Speaking generally, poetry seems to owe its origin to two particular causes, both natural.

From childhood men have an instinct for representation, and in this respect, differs from the other animals that he is far more imitative and learns his first lessons by representing things. And then there is the enjoyment people always get from representations.

What happens in actual experience proves this, for we enjoy looking at accurate likenesses of things which are themselves painful to see, obscene beasts, for instance, and corpses.

The reason is this: Learning things gives great pleasure not only to philosophers but also in the same way to all other men, though they share this pleasure only to a small degree.

The reason why we enjoy seeing likenesses is that, as we look, we learn and infer what each is, for instance, that is so and so.

If we have never happened to see the original, our pleasure is not due to the representation as such but to the technique or the color or some other such cause.

20 We have, then, a natural instinct for representation and for tune and rhythm ¹ —for the metres are obviously sections of rhythms ² —and starting with these instincts men very gradually developed them until they produced poetry out of their improvisations.

Poetry then split into two kinds according to the poet’s nature. For the more serious poets represented fine doings and the doings of fine men, while those of a less exalted nature represented the actions of inferior men, at first writing satire just as the others at first wrote hymns and eulogies.

Before Homer we cannot indeed name any such poem, though there were probably many satirical poets,

but starting from Homer, there is, for instance, his Margites ³ and other similar poems. For these the iambic metre was fittingly introduced and that is why it is still called iambic, because it was the metre in which they lampooned each other. ⁴

Of the ancients some wrote heroic verse and some iambic.

And just as Homer was a supreme poet in the serious style, since he alone made his representations not only good but also dramatic, so, too, he was the first to mark out the main lines of comedy, since he made his drama not out of personal satire but out of the laughable as such. His Margites indeed provides an analogy: as are the Iliad and Odyssey to our tragedies, 1449a 1 so is the Margites to our comedies.

When tragedy and comedy came to light, poets were drawn by their natural bent towards one or the other. Some became writers of comedies instead of lampoons, the others produced tragedies instead of epics; the reason being that the former is in each case a higher kind of art and has greater value.

To consider whether tragedy is fully developed by now in all its various species or not, and to criticize it both in itself and in relation to the stage, that is another question.

At any rate it originated in improvisation—both tragedy itself and comedy. The one came from the prelude ⁵ to the dithyramb and the other from the prelude to the phallic songs which still survive as institutions in many cities. Tragedy then gradually evolved as men developed each element that came to light

and after going through many changes, it stopped when it had found its own natural form.

Thus it was Aeschylus who first raised the number of the actors from one to two. He also curtailed the chorus and gave the dialogue the leading part. Three actors and scene-painting Sophocles introduced.

Then as to magnitude. 20 Being a development of the Satyr play, ⁶ it was quite late before tragedy rose from short plots and comic diction to its full dignity, and that the iambic metre was used instead of the trochaic tetrameter.

At first they used the tetrameter because its poetry suited the Satyrs and was better for dancing, but when dialogue was introduced, Nature herself discovered the proper metre. The iambic is indeed the most conversational of the metres,

and the proof is that in talking to each other we most often use iambic lines but very rarely hexameters and only when we rise above the ordinary pitch of conversation.

Then there is the number of acts. The further embellishments ⁷ and the story of their introduction one by one we may take as told,

for it would probably be a long task to go through them in detail.

Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two
causes, each of them lying deep in our nature.

First, the instinct of imitation is implanted in man
from childhood, one difference between him and other
animals being that he is the most imitative of living
creatures, and through imitation learns his earliest
lessons; and no less universal is the pleasure felt in things imitated.

We have evidence of this in the facts of experience.
Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we
delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute
fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies.

The cause of this again is, that to
learn gives the liveliest pleasure, not only to philosophers
but to men in general; whose capacity, however, of
learning is more limited.

Thus the reason why men enjoy seeing a likeness is, that
in contemplating it they find themselves learning or
inferring, and saying perhaps, 'Ah, that is he.'

For if you happen not to have seen the original,
the pleasure will be due not to the imitation as
such, but to the execution, the colouring, or some such other cause.

Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next,
there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, metres
being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore,
starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their
special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry.

Poetry now diverged in two directions, according to
the individual character of the writers. The graver
spirits imitated noble actions, and the actions of
good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of meaner persons, at first composing satires, as the former did hymns to the gods and the praises of famous men.

A poem of the satirical kind cannot indeed be put down to
any author earlier than Homer; though many such writers probably there were.

But from Homer onward, instances
can be cited, his own Margites, for example, and other
similar compositions. The appropriate metre was also
here introduced; hence the measure is still called the iambic or lampooning measure, being that in which people lampooned one another.

Thus the older poets were distinguished as
writers of heroic or of iambic verse.

As, in the serious style, Homer is pre-eminent among
poets, for he alone combined dramatic form with
excellence of imitation, so he too first sketched out
the main lines of Comedy, by dramatising the ludicrous
instead of writing personal satire. His Margites bears
the same relation to Comedy that the Iliad and Odyssey
do to Tragedy.

But when Tragedy and Comedy came
to light, the two classes of poets still followed their
natural bent: the lampooners became writers of Comedy,
and the Epic poets were succeeded by Tragedians,
since the drama was a larger and higher form of art.

Whether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper types
or not; and whether it is to be judged in itself, or
in relation also to the audience, this raises another question.
Be that as it may, Tragedy—as also Comedy—was at first
mere improvisation. The one originated with the
authors of the Dithyramb, the other with those of the
phallic songs, which are still in use in many of
our cities. Tragedy advanced by slow degrees; each
new element that showed itself was in turn developed.

Having passed through many changes, it found its natural form, and there it stopped.

Aeschylus first introduced a second actor; he
diminished the importance of the Chorus, and assigned
the leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles raised
the number of actors to three, and added scene-painting.

Moreover, it was not till late that the short plot was
discarded for one of greater compass, and the grotesque
diction of the earlier satyric form for the stately manner of Tragedy.

The iambic measure then replaced the trochaic
tetrameter, which was originally employed when the
poetry was of the satyric order, and had greater
affinities with dancing. Once dialogue had come in,
Nature herself discovered the appropriate measure.

For the iambic is, of all measures, the most colloquial:
we see it in the fact that conversational speech runs
into iambic lines more frequently than into any other kind of verse; while alexandrines are rare, and only occur when we depart from the natural tone of utterance.

The additions to the number of 'episodes'
or acts, and the other accessories of which tradition
tells, must be taken as already described;

for to go through the details of their introduction would,
doubtless, be a large undertaking.

It is clear that the general origin of poetry was due to
two causes, each of them part of human nature.

Imitation
is natural to man from childhood, one of his advantages over
the lower animals being this, that he is the most imitative
creature in the world, and learns at first by imitation. And it
is also natural for all to delight in works of imitation.

The truth of this second point is shown by experience: though
the objects themselves may be painful to see, we delight to
view the most realistic representations of them in art, the
forms for example of the lowest animals and of dead bodies.

The explanation is to be found in a further fact: to be
learning something is the greatest of pleasures not only to
the philosopher but also to the rest of mankind, however
small their capacity for it;

the reason of the delight in seeing
the picture is that one is at the same time learning—gathering
the meaning of things, e.g. that the man there is so-and-so;

for if one has not seen the thing before, one's pleasure will
not be in the picture as an imitation of it, but will be due to
the execution or colouring or some similar cause.

Imitation, then, being natural to us—as also the sense of harmony
and rhythm, the metres being obviously species of rhythms—
it was through their original aptitude, and by a series of
improvements for the most part gradual on their first efforts,
that they created poetry out of their improvisations.

