyrambum canebant, altera vero ab iis qui phallica, quae propterea etiam nunc in multis civitatibus manent legibus constituta, paulatim aucta est, producentibus quantum ipsius factum est manifestum.

et multas mutationes cum habuisset tragoedia, conquievit, quia consecuta est suam ipsius naturam.

ac histrionum multitudinem ex uno ad duos primus Aeschylus produxit, et ea quae ad chorum pertinent minuit, et orationem primarum partium instituit; tres autem, et scenae ornamentum, Sophocles.

praeterea magnitudo ex parvis fabulis et locatione ridicula, propterea quod ex Satyrico mutata est, tarde granditatem habuit. ac metrum ex tetrametro iambicum factum est.

nam primum tetrametro utebantur propterea quod Satyrica et magis saltatoria erat poësis. locutione autem nata, ipsa natura proprium metrum invenit. maxime vero sermoni accommodatum omnium metrorum iambicum est.

signumque huius rei est, quod plurima iambica proferimus in collocutione, quam in vicem habemus, hexametra vero raro,

et exeuntes ex accommodata sermoni harmonia. praeterea vero episodiorum multitudines, et alia ut singula se habent, ornata esse dicuntur. ac de his quidem tam multa a nobis dicta sint:

plura enim fortasse dicenda essent, si singula essent explicanda.

De arte poetica liber (William of Moerbeke, ca. 1277) (OCR draft) Experimental (William of Moerbeke's medieval Latin translation, represented by the 1953 Aristoteles Latinus edition.) — 4 focus

Videntur autem genuisse omnino poeticam cause due quedam, et ipse naturales.

Nam imitari connatum hominibus est ex pueris, et hoc differunt ab aliis animalibus, quia maxime imitativum est et imitationes facit et propter gaudere imitaminibus omnes.

Signum autem huius, quod accidit in opere. Que enim ipsa tristabiliter videmus, horum ymagines que maxime expresse considerantes gaudemus, puta bestiolarum formas vilissimarum et mortuorum. —

Causa autem et huius, quia addiscere non solum philosophis delectabilissimum, sed et aliis similiter omnibus ad breve communicantibus ipso.

Propter hoc enim gaudent ymagines aspicientes, quia accidit considerantes addiscere et sillogizare quid unumquodque, puta quod iste ille;

quoniam si forte non prius vidit, non imitamen faciet delectationem, sed propter elaborationem aut colorationem aut propter talem aliquam aliam causam. —

Secundum naturam autem ente nobis ipso imitari et armonia et rythmo (metra enim quod sint partes rythmorum manifestum) a principio apti nati et ipsa maxime paulative adducentes produxerunt poesim ex informibus.

Distracta est autem, secundum proprios mores, poesis' qui quidem enim reverentiores bonas imitabantur actiones et eas que talium, qui autem viliores eas que pravorum ; primo vituperia facientes, sicut alii hymnos et laudes.

Eorum quidem igitur qui ante Homerum, nullius habemus dicere tale poema ; verisimile autem esse multos.

Ab Homero autem incipiens est, puta illius Margeites et que talia. In quibus secundum congruum iambiale venit metrum; propter quod et iambiale vocatur nunc quia in metro iambizabant invicem ;

et fuerunt antiquorum hii quidem eroycorum, hii autem iamborum poete.

Sicut autem secundum studiosa maxime poeta Homerus fuit (solus enim non quia bene, sed quia et imitationes actitivas fecit), sic et que komodie scemata primus ostendit non vituperium sed risile actitizans ; nam Margeites proportionale habet, sicut Ilias et Odisseia ad tragodias, ita et iste ad komodias.

Secus apparentie autem tragodie et komodie qui ad utramque poesim impetuantes secundum suam naturam, hii quidem pro iambis komodofici facti sunt, hii autem pro versibus tragodie doctores, propter maiora et honorabiliora esse scemata hec illis. Superintendendi quidem igitur si habet iam tragodia speciebus sufficienter aut non, sique ipsumque secundum se iudicatur esse et ad theatra, alia ratio. —

Facta igitur a principio autoschediastica (idest informi) et ipsa et komodia, et hec quidem ab inchoantibus dithyrambum, hec autem ab hiis que faulica (idest vitiosa), que adhuc et nunc in multis civitatum permanent lege statuta, paulative augmentata sunt, producentibus quantum fuit manifestum ipsius.