Poetry, however, soon broke up into two kinds according to the
differences of character in the individual poets; for
the graver among them would represent noble actions, and
those of noble personages; and the meaner sort the actions
of the ignoble. The latter class produced invectives at first,
just as others did hymns and panegyrics.

We know of no
such poem by any of the pre-Homeric poets, though there
were probably many such writers among them;

instances,
however, may be found from Homer downwards, e.g. his
Margites, and the similar poems of others. In this poetry of
invective its natural fitness brought an iambic metre into use;
hence our present term 'iambic,' because it was the
metre of their 'iambs' or invectives against one another.

The result was that the old poets became some of them
writers of heroic and others of iambic verse.

Homer's
position, however, is peculiar: just as he was in the serious
style the poet of poets, standing alone not only through the
literary excellence, but also through the dramatic character
of his imitations, so too he was the first to outline for us the
general forms of Comedy by producing not a dramatic invec-
tive, but a dramatic picture of the Ridiculous; his Margites
in fact stands in the same relation to our comedies as the
Iliad and Odyssey to our tragedies.

As soon, however, as
Tragedy and Comedy appeared in the field, those naturally
drawn to the one line of poetry became writers of comedies
instead of iambs, and those naturally drawn to the other,
writers of tragedies instead of epics, because these new modes
of art were grander and of more esteem than the old.
If it be asked whether Tragedy is now all that it need be
in its formative elements, to consider that, and decide it
theoretically and in relation to the theatres, is a matter for
another inquiry.

It certainly began in improvisations—as did
also Comedy;
the one originating with
the authors of the Dithyramb, the other with those of the phallic
songs, which still survive as institutions in many of our cities.
And its advance after that was little by little, through their
improving on whatever they had before them at each stage.

And many
changes having been made, Tragedy stopped when it had
found its own nature.

The number of actors was first
increased to two by Aeschylus, who curtailed the business
of the Chorus, and made the dialogue, or spoken portion,
take the leading part in the play. A third actor and scenery
were due to Sophocles.

Further, there was the change in magnitude. From small plots
and ridiculous diction, because of its origin from satyr-drama,
it was only late that it became serious and attained dignity.
Its metre also changed from trochaic tetrameter to iambic.

The reason for their original use of the trochaic tetrameter
was that their poetry was satyric and more connected with
dancing than it now is.
As soon, however, as
a spoken part came in, nature herself found the appropriate
metre. The iambic, we know, is the most speakable of
metres,

as is shown by the fact that we very often fall into it
in conversation, whereas we rarely talk hexameters, and only
when we depart from the speaking tone of voice.

Another
change was a plurality of episodes or acts. As for the remaining
matters, the superadded embellishments and the account of
their introduction, these must be taken as said.

It would
probably be a long piece of work to go through the details.

25.1 WITH respect to CRITICAL OBJECTIONS ¹ , and the ANSWERS to them ² , the number and nature of the different sources, from which they may be drawn, will be clearly understood, if we consider them in the following manner.

25.2 1. The Poet, being an imitator, like the painter or any other artist of that kind, must necessarily, when he imitates, have in view one of these three objects;-he must represent things, such as they were, or are; or, such as they are said to be, and believed to be; or, such as they should be ³ .

25.3 2. Again: all this he is to express in words, either common, or foreign and metaphorical-or varied by some of those many modifications and peculiarities of language, which are the privilege of Poets.

25.4 3. To this we must add, that what is right in the Poetic art, is a distinct consideration from what is right in the political, or any other art. 25.5 The faults of Poetry are of two kinds, essential and accidental. 25.6 If the Poet has undertaken to imitate without talents for imitation, his Poetry will be essentially faulty. But if he is right in applying himself to Poetic imitation, yet in imitating is occasionally wrong; as, if a horse, for example, were represented moving both his right legs at once; or, if he has committed mistakes, or described things impossible ⁴ , with respect to other arts, that of Physic, for instance, or any other-all such faults, whatever they may be, are not essential, but accidental faults, in the Poetry ⁵ .

25.7 To the foregoing considerations, then, we must have recourse, in order to obviate the doubts and objections of the critics.

For, in the first place, suppose the Poet to have represented things impossible with respect to some other art. This is certainly a fault. 25.8 Yet it may be an excusable fault, provided the end of the Poet's art be more effectually obtained by it; that is, according to what has already been said of that end, if, by this means, that, or any other part, of the Poem, is made to produce a more striking effect ⁶ . 25.9 The pursuit of Hector is an instance ⁷ . If, indeed, this end might as well, or nearly as well, have been attained, without departing from the principles of the particular art in question, the fault, in that case, could not be justified; since faults of every kind should, if possible, be avoided.

25.10 Still we are to consider, farther, whether a fault be in things essential to the Poetic art, or foreign and incidental to it: for it is a far more pardonable fault to be ignorant, for instance, that a hind has no horns ⁸ , than to paint one badly.

Farther: 25.11 If it be objected to the Poet, that he has not represented things conformably to truth ⁹ , he may answer, that he has represented them as they should be. This was the answer of Sophocles-that he drew mankind such as they should be; Euripides, such as they are. And this is the proper answer.

25.12 But if the Poet has represented things in neither of these ways, he may answer, that he has represented them as they are said and believed to be. Of this kind are the poetical descriptions of the Gods. 25.13 It cannot, perhaps, be said, that they are either what is best, or what is true; but, as Xenophanes says, opinions "taken up at random:" these are things, however, not clearly known.

25.14 Again-What the Poet has exhibited is, perhaps, not what is best, but it is the fact; as in the passage about the arms of the sleeping soldiers: --fixed upright in the earth Their spears stood by ¹⁰ .- For such was the custom at that time, as it is now among the Illyrians ¹¹ .

25.15 In order to judge whether what is said, or done, by any character, be well, or ill, we are not to consider that speech or action alone ¹² , whether in itself it be good, or bad, but also by whom it is spoken or done, to whom, at what time, in what manner, or for what end-whether, for instance, in order to obtain some greater good, or to avoid some greater evil.

25.16 For the solution of some objections, we must have recourse to the Diction. For example:

ΟΥΡΗΑΣ μεν πρωτον

On MULES and dogs the infection first began. ¹³

Pope This may be defended by saying, that the Poet has, perhaps, used the word ουρηας in its FOREIGN acceptation of centinels, not in its proper sense, of mules.

So also in the passage where it is said of Dolon-

ΕΙΔΟΣ μεν εην κακος ¹⁴

Of form unhappy.-

The meaning is, not, that his person was deformed, but, that his face was ugly; for the Cretans use the word ΕΥΕΙΔΕΣ-"well-FORMED" to express a beautiful face.

Again:

ΖΩΡΟΤΕΡΟΝ δε κεραιρε ¹⁵

Here, the meaning is not, "mix it strong," as for intemperate drinkers; but, "mix it quickly."

25.17 2. The following passages may be defended by METAPHOR.

"Now pleasing sleep had seal'd each mortal eye; Stretch'd in the tents the Grecian leaders lie; The immortals slumber'd on their thrones above ¹⁶ "

Again-

"When on the Trojan plain his anxious eye Watchful he fix'd."-" ¹⁷

And-

Αυλων συριγγων θ' ΟΜΑΔΟΝ ¹⁸ .

For, ALL ¹⁹ , is put metaphorically instead of many; all being a species of many.

Here also-

The Bear ALONE, Still shines exalted in th' aetherial plain, "Nor bathes his flaming forehead in the main." POPE.

ALONE, is metaphorical: the most remarkable thing in any kind, we speak of as the only one ²⁰ .

We may have recourse also,

25.18 3. To ACCENT: as the following passage

ΔΙΔΟΜΕΝ δε οι ευχος αρεσθαι ²¹

And this-το μεν ΟΥ καταπυθεται ομβρω ²² -were defended by Hippias of Thasos.

25.19 4. To PUNCTUATION; as in this passage of Empedocles:-

Αιψα δε θνητ' εφυοντο τα πριν μαθον αθανατ' ειναι, ΖΩΡΑ ΤΕ ΤΑ ΠΡΙΝ ΑΚΡΗΤΑ

i. e. things, before immortal, Mortal became, and mix'd before unmix'd ²³ , [Their courses changed.]

25.20 5. To AMBIGUITY; as in παρωχηκεν δε ΠΛΕΩΝ νυξ ²⁴ where the word ΠΛΕΩΝ is ambiguous.

25.21 6. To CUSTOMARY SPEECH: thus, wine mixed with water, or whatever is poured out to drink as wine, is called ΟΙΝΟΣ-wine: hence, Ganymede is said-ΟΙΝΟΧΟΕΥΕΙΝ ²⁵ -to "pour the WINE to Jove:" though wine is not the liquor of the Gods. This, however, may also be defended by metaphor ²⁶ .

Thus, again, artificers in iron are called Χαλκεις-literally, brasiers. Of this kind is the expression of the Poet-Κνημις νεοτευκτου ΚΑΣΣΙΤΕΡΟΙΟ ²⁷ .

25.22 7. When a word, in any passage, appears to express a contradiction, we must consider, in how many different SENSES it may there be taken. Here, for instance-

-τη ρ' ΕΣΧΕΤΟ χαλκεον εγχος

"There stuck the lance ²⁸ ." POPE.

-the meaning is, was stopped only, or repelled. 25.23 Of how many different senses a word is capable, may best be discovered by considering the different senses that are opposed to it.

25.24 We may also say, with Glauco, that some critics, first take things for granted without foundation, and then argue from these previous decisions of their own; and, having once pronounced their judgment, condemn, as an inconsistence, whatever is contrary to their preconceived opinion. 25.25 Of this kind is the cavil of the critics concerning Icarius ²⁹ . Taking it for granted that he was a Lace-daemonian, they thence infer the absurdity of supposing Telemachus not to have seen him when he went to Lacedaemon. But, perhaps, what the Cephalenians say may be the truth. They assert, that the wife of Ulysses was of their country, and that the name of her father was not Icarius, but Icadius. The objection itself, therefore, is probably founded on a mistake.

25.26 The Impossible, in general, is to be justified by referring, either to the end of Poetry itself, or to what is best, or to opinion.

25.27 For, with respect to Poetry, impossibilities, rendered probable, are preferable to things improbable, though possible ³⁰ .

25.28 With respect also to what is best, the imitations of Poetry should resemble the paintings of ZEUXIS ³¹ : the example should be more perfect than nature ³² .

25.29 To opinion, or what is commonly said to be, may be referred even such things as are improbable and absurd; and it may also be said, that events of that kind are, sometimes, not really improbable; since "it is probable, that many things should happen contrary to probability ³³ ."

25.30 When things are said, which appear to be contradictory, we must examine them as we do in logical confutation: whether the same thing be spoken of; whether in the same respect, and in the same sense.

25.31 Improbability, and vitious manners, when excused by no necessity, are just objects of critical censure. Such is the improbability in the Aegeus ³⁴ of Euripides, and the vitious character of Menelaus ³⁵ in his Orestes.

25.32 Thus, the sources from which the critics draw their objections are five: they object to things as impossible, or improbable, or of immoral tendency, or contradictory, or contrary to technical accuracy. The answers, which are twelve in number, may be deduced from what has been said ³⁶ .

[1] ¹ 4.1 Two causes, however, and these physical, appear to have produced poetry in general. ² 4.2 For to imitate is congenial to men from childhood. And in this they differ from other animals, that they are most imitative, and acquire the first disciplines through imitation; and that all men delight in imitations. But an evidence of this is that which happens in the works [of artists]. ³ For we are delighted on surveying very accurate images, the realities of which are painful to the view; 4.3 such as the forms of the most contemptible animals, and dead bodies. ⁴ 4.4 The cause, however, of this is, that learning is not only most delightful to philosophers, but in like manner to other persons, though they partake of it but in a small degree. ⁵ 4.5 For on this account, men are delighted on surveying images, because it happens that by surveying they learn and infer what each particular is; as, that this is an image of that man; 4.6 since, unless one happen to have seen [the reality], it is not the imitation that pleases 1, but [it is through] either the workmanship, or the colour, or some other cause of the like kind. ⁶ 4.7 But imitation, harmony, and rhythm being natural to us, (for it is evident that measures or metres are parts of rhythms, ) the earliest among mankind, making a gradual progress in these things ^{7 8} from the beginning, produced poetry from extemporaneous efforts. ⁹ But poetry was divided according to appropriate manners. For men of a more venerable character imitated beautiful actions, 4.8 and the actions of such men; but the more ignoble imitated the actions of depraved characters, first composing vituperative verses, in the same manner as the others composed hymns and encomiums. ¹⁰ 4.9 Of the authors, therefore, before Homer, we cannot mention any poem of this kind; though it is probable that there were many such writers. But if we begin from Homer, there are such for instance as his Margites3, and some others, in which, 4.10 as being suited, the measure is Iambic. Hence, also, the Iambic verse is now called, because in this metre they used to Iambize (i. e. defame) each other. ¹¹ 4.11 Of ancient poets, likewise, some composed heroic poems, and others Iambic. But as Homer was the greatest of poets on serious subjects, (and this not only because he alone imitated well, but also because he made dramatic imitations,) thus too he first demonstrated the figures of comedy, not dramatically exhibiting invective, but ridicule. 4.12 For the Margites bears the same analogy to comedy, 4.13 as the Iliad and Odyssey to tragedy. ¹² But when tragedy and comedy had appeared, those poets who were naturally impelled to each kind of poetry, some, instead of writing Iambics, became comic poets, but others, instead of [writing] epic poems, became the authors of tragedies, because these forms [of poetry] are greater and more esteemed than those. ¹³ To consider, therefore, whether tragedy is now perfect in its species or not, regarded as well with reference to itself as to the theatres, is the business of another treatise. ¹⁴ Both tragedy and comedy, therefore, at first originated from extemporaneous efforts. ¹⁵ And tragedy, indeed, originated from those who led the dithyramb, 4.14 but comedy from those who sung the Phallic verses, which even now in many cities remain in use; 4.15 and it gradually increased as obvious improvements became known. And tragedy, having experienced many changes, rested when it had ar- rived at its proper nature. ¹⁶ 4.16 Aeschylus, also, first increased the number of players from one to two4, abridged the functions of the chorus, and made one of the players act the chief part5. But Sophocles introduced three players into the scene, 4.17 and added scenic painting. ¹⁷ Further still, the magnitude [of tragedy increased] from small fables and ridiculous diction, in consequence of having been changed from satyric composition, it was late before it acquired dignity. The metre also of tragedy, from tetrameter, became Iambic (for at first they used tetrameter in tragedy, because poetry was then satyrical, and more adapted to the dance, 4.18 but dialogue being adopted, nature herself discovered a suitable metre; for the Iambic measure is most of all adapted to conversation. ¹⁸ And as an evidence of this, we most frequently speak in Iambics in familiar discourse with each other; 4.19 but we seldom speak in hexameters, and then only when we depart from that harmony which is adapted to conversation). 4.20 Again, tragedy is said to have been further adorned, with a multitude of episodes, and ¹⁹ other particulars. Let, therefore, thus much said suffice concerning these things; 4.21 for it would perhaps be a great toil to discuss every particular. ^{20 21 22}