Et multis transmutationibus transmutata tragodia requievit, super ultimam ipsius naturam.

Et ypocritarum multitudinem ex uno in duo primus Eschylus produxit, et que chori minoravit, et sermonem protagonistam disposuit ; tres autem et skenografiam Sophocles.

Adhuc autem magnitudo ex parvis fabulis et locutione risili propter ex satyriaco transmutari tarde reverita est.

Metrumque ex tetrametro iambiale factum est; primo quidem enim tetrametro utebantur propter satyricam et magis saltativam esse poesim, locutione autem facta, ipsa natura suum metrum invenit; maxime enim locutionale metrorum est quod iambiale; signum autem huius'

plurima enim iambialia dicimus in loquela ea que ad invicem, exametra autem raro, et exeuntes a locutionali armonia.

Adhuc autem episodiorum multitudines. Et alia singulas delata esse dicuntur ; sint nobis dicta.

Multum enim utique forsitan opus erit pertransire per singula. —

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition) (OCR draft) Experimental (The Arabic translation attributed to Abū Bishr Mattā, edited by Jaroslaus Tkatsch in 1928 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 4 focus

‏ويشبه ان يكون العلل المولدة لصناعة الشعر التى هى بالطبع علتان

‏والتشبيه والمحاكاة مما ينشوا مع الناس منذ اول الامر وهم اطفال وهذا مما يخالف به الناس الحيوانات الاخر من قبل ان الانسان يشبه ويستعمل المحاكاة اكثر ويتتلمذ ويجعل التلمذات بالتشبيه والمحاكاة للاشيا المتقدمة والاوايل وذلك ان جميعهم يسر ويفرح بالتشبيه والمحاكاة

‏والدليل على ذلك هذا وهو الذى يعرض فى الافعال ايضا وذلك ان التى نراها ويكون روساها على جهة الاغتمام فانا نسر بصورتها وتماثيلها اما اذا نحن رايناها كالتى هى اشد استقصا مثال ذلك صور وخلق الحيوانات المهينة المايتة

‏والعلة فى ذلك هى هذه وهى ان [ان] باب التعليم ليس انما هو لذيذ الفيلسوف فقط لكن لهولا الاخر على مثال واحد الا انه من انهم يشاركٮه مشاركة يسيرة

‏فلهذا السبب يسرون اذا ما هم راوا الصور والتماثيل من قبل انه يعرض انهم يرون فيتعلمون وهو قياس من ما لكل انسان انسان مثال ذلك ان هذا ذاك

‏من قبل انه ان لم يتقدم فيرى ليس يعمل للذين سنه لكن من اجل الفعل والتفعل او للمواضع او من اجل علة ما مثل هذه

‏واما بالطبع فلنا ان نتشبه بالتاليف واللحون وذلك انه اما ان الاوزان مشابهات للالحان فهو بين للذين هم مفطورون على ذلك منذ الابتدا وخاصة انهم ولدوا صناعة الشعر من حيث ياتون بذلك ويمتعون قليلا قليلا وولدوها من الذين اٮفوها دفعة ومن ساعته

‏وانجذبت بحسب عادتها الخاصية اعنى صناعة الشعر وذلك ان بعض الشعرا ومن كان منهم اكثر عفافا يتشبهون بالاعمال الحسنة الجميلة وفى ما اشبه ذلك وبعضهم ممن قد كان منهم ارذل عند ما كانوا يهجون اولا الاشرار كانوا يعملون بعد ذلك المديح والثنا لقوم اخرين اشرار

‏غير انه ليس لنا ان نقول فى انسان قبل اوميروس انه عمل مثل هذه الصناعة من صناعة الشعرا والا قد كان شعرا اخر كثيرين

‏غير ان من اوميروس هو المبدا مثل ذلك ل ال ل// سيق ووالسيق والحارٮه ما* وهذه التى هى هكذى التى اتى بها الوزن كما اتى بيامبو ولذلك ما لقب مثل هذا الوزن ايامبوس وبهذا الوزن كانوا يتهاونون بعضهم ببعض [وصار القدما]