Genuisse autem videntur omnino poeticam causae duae quaedam, eaeque naturales.

nam et imitari innatum est hominibus a pueris (eoque differunt a ceteris animalibus, quod hoc ad imitandum aptissimum est primasque discendi vias imitando ingreditur), et ut imitamentis gaudeant omnes.

huius rei signum est quod, in operibus evenit: quae enim ipsa aegre cernimus, horum imagines accuratissime factas libenter spectamus, veluti bestiarum formas quamvis contemptissimarum et cadaverum.

causa autem huius ipsius rei, quod discere non solum philosophis iucundissimum sed item ceteris, nisi quod breve eius commercium continuant.

nam ob hoc cum gaudio imagines vident, quod contingit ut contemplantes discant et ratiocinentur quid unumquodque sit, veluti quod hic ille, siquidem nisi prius viderit,

non imitamentum * ⭑ voluptatem faciet sed per artificium vel colorem vel aliquam eiusmodi causam.

sed cum naturae nostrae consentaneum sit imitari simulque concentus et numerus (metra enim partes numerorum esse manifestum), a principio aevum agentes et illa potissimum sensim sensimque promoventes poesin procreaverunt ex subitis conaminibus.

Divisa est autem secundum proprios mores poesis: nam qui graviores, i honestas imitabantur actiones et honestorum, qui autem leviores ea quae pravi faciebant, primum convicia pangentes, sicut alii hymnos et encomia.

sane eorum qui ante Homerum fuere nullius nominare possumus huiusmodi poema, sed verisimile fuisse multos:

ab Homero autem exorti possumus, ut est illius Margites, et talia in quibus etiam apte iambicum prodiit metrum. ideo etiam nunc iambicum appellatur, quia hoc metro sese maledictis petebant.

itaque inter priscos hi quidem heroicorum, illi autem`iamborum poetae exstiterunt.

sed quemadmodum in gravibus argumentis prae ceteris poeta fuit Homerus (unus non modo quod recte, sed quod etiam dramaticas fecit imitationes), sic etiam comoediae formas primus submonstravit, non convicia sed quod ridiculum dramatice exhibendo: nam Margites se habet, sicut Ilias et Odyssea ad tragoedias, eadem ratione et ipse ad comoedias.

cum autem apparuisset tragoedia et comoedia, qui ad utramque poesin natura sua ferebantur, hi pro iambis comoedias, illi pro epicis carminibus tragoedias docere coeperunt, quod celsiores quam illae atque honoratiores hae species erant. Dispicere vero, an iam sufficiat tragoedia formis poeticae nec ne, sive hoc ipsum per se spectatur sive theatris adhibitis, alius est disputationis.

ab initio igitur cum extemporalis evasisset et ipsa et comoedia, haec ab iis qui dithyrambum praeibant, illa ab iis qui phallica, quae etiamnum in multis civitatibus usus tenet, paulatim aucta est, promoventibus quantum de ipsa innotuit, atque cum multas passa esset

tragoedia mutationes substitit, postquam assecuta erat suam naturam.

ac numerum histrionum ex uno ad duos primus produxit Aeschylus, et partes chori minuit, et actorem primarum partium instruxit; tres autem et scenae picturam Sophocles.

praeterea mensura ex brevibus fabulis et dictione ridicula, quoniam ex satyrorum ludicris mutavit, sero exculta est, et metrum ex tetrametro iambicum evasit (nam primum tetrametro utebantur propterea

quod satyrica et magis saltatoria erat poesis, sermone autem exorto ipsa natura proprium metrum invenit:. nam ex omnibus metris sermoni maxime aptum est iambicum.

cuius rei signum est quod saepissime iambica pronuntiamus in mutuo sermone, hexametros autem raro et excedentes communis sermonis modulationem); praeterea episodiorum copia et cetera ut quaeque exornata dicuntur.

de his igitur haec a nobis exposita sunto:

magnum enim forsitan opus fuerit singula percurrere.

4.1 IL y a deux cauſes principales, & toutes deux fort naturelles, qui ſemblent avoir produit la Poësie; 4.2 la premiere eſt l'imitation, qualité née avec les hommes, car ils different des autres animaux, en ce qu'ils ſont tous trés-portez à l'imitation, que par ſon moyen ils apprennent les premiers élemens des ſciences, & que toutes les imitations leur donnent un ſingulier plaiſir; 4.3 comme on peut le reconnoître tous les jours par ce qui nous arrive, quand nous regardons les ouvrages des Peintres; certains originaux, comme de bêtes affreuſes, ou d'hommes morts ou mourans, que nous n'ozerions voir dans la nature, ou que nous ne verrions qu'avec chagrin ou avec frayeur, nous les voyons agreablement dans la Peinture, & plus ils ſont bien imitez, plus nous les regardons avec plaiſir. 4.4 La raiſon de cela eſt que les Philoſophes ne ſont pas les ſeuls qui aiment à apprendre, & que cette paſſion eſt également naturelle à tous les autres hommes, quoy qu'ils n'apprennent pas tous également. 4.5 Ce qui fait qu'ils voyent la peinture avec tant de ſatiſfaction, c'eſt qu'en la regardant ils peuvent raiſonner & apprendre. Par exemple, en voyant le portrait d'un homme de leur connoiſſance, ils diſent, c'eſt un tel. 4.6 Et ſi c'eſt le portrait d'un homme qu'ils n'ayent jamais vû, le plaiſir qu'ils ont alors ne vient pas de la beauté de l'imitation, mais de celle de l'art, ou du mélange & de la vivacité des couleurs, ou de quelqu'autre choſe qui attache leurs yeux & leur eſprit.

2. 4.7 Si l'imitation nous eſt naturelle, le nombre & l'harmonie ne le ſont pas moins. Sous le mot de nombre, je comprens auſſi les vers, qui évidemment en ſont partie. Et voila les deux cauſes qui ont produit la Poësie. Car ceux qui ſe trouverent le plus de talent pour l'une & pour l'autre, luy donnerent peu à peu la naiſſance, par des eſſais faits ſur le champ. 4.8 Mais elle changea bien-tôt de forme ſelon le different naturel des Poëtes, car ceux qui avoient le genie le plus élevé, chantoient les actions des plus grands perſonnages, & ceux qui l'avoient le plus rampant, prenoient pour le ſujet de leurs chants les avantures des hommes les plus vils, dont ils faiſoient des railleries piquantes, comme les premiers faiſoient des Panegyriques & des Hymnes.

3. 4.9 Il ne nous reſte aucun Poëme de cette forte avant Homere, quoy qu'il y ait bien de l'apparence qu'il y en avoit pluſieurs, mais nous en avons du temps d'Homere. 4.10 Par exemple, ſon Margites, & beaucoup d'autres de même eſpece, où l'on a auſſi employé le vers ïambe, comme le plus propre pour les railleries & pour les injures; c'eſt pourquoy on appelle preſentement ces Poëmes, des Poëmes iambiques, du nom de ce vers, parce que ce n'eſt que des invectives continuelles. 4.11 Ainſi les premiers Poëtes ont été partagez en deux bandes, car les uns faiſoient des vers heroïques, & les autres des vers ïambes. 4.12 Et comme Homere a tenu ſans contredit le premier rang dans le Genre heroïque & tragique, car il eſt le ſeul qui merite le nom de Poëte, non ſeulement parce qu'il a bien écrit, mais encore parce qu'il a fait des imitations dramatiques, il a auſſi été le premier qui ait donné, comme un crayon de la Comedie, en changeant en plaiſanterie les railleries piquantes des premiers Poëtes. En effet ſon Margites a le même rapport avec la Comedie, que ſon Iliade & ſon Odyſſée ont avec la Tragedie. 4.13 Les autres Poëtes qui vinrent aprés luy, & qui étoient naturellement portez à l'un ou à l'autre de ces deux genres de Poëſie, ſelon qu'ils avoient plus ou moins de force, s'attacherent, les uns à faire des Comedies au lieu de faire des ïambes, & les autres quitterent les vers heroïques pour donner des Tragedies, ces deux dernieres fortes d'ouvrages leur ayant paru plus nobles, & plus dignes de les occuper.

4. 4.14 Or d'examiner preſentement ſi la Tragedie eſt dans ſa perfection, & ſi elle a receu la forme qui luy convient, & par rapport à elle, & par rapport au theatre, ce n'eſt pas icy le lieu.

5. 4.15 La Tragedie donc & la Comedie, étant nées des impromptu dont j'ay parlé, car la premiere doit ſa naiſſance aux Dithyrambes qu'on chantoit en l'honneur de Bacchus, & l'autre à ces chanſons obſcenes, qui autoriſées par la coûtume & par les loix, ſe chantent encore de nôtre temps dans pluſieurs Villes, elles ont receu l'une & l'autre leur accroiſſement peu à peu, chacun ajoûtant quelque choſe à leur beauté, à meſure que l'on découvroit ce qui convenoit à leur caractere.

6. 4.16 Pour la Tragedie, aprés beaucoup de changemens elle ſe repoſa, quand elle eut tout ce qui luy étoit propre. Eſchyle fut le premier qui mit deux Acteurs ſur la ſcene, car il n'y en avoit qu'un avant luy; il diminua les chants du chœur, & inventa l'idée d'un principal perſonnage. Sophocle ajoûta un troifiéme Acteur aux deux d'Eſchyle, & orna la Scene de belles décorations. 4.17 Enfin elle ne receut que fort tard la grandeur & la gravité qui luy ſont convenables, car elle ne ſe deffit qu'avec peine de ſes petits ſujets & de ſon ſtile burleſque, qu'elle avoit retenu de ces pieces ſatyriques, d'où elle ſortoit.

7. 4.18 Le vers ïambe trimetre ſucceda au vers tetrametre, dont elle s'étoit toûjours ſervie, parce qu'elle étoit toute ſatyrique, & pleine de danſes & de mouvement. 4.19 Mais aprés que la diction qui luy étoit propre fut établie, la Nature inventa ſans peine le genre de vers qui luy convenoit, car l'iambe eſt de tous les vers le plus propre pour la converſation, & une marque trés-certaine de cela, c'eſt, que nous faiſons trés-ſouvent des vers ïambes en parlant les uns avec les autres, & trés-rarement des hexametres, qui ne nous échapent jamais, que lorſque nous franchiſſons les bornes du diſcours ordinaire, & que nous changeons d'harmonie & de ton.

8. 4.20 Le nombre des Epiſodes s'augmenta auſſi avec le temps, & on vit naître peu à peu & ſucceſſivement, toutes les autres beautez de la Tragedie. 4.21 Mais il ſuffit d'en avoir parlé en general, car ce ſeroit peut-être une entrepriſe, & trop longue & trop difficile que de traiter de chacune en particulier.

A due ſon' le cagioni; & quelle naturalıſsime e l'imitatione, che con ciascuno huom' inſieme naſce infin' da fanciullo; ¹

& per la quale eſsi huomini ſon' dagli altri animali differenti, per effer, dico, attiſsimi ad imi tare:& per farſi in loro le prime cognitioni per via della imitatione; & perchè ciaſcun' fi prende piacere dell imitatione. Di che è ſegno quello, che accade negli ſteſ fi fatti.

Perchè tutte quelle coſe, che cı danno moleſtia nel riguardarle, delle medeſime quando noi ſcorgiamo l'imagini diligentemente ſegnate;elle ci danno fommo piacere : come ſono l'imagini delle beſtie ſaluatiche, & de' morti. Et queſto naſce, perchè non pure a' Filofofi, quanto anchora à tutti gli altri huomini l'imparare è coſa dolcissima.

Ma perchè gli altri di tal'coſa poco par ticipano, però fi rallegramo eglino nel confiderar tali imagini per quello accidente, che interuien loro d'imparar' in quel mentre che eſsi le confiderano; & di fare la conclufione, che che ſia ciaſcheduna d'effe: cioè che queſta è quella coſa.

Perchè dou'egli interueniffe, che vno, che risguarda l'imagine, imprima nó haueffe quel la coſa veduta, e non ne piglierebbe piacer per via della imitatione;

ma fi bene per via dell'artificio, ò del colore: ò d'altra cagione fimigliate. Eſſendoci adunche l'i mitatione coſa naturalifsima, & l'armonia,e'l numero.

Et che i verſi ſien' parte di numero è manifeſtò. Però da principio interuene, che quegli, che per natura erano à tai coſe inclinati aſſai à poco a poco con andarle allargando generaſsino la Poefia con inuentioni fatte dapprima all'improuifo.

Et ſegui dappoi, che la Poefia fi diuiſe in piu membri ſecondo i coſtumi di ciaſchedu no, che vi atteſe. Imperochè gli huomini di piu grauità imitarono l'attion' virtuoſe, & quelle degli huomini ta li. Et li piu leggieri imitarono quelle degli huomini rei, vſando di far opere mordaci in cambio degli altri, che faceuono Himni, & opere, che lodauano altrui.

Ma innanzi à Homero non fi ritroua neſſun' Poema gia ta le: & pure è ragioneuol'coſa che e' ne fuſſero ſtati mol ti compoſti.

Et cominciandomi da Homero ſi ritroua il ſuo Margite, & altri Poemi di fimil fatta; ne' quali s'u sò il verſo lambo come à tal Poema accomodato. Onde è nato, che tal maniera di Poema ſi chiama Iambico; perchè có ſimil verſo s'uſaua di dir male l'un dell'altro.

Et infra i Poeti antichi alcuni d'eſsi furon' detti Poeti Heroici, & alcuni Poeti Iambici.

Ma cofi come Home ro infra tutti gli altri imitò maſsimamente l'attioni vir tuoſe, perchè egli folo dimoſtrò non tanto quello, che era buono, ma perchè egli anchora nel ſuo Poema, fece l'imitationi da rapreſentarſi in Scena. Medefimamente egli imprima di tutti gli altri moſtrò qual'doueffe effer la forma della Commedia, cioè che in eſſa fi doueuon' rappreſentare i ridiculi, & non i vituperii degli huomi ni. Che (à dire il vero) il ſuo Margite ha la medefima corriſpondenza con la Commedia, che ha l'Iliade, & l'Odiffea col Poema tragico.

Ma gli altri ſi ſpinſono all' una delle due forti di Poemi, ſecondo che la natura gli fe più all'uno, che all' altro inchinati:diuentando queſti Poeti Comici incambio di Poetı Iambici: Et quegli Poeti Tragici in cambio d'Heroici; per eſſere tali ſpetie di Poemi migliori, & più honorate di quegli. Ma il confiderare ſe il Poema Tragico habbia anchora, ò nó habbia la perfettion'ſua, ſi con il riſpetto afſoluto di ſe ſteſſo, & fi con il riſpetto del Teatro : di tutto queſto fia tempo da vederlo altra volta.