‏وصار من القدما بعضهم شعرا فى الفن ايامبو والفن المسمى ٮاوريٯا

‏كما ان الشاعر فى الاشيا الحريصة المجتهدة خاصة انما كان اوميروس وحده فقط وذلك انه هو وحده فقط ليس انما عمل اشيا احسن فيها لكن قد عمل التشبيهات والحكايات المعروفة بدماطيقياتا وهكذى هو اول من اظهر شكل صناعة هجا ليس فيه الهجا فقط لكن فى باب الاستهزا والمطانزة فانه عمل فيها النشيد المسما باليونانية دراماطا وذلك ان هارلٮلوٮا حالها حال يجرى مجرى التسقيم فكما ان ايليادا عند الركب والمسماة اودوسيا غير المديحات كذلك هذا عند ابواب الهجا

‏ولما ظهرا [مد] مذهب [الهجا و]المديح ومذهب الهجا فالذين نحوا وقصدوا به بصناعة الشعر كلتى هاتين بحسب خصوصية الطبع بعضهم كانوا يعملون مكان المذهب من الشعر المسمى ايامبو ابواب الهجا وبعضهم كانوا يعملون مكان هذه التى للمسماة افيس ابواب المديح وصاروا معلمين لذلك من قبل انه قد كانت هذه اعظم كثيرا واشرف فى شكل هذه فانه ان ٮعمل هو هو مبدا الصناعة المديح وبالانواع على الكفاية وذلك انه اما ان تكون تانك ٮحيٮں بهذه او يكون عند كلتيهما بنسبة اخرى

‏وعند ما غيرت من تغايير كثيرة وتناهت عند ذلك صناعة المديح من قبل انه قد كانت الطبيعة التى تخصها

‏واما تلك فلاكثر المنافقين والمرائين فمن واحد للاثنين واول من كان ادخل هذه المذاهب التى للصفوف وللدستبند وهو ايضا اول من اعد مذاهب الجهادات وايضا اول من اظهر هذه الاصناف من اللهو واللعب كان سوفوقلس

‏واما مٮدلدں العامل فكانوا يستعملون رباعية الوزن بسبب الرقص المعروف بساطورانقى لكيما يتشبه به الشعر اكثروا عند ما كانت تنشوا مقولة وكلام فالطبيعة كانت تجد وزنها ولا سيما من قبل ان الوزن كان يعمل الاخر اٮـ*سها وقد يجارى بعضنا بعضا بالمخاطبة والمكايلة دليل هذه السبيل

‏المسماة ايامبو منذ قط واما الوزن فاقلٮ ذاك وعند ما ننحرف عن التاليف الجدلى وايضا اكثر الكلام والمخاطبة الرافع

‏وهذه الوحيادات الاخر انما تقال نحو التحٮل والحسن فى الاقتصاص لكل واحدة واحدة

—

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition, unaligned) (OCR draft) Experimental (Tkatsch's edition of the medieval Arabic translation in its original, unaligned segmentation.) — 4 focus

‏ويشبه ان يكون العلل المولدة لصناعة الشعر التى هى بالطبع علتان

‏فلهذا السبب يسرون اذا ما هم راوا الصور والتماثيل من قبل انه يعرض انهم يرون فيتعلمون وهو قياس من ما لكل انسان انسان مثال ذلك ان هذا ذاك من قبل انه ان لم يتقدم فيرى ليس يعمل للذين سنه لكن من اجل الفعل والتفعل او للمواضع او من اجل علة ما مثل هذه

‏غير انه ليس لنا ان نقول فى انسان قبل اوميروس انه عمل مثل هذه الصناعة من صناعة الشعرا والا قد كان شعرا اخر كثيرين غير ان من اوميروس هو المبدا مثل ذلك ل ال ل// سيق ووالسيق والحارٮه ما* وهذه التى هى هكذى التى اتى بها الوزن كما اتى بيامبو

‏ولذلك ما لقب مثل هذا الوزن ايامبوس وبهذا الوزن كانوا يتهاونون بعضهم ببعض [وصار القدما]

‏وصار من القدما بعضهم شعرا فى الفن ايامبو والفن المسمى ٮاوريٯا

‏وذلك انه اما ان تكون تانك ٮحيٮں بهذه او يكون عند كلتيهما بنسبة اخرى

‏فلما حدثت منذ الابتدا ونشت دفعة هى وصناعة الهجا ايضا اما تلك فعند ما كانت تبتدى من العلل الاول التى للمذهب المسمى ايثورمبو واما هذه المزورة وهذه هى الثابتة فى كثير من المداين الى الان احدث النمو والتربية قليلا قليلا من حيث قد كانت قديمة كما انه ظهرت ايضا هذه التى هى الان وعند ما غيرت من تغايير كثيرة وتناهت عند ذلك صناعة المديح من قبل انه قد كانت الطبيعة التى تخصها واما تلك فلاكثر المنافقين والمرائين فمن واحد للاثنين