Et dicafi hora che hauendo la Tragedia, & la Commedia hauuto principio da coſe fatte all'improuiſo; & l'una hauendola hauuto da quegli, che principiarono i Ditirambı: & l'altra da quegli, che ſcriſſono li Poemi fallici, i quali anchor'hog gi fi conferuan per leggi in molte Città: à poco a poco, dico, ch'ella venne ampliando infino à quel tanto, che di lei è manifeſto à ogni huomo.

Et doppo aſſai mutationi, che ſopportò la Tragedia, ripoſofsi al fine, conſe guito ch'ell' hebbe la ſua natura.

Et allhora Eſchilo pri ma di tutti l'accrebbe il numero degli Iftrioni, cioè, d'u no, infino in due; & diminui quelle coſe, che apparten gono al Choro. Ordinò dipoi il parlare delle prime par ti. Et Sofocle dappoi aggiunſe il numero degli Ittrioni infino in tre, & aggiunfe dipiù l'ornamento alla Scena.

Oltradiqueſto eſſa Tragedia di piccola Fauola, ch'ell' era imprima, et di locution' ridicula venne in grandezza; & fcacciato da ſe il modo Satirico doppo vn' gran tempo finalmente riceuette in ſe grauità: & in cambio del verſo di otto piedi riceuette il Senario, ò Iambo che io mi voglia chiamarlo.

Che innanzi à lui s'uſaua il ver ſo di otto piedi, per effer tal Poeſia Satirica & conueniente alle feſte de ſalti, ò de balli. Et la natura ſteſſa, trouata che fu la locutione, inſegnò il verſo, che le era conueniente; concioſia che il ſenario infra tutti gli altri numeri ſia facile grandemente da poteruiſiragionar' dentro.

Di ciò è ſegno queſto, che io dirò; cioè, che nel parlar' ordinario, che fa l'un'con l'altro, molti ſenarii vi ſi profferiſcono:& degli Efametri radeuolte. De quali ſe pur ſe ne profferiſce alcuno,e' fi profferiſce tra paſſando il fuono del parlare ordinario.

Diceſi anchora, ch'ella fu accrefciuta di numero d'Epiſodii, & di tut te quelle coſe; ciaſcuna delle quali le reca ornamento. Et di queſte tai coſe ſieſene detto à baſtanza;

che forſe ſarebbe impreſa non piccola il voler'diſcorrere intorno à ciò particularmente ogni coſa. N

Videntur autem genuisse in universum poëticam causae duae, atque ipsae naturales. nam imitari insitum hominibus a pueris est,

et hac re differunt ipsi ab aliis animalibus, quod homo est animal maxime accommodatum ad imitandum. et perceptiones faciunt primas per imitationem. et gaudent omnes rebus imitatione expressis.

signum autem huius rei est id quod contingit in operibus opificum: quae enim ipsa moleste cernimus, horum imagines exactissime expressas dum spectamus gandemus gaudemus, ut ferarum formas abiectissimarum et cadaverum.

ac signum huius rei etiam est, quod discere non solum philosophis iucundissimum est, sed etiam aliis similiter, qui tamen parum eius participes sunt: ob id enim gaudent cernentes imagines, quia contingit spectantes discere et ratiocinari quid unumquodque sit,

ut hunc illum esse; quoniam nisi contigerit eum prius vidisse, non propter id quod imitatione expressum est,

efficiet voluptatem, sed propter artificium aut colorem aut talem aliquam causam.

verum cum secundum naturam sit in nobis ipsum imitari et harmonia et numerus (nam metra particulas esse numerorum manifestum est), a principio, qui natura apti erant ad haec ipsa maxime, paulatim promoventes et genuerunt poësim ex iis quae subito dicebantur.

divisa autem est secundum proprios mores poësis:: nam grandiores honestas imitabantur actiones ac huiusmodi hominum, humiliores vero malorum, facientes primum vituperationes, quemadmodum alteri hymnos et encomia.

atque eorum quidem qui ante Homerum fuerunt, nullius possumus nominare poëma tale: verisimile autem est multos esse.

at ab Homero exorsis licet, ut est illius Margites et talia. quibus secundum id quod conveniebat, iambicum accessit metrum. itaque et iambicum vocatur nunc, quod et in hoc metro convicia inter se exercebant;

et fuerunt ex priscis alii quidem heroicorum, alii vero iamborum poëtae.

quemadmodum autem et in gravibus maxime poëta fuit Homerus (solus enim fuit non solum quia bene, sed etiam quia imitationes dramatice fecit), sic et comoediae figuras primus submonstravit, non vituperationem sed ridiculum dramate complectens: nam Margites propor tionem habet, ut Hias et Odyssea ad tragoedias, sic et ipse ad comoedias.

cum autem apparuisset tragoedia et comoedia, qui ad utranque poësim ferebantur secundum propriam naturam, partim quidem pro iambicis comici facti sunt, partim vero pro epicis tragici, quia maiores et honoratiores figurae essent hae quam illae. ac considerare quidem utrum sufficienter se habeat iam tragoedia in formis ipsius necne, tum si res ipsa per se iudicetur, tum ad theatra, alia ratio est.

nata igitur est a principio ex tempore et ipsa et comoedia, et una quidem ab iis qui dithyrambum canebant, altera vero ab iis qui phallica, quae propterea etiam nunc in multis civitatibus manent legibus constituta, paulatim aucta est, producentibus quantum ipsius factum est manifestum.

et multas mutationes cum habuisset tragoedia, conquievit, quia consecuta est suam ipsius naturam.

ac histrionum multitudinem ex uno ad duos primus Aeschylus produxit, et ea quae ad chorum pertinent minuit, et orationem primarum partium instituit; tres autem, et scenae ornamentum, Sophocles.

praeterea magnitudo ex parvis fabulis et locatione ridicula, propterea quod ex Satyrico mutata est, tarde granditatem habuit. ac metrum ex tetrametro iambicum factum est.

nam primum tetrametro utebantur propterea quod Satyrica et magis saltatoria erat poësis. locutione autem nata, ipsa natura proprium metrum invenit. maxime vero sermoni accommodatum omnium metrorum iambicum est.

signumque huius rei est, quod plurima iambica proferimus in collocutione, quam in vicem habemus, hexametra vero raro,

et exeuntes ex accommodata sermoni harmonia. praeterea vero episodiorum multitudines, et alia ut singula se habent, ornata esse dicuntur. ac de his quidem tam multa a nobis dicta sint:

plura enim fortasse dicenda essent, si singula essent explicanda.

Videntur autem genuisse omnino poeticam cause due quedam, et ipse naturales.

Nam imitari connatum hominibus est ex pueris, et hoc differunt ab aliis animalibus, quia maxime imitativum est et imitationes facit et propter gaudere imitaminibus omnes.

Signum autem huius, quod accidit in opere. Que enim ipsa tristabiliter videmus, horum ymagines que maxime expresse considerantes gaudemus, puta bestiolarum formas vilissimarum et mortuorum. —

Causa autem et huius, quia addiscere non solum philosophis delectabilissimum, sed et aliis similiter omnibus ad breve communicantibus ipso.