‏واول من كان ادخل هذه المذاهب التى للصفوف وللدستبند وهو ايضا اول من اعد مذاهب الجهادات وايضا اول من اظهر هذه الاصناف من اللهو واللعب كان سوفوقلس

‏وايضا هو اول من اظهر من النشايد الصغار عظم الكلام وصحيح والرهح فى الكلام والمقولات الداخلة فى باب الاستهزا والهزل وعمل ذلك بان غير شى من شكل الفن المسمى سطاوررور واما بالاخرة وبالابطا فاستعملوا العفة وهذا الوزن من الرباعية التى ليامبو واما مٮدلدں العامل فكانوا يستعملون رباعية الوزن بسبب الرقص المعروف بساطورانقى لكيما يتشبه به الشعر اكثروا عند ما كانت تنشوا مقولة وكلام فالطبيعة كانت تجد وزنها ولا سيما من قبل ان الوزن كان يعمل الاخر اٮـ*سها

‏وقد يجارى بعضنا بعضا بالمخاطبة والمكايلة دليل هذه السبيل المسماة ايامبو منذ قط واما الوزن فاقلٮ ذاك وعند ما ننحرف عن التاليف الجدلى وايضا اكثر الكلام والمخاطبة الرافع

‏وهذه الوحيادات الاخر انما تقال نحو التحٮل والحسن فى الاقتصاص لكل واحدة واحدة

—

Commentary

Commentary on the Poetics (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) (Ingram Bywater's English commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.) focus

15. mvp-aristotle-comment-135

μεταβολάς : 5, 1449 a 37

αἱ τῆς τραγῳδίας μεταβάσεις

15. mvp-aristotle-comment-136

1449a15 ἐπαύσατο For the tense of the participle comp. An. post. 2. 1, 89 b 27

εὑρόντες γὰρ ὅτι ἐκλείπει πεπαύμεθα

. — Meteor. 1. 3, 339 b 32

θεωρήσαντες ἂν τὰ νῦν δεικνύμενα ... ἴσως ἂν ἐπαύσαντο ταύτης τῆς παιδικῆς δόξης

15. mvp-aristotle-comment-137

φύσιν : Pol. 1. 2, 1252 b 32

ἡ δὲ φύσις τέλος ἐστίν· οἷον γὰρ ἕκαστόν ἐστι τῆς γενέσεως τελεσθείσης, ταύτην φαμὲν τὴν φύσιν εἶναι ἑκάστου, ὥσπερ ἀνθρώπου ἵππου οἰκίας

Remarques sur la poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) (André Dacier's French commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.) focus

29. mvp-aristotle-comment-99

4.15 La Tragedie donc & la Comedie, étant nées des impromptu dont j'ay parle.]¹

30. mvp-aristotle-comment-100

4.15 Et l'autre à ces chanſons obſcenes.]²

31. mvp-aristotle-comment-101

4.15 Qui autoriſées par la Coûtume & par les Loix, ſe chantent encore de notre temps dans pluſieurs Villes.]³

32. mvp-aristotle-comment-102

4.15 Chacun ajoutant quelque choſe à leur beauté à meſure qu'on découvroit ce qui convenoit à leur caractere.]⁴

Commentarius in Aristotelis Poeticam (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) (Ritter's Latin commentary, extracted from the 1839 volume, divided by Ritter's chapters and sections, and linked to the corresponding Perseus reference subsections.) focus