Propter hoc enim gaudent ymagines aspicientes, quia accidit considerantes addiscere et sillogizare quid unumquodque, puta quod iste ille;

quoniam si forte non prius vidit, non imitamen faciet delectationem, sed propter elaborationem aut colorationem aut propter talem aliquam aliam causam. —

Secundum naturam autem ente nobis ipso imitari et armonia et rythmo (metra enim quod sint partes rythmorum manifestum) a principio apti nati et ipsa maxime paulative adducentes produxerunt poesim ex informibus.

Distracta est autem, secundum proprios mores, poesis' qui quidem enim reverentiores bonas imitabantur actiones et eas que talium, qui autem viliores eas que pravorum ; primo vituperia facientes, sicut alii hymnos et laudes.

Eorum quidem igitur qui ante Homerum, nullius habemus dicere tale poema ; verisimile autem esse multos.

Ab Homero autem incipiens est, puta illius Margeites et que talia. In quibus secundum congruum iambiale venit metrum; propter quod et iambiale vocatur nunc quia in metro iambizabant invicem ;

et fuerunt antiquorum hii quidem eroycorum, hii autem iamborum poete.

Sicut autem secundum studiosa maxime poeta Homerus fuit (solus enim non quia bene, sed quia et imitationes actitivas fecit), sic et que komodie scemata primus ostendit non vituperium sed risile actitizans ; nam Margeites proportionale habet, sicut Ilias et Odisseia ad tragodias, ita et iste ad komodias.

Secus apparentie autem tragodie et komodie qui ad utramque poesim impetuantes secundum suam naturam, hii quidem pro iambis komodofici facti sunt, hii autem pro versibus tragodie doctores, propter maiora et honorabiliora esse scemata hec illis. Superintendendi quidem igitur si habet iam tragodia speciebus sufficienter aut non, sique ipsumque secundum se iudicatur esse et ad theatra, alia ratio. —

Facta igitur a principio autoschediastica (idest informi) et ipsa et komodia, et hec quidem ab inchoantibus dithyrambum, hec autem ab hiis que faulica (idest vitiosa), que adhuc et nunc in multis civitatum permanent lege statuta, paulative augmentata sunt, producentibus quantum fuit manifestum ipsius.

Et multis transmutationibus transmutata tragodia requievit, super ultimam ipsius naturam.

Et ypocritarum multitudinem ex uno in duo primus Eschylus produxit, et que chori minoravit, et sermonem protagonistam disposuit ; tres autem et skenografiam Sophocles.

Adhuc autem magnitudo ex parvis fabulis et locutione risili propter ex satyriaco transmutari tarde reverita est.

Metrumque ex tetrametro iambiale factum est; primo quidem enim tetrametro utebantur propter satyricam et magis saltativam esse poesim, locutione autem facta, ipsa natura suum metrum invenit; maxime enim locutionale metrorum est quod iambiale; signum autem huius'

plurima enim iambialia dicimus in loquela ea que ad invicem, exametra autem raro, et exeuntes a locutionali armonia.

Adhuc autem episodiorum multitudines. Et alia singulas delata esse dicuntur ; sint nobis dicta.

Multum enim utique forsitan opus erit pertransire per singula. —

‏ويشبه ان يكون العلل المولدة لصناعة الشعر التى هى بالطبع علتان

‏والتشبيه والمحاكاة مما ينشوا مع الناس منذ اول الامر وهم اطفال وهذا مما يخالف به الناس الحيوانات الاخر من قبل ان الانسان يشبه ويستعمل المحاكاة اكثر ويتتلمذ ويجعل التلمذات بالتشبيه والمحاكاة للاشيا المتقدمة والاوايل وذلك ان جميعهم يسر ويفرح بالتشبيه والمحاكاة

‏والدليل على ذلك هذا وهو الذى يعرض فى الافعال ايضا وذلك ان التى نراها ويكون روساها على جهة الاغتمام فانا نسر بصورتها وتماثيلها اما اذا نحن رايناها كالتى هى اشد استقصا مثال ذلك صور وخلق الحيوانات المهينة المايتة

‏والعلة فى ذلك هى هذه وهى ان [ان] باب التعليم ليس انما هو لذيذ الفيلسوف فقط لكن لهولا الاخر على مثال واحد الا انه من انهم يشاركٮه مشاركة يسيرة

‏فلهذا السبب يسرون اذا ما هم راوا الصور والتماثيل من قبل انه يعرض انهم يرون فيتعلمون وهو قياس من ما لكل انسان انسان مثال ذلك ان هذا ذاك

‏من قبل انه ان لم يتقدم فيرى ليس يعمل للذين سنه لكن من اجل الفعل والتفعل او للمواضع او من اجل علة ما مثل هذه

‏واما بالطبع فلنا ان نتشبه بالتاليف واللحون وذلك انه اما ان الاوزان مشابهات للالحان فهو بين للذين هم مفطورون على ذلك منذ الابتدا وخاصة انهم ولدوا صناعة الشعر من حيث ياتون بذلك ويمتعون قليلا قليلا وولدوها من الذين اٮفوها دفعة ومن ساعته

‏وانجذبت بحسب عادتها الخاصية اعنى صناعة الشعر وذلك ان بعض الشعرا ومن كان منهم اكثر عفافا يتشبهون بالاعمال الحسنة الجميلة وفى ما اشبه ذلك وبعضهم ممن قد كان منهم ارذل عند ما كانوا يهجون اولا الاشرار كانوا يعملون بعد ذلك المديح والثنا لقوم اخرين اشرار

‏غير انه ليس لنا ان نقول فى انسان قبل اوميروس انه عمل مثل هذه الصناعة من صناعة الشعرا والا قد كان شعرا اخر كثيرين

‏غير ان من اوميروس هو المبدا مثل ذلك ل ال ل// سيق ووالسيق والحارٮه ما* وهذه التى هى هكذى التى اتى بها الوزن كما اتى بيامبو ولذلك ما لقب مثل هذا الوزن ايامبوس وبهذا الوزن كانوا يتهاونون بعضهم ببعض [وصار القدما]

‏وصار من القدما بعضهم شعرا فى الفن ايامبو والفن المسمى ٮاوريٯا

‏كما ان الشاعر فى الاشيا الحريصة المجتهدة خاصة انما كان اوميروس وحده فقط وذلك انه هو وحده فقط ليس انما عمل اشيا احسن فيها لكن قد عمل التشبيهات والحكايات المعروفة بدماطيقياتا وهكذى هو اول من اظهر شكل صناعة هجا ليس فيه الهجا فقط لكن فى باب الاستهزا والمطانزة فانه عمل فيها النشيد المسما باليونانية دراماطا وذلك ان هارلٮلوٮا حالها حال يجرى مجرى التسقيم فكما ان ايليادا عند الركب والمسماة اودوسيا غير المديحات كذلك هذا عند ابواب الهجا

‏ولما ظهرا [مد] مذهب [الهجا و]المديح ومذهب الهجا فالذين نحوا وقصدوا به بصناعة الشعر كلتى هاتين بحسب خصوصية الطبع بعضهم كانوا يعملون مكان المذهب من الشعر المسمى ايامبو ابواب الهجا وبعضهم كانوا يعملون مكان هذه التى للمسماة افيس ابواب المديح وصاروا معلمين لذلك من قبل انه قد كانت هذه اعظم كثيرا واشرف فى شكل هذه فانه ان ٮعمل هو هو مبدا الصناعة المديح وبالانواع على الكفاية وذلك انه اما ان تكون تانك ٮحيٮں بهذه او يكون عند كلتيهما بنسبة اخرى

‏فلما حدثت منذ الابتدا ونشت دفعة هى وصناعة الهجا ايضا اما تلك فعند ما كانت تبتدى من العلل الاول التى للمذهب المسمى ايثورمبو واما هذه المزورة وهذه هى الثابتة فى كثير من المداين الى الان احدث النمو والتربية قليلا قليلا من حيث قد كانت قديمة كما انه ظهرت ايضا هذه التى هى الان

‏وعند ما غيرت من تغايير كثيرة وتناهت عند ذلك صناعة المديح من قبل انه قد كانت الطبيعة التى تخصها

‏واما تلك فلاكثر المنافقين والمرائين فمن واحد للاثنين واول من كان ادخل هذه المذاهب التى للصفوف وللدستبند وهو ايضا اول من اعد مذاهب الجهادات وايضا اول من اظهر هذه الاصناف من اللهو واللعب كان سوفوقلس

‏وايضا هو اول من اظهر من النشايد الصغار عظم الكلام وصحيح والرهح فى الكلام والمقولات الداخلة فى باب الاستهزا والهزل وعمل ذلك بان غير شى من شكل الفن المسمى سطاوررور واما بالاخرة وبالابطا فاستعملوا العفة وهذا الوزن من الرباعية التى ليامبو

‏واما مٮدلدں العامل فكانوا يستعملون رباعية الوزن بسبب الرقص المعروف بساطورانقى لكيما يتشبه به الشعر اكثروا عند ما كانت تنشوا مقولة وكلام فالطبيعة كانت تجد وزنها ولا سيما من قبل ان الوزن كان يعمل الاخر اٮـ*سها وقد يجارى بعضنا بعضا بالمخاطبة والمكايلة دليل هذه السبيل

‏المسماة ايامبو منذ قط واما الوزن فاقلٮ ذاك وعند ما ننحرف عن التاليف الجدلى وايضا اكثر الكلام والمخاطبة الرافع

‏وهذه الوحيادات الاخر انما تقال نحو التحٮل والحسن فى الاقتصاص لكل واحدة واحدة

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‏ويشبه ان يكون العلل المولدة لصناعة الشعر التى هى بالطبع علتان

‏والتشبيه والمحاكاة مما ينشوا مع الناس منذ اول الامر وهم اطفال وهذا مما يخالف به الناس الحيوانات الاخر من قبل ان الانسان يشبه ويستعمل المحاكاة اكثر ويتتلمذ ويجعل التلمذات بالتشبيه والمحاكاة للاشيا المتقدمة والاوايل وذلك ان جميعهم يسر ويفرح بالتشبيه والمحاكاة

‏والدليل على ذلك هذا وهو الذى يعرض فى الافعال ايضا وذلك ان التى نراها ويكون روساها على جهة الاغتمام فانا نسر بصورتها وتماثيلها اما اذا نحن رايناها كالتى هى اشد استقصا مثال ذلك صور وخلق الحيوانات المهينة المايتة

‏والعلة فى ذلك هى هذه وهى ان [ان] باب التعليم ليس انما هو لذيذ الفيلسوف فقط لكن لهولا الاخر على مثال واحد الا انه من انهم يشاركٮه مشاركة يسيرة

‏فلهذا السبب يسرون اذا ما هم راوا الصور والتماثيل من قبل انه يعرض انهم يرون فيتعلمون وهو قياس من ما لكل انسان انسان مثال ذلك ان هذا ذاك من قبل انه ان لم يتقدم فيرى ليس يعمل للذين سنه لكن من اجل الفعل والتفعل او للمواضع او من اجل علة ما مثل هذه

‏واما بالطبع فلنا ان نتشبه بالتاليف واللحون وذلك انه اما ان الاوزان مشابهات للالحان فهو بين للذين هم مفطورون على ذلك منذ الابتدا وخاصة انهم ولدوا صناعة الشعر من حيث ياتون بذلك ويمتعون قليلا قليلا وولدوها من الذين اٮفوها دفعة ومن ساعته

‏وانجذبت بحسب عادتها الخاصية اعنى صناعة الشعر وذلك ان بعض الشعرا ومن كان منهم اكثر عفافا يتشبهون بالاعمال الحسنة الجميلة وفى ما اشبه ذلك وبعضهم ممن قد كان منهم ارذل عند ما كانوا يهجون اولا الاشرار كانوا يعملون بعد ذلك المديح والثنا لقوم اخرين اشرار

‏غير انه ليس لنا ان نقول فى انسان قبل اوميروس انه عمل مثل هذه الصناعة من صناعة الشعرا والا قد كان شعرا اخر كثيرين غير ان من اوميروس هو المبدا مثل ذلك ل ال ل// سيق ووالسيق والحارٮه ما* وهذه التى هى هكذى التى اتى بها الوزن كما اتى بيامبو

‏ولذلك ما لقب مثل هذا الوزن ايامبوس وبهذا الوزن كانوا يتهاونون بعضهم ببعض [وصار القدما]

‏وصار من القدما بعضهم شعرا فى الفن ايامبو والفن المسمى ٮاوريٯا

‏كما ان الشاعر فى الاشيا الحريصة المجتهدة خاصة انما كان اوميروس وحده فقط وذلك انه هو وحده فقط ليس انما عمل اشيا احسن فيها لكن قد عمل التشبيهات والحكايات المعروفة بدماطيقياتا وهكذى هو اول من اظهر شكل صناعة هجا ليس فيه الهجا فقط لكن فى باب الاستهزا والمطانزة فانه عمل فيها النشيد المسما باليونانية دراماطا وذلك ان هارلٮلوٮا حالها حال يجرى مجرى التسقيم فكما ان ايليادا عند الركب والمسماة اودوسيا غير المديحات كذلك هذا عند ابواب الهجا

‏ولما ظهرا [مد] مذهب [الهجا و]المديح ومذهب الهجا فالذين نحوا وقصدوا به بصناعة الشعر كلتى هاتين بحسب خصوصية الطبع بعضهم كانوا يعملون مكان المذهب من الشعر المسمى ايامبو ابواب الهجا وبعضهم كانوا يعملون مكان هذه التى للمسماة افيس ابواب المديح وصاروا معلمين لذلك من قبل انه قد كانت هذه اعظم كثيرا واشرف فى شكل هذه فانه ان ٮعمل هو هو مبدا الصناعة المديح وبالانواع على الكفاية

‏وذلك انه اما ان تكون تانك ٮحيٮں بهذه او يكون عند كلتيهما بنسبة اخرى

‏فلما حدثت منذ الابتدا ونشت دفعة هى وصناعة الهجا ايضا اما تلك فعند ما كانت تبتدى من العلل الاول التى للمذهب المسمى ايثورمبو واما هذه المزورة وهذه هى الثابتة فى كثير من المداين الى الان احدث النمو والتربية قليلا قليلا من حيث قد كانت قديمة كما انه ظهرت ايضا هذه التى هى الان وعند ما غيرت من تغايير كثيرة وتناهت عند ذلك صناعة المديح من قبل انه قد كانت الطبيعة التى تخصها واما تلك فلاكثر المنافقين والمرائين فمن واحد للاثنين

‏واول من كان ادخل هذه المذاهب التى للصفوف وللدستبند وهو ايضا اول من اعد مذاهب الجهادات وايضا اول من اظهر هذه الاصناف من اللهو واللعب كان سوفوقلس

‏وايضا هو اول من اظهر من النشايد الصغار عظم الكلام وصحيح والرهح فى الكلام والمقولات الداخلة فى باب الاستهزا والهزل وعمل ذلك بان غير شى من شكل الفن