12. mvp-aristotle-comment-28

Ritter, cap. 4 § 12

καὶ ἡ μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν ἐξαρχόντων τὸν διθύραμβον: antiquissimam tragoediae formam non diversam fuisse significat a prisco illo dithyramborum genere, cum chorus satyrorum circa Bacchi aram caprumque ei numini immolatum τραγωδίαν sive τραγικὴν ἀοιδὴν (Bocks - gesang) decantando saltaret. haec est enim nativa ac prima τραγῳδίας significatio. nimirum τραγωδίας nomen decompositum ( παρασύνθετον) est ex τραγωδός, unde etiam τραγῳδέω, plane ut κωμῳδέω et κωμῳδία ex κωμῳδός, ἀρνῳδέω et ἀρνῳδία ex ἀρνῳδός. τραγωδία est igitur id quod canit tragoedus ( ἀοιδὴ τοῦ τραγῳδοῦ): ipse tragoedus est ὃς τράγον ἀείδει. quamvis enim prisci illi tragoedi non ipsum caprum sed deum cui caper mactabatur canerent, ab hominibus tamen nomen eis inditum est ab ea re quae oculis potissimum exposita esset 4). ἐξάρχειν τὸν διθύραμβον hic dictum est de iis qui dithyramborum et canendorum et saltandorum auctores erant et magistri. quoniam αὐτοσχεδιαστικῶς dithyrambum 4) Varias nominis τραγωδίας etymologias collectas proposuit vir pereximius Fr. Welckerus in Appendice operis de trilogia Aeschylia editi p. 240. quam ipse ceteris praetulit ab Etymol. Magno acceptam τραγῳδία ὅτι τὰ πολλὰ οἱ χοροὶ ἐκ σατύρων συνίσταντο, οὓς ἐκάλουν τράγους –, ea mihi non probatur, propterea quod τραγωδία non est nomen compositum ( σύνθετον) ex τράγος et ᾠδή, sed decompositum ( παρασύνθετον) est ex τραγωδός. tertia eiusdem nominis explicandi ratio ὅτι τράγος τῇ ᾠδῇ ἄθλον ἐτίθετο —, ab antiquis auctoribus certatim tradita et magni Bentleii assensu (Opusc. p. 315 sqq.) comprobata, nuper merito repudiata est a Iacobo in Quaestionibus Sophocl. p. 85 et 104., a Welckero l. indic., aliis. id tamen dubitari vix poterit, quin dithyrambi cantores sacris illis peractis hoc laboris praemium tulerint, ut una cum sacerdotibus sacrificii ministris capri mactati carne vescerentur. forsitan inde orta sit fabula ista de hirco in praemium certaminis ( ὡς ἄθλον) proposito.inchoabant, eis neque γράφειν neque ποιεῖν neque συνιστάναι tribui potuit. ὁ ἐξάρχων et laudes dei et cantandi modos saltandique figuras ita inchoavit, ut ceteri praeeuntem circa Bacchi aram sequerentur. haec ad intellectum verborum Aristotelis dixisse sufficiat: rem illam ipsam ex omnibus quot ad nos venerunt testimoniis veterum scriptorum explicare alius est disputationis, quae nostra aetate acerrime et agitata est et agitatur. ἡ δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν τὰ φαλλικά: ut φαλλός signum est potentiae genitalis masculi generis animantibus concessae, ita τὰ φαλλικά carmina sunt ad φαλλόν in pompa decantata eademque ad Bacchum hanc vim iuvantem celebrandum accommodata. a priscis illis dithyrambis ita diversa fuerunt, ut primum vim genitricem praedicarent, tum ut in pompa, non circa aram, recitarentur. haec comissantium turba (cui nomen κῶμος) habebat quem τὰ φαλλικά ex tempore canere atque saltare incipientem ( ἐξάρχοντα) sequeretur. duci ceterisque cantoribus nomen erat κωμῳδοί, h. e. τοῦ κώμου ἀοιδοί, Sänger des (schwärmenden) Aufzuges. inde per παρασύνθεσιν factum est verbum κωμῳδέω et nomen κωμῳδία. grassari in tali comissantium turba est κωμάζειν. – ἃ ἔτι καὶ νῦν - νομιζόμενα: hos serioris aetatis φαλλοφόρους vel ἰθυφάλλους descripsit Semus Delius apud Athenaeum XIV. p. 622 C. κατὰ μικρὸν ηυξήθη ὅσον ἐγίγνετο φανερὸν αὐτῆς : Thespin aliosque ante Aeschylum tragoediarum scriptores significat. accuratius haec quae ad historiam artis poeticae pertinerent in opere περὶ ποιητῶν exsecutus videtur.

Aristotle Poetics 4.15

Thomas Twining (Translator)

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Commentary

Ritter, cap. 4 § 12

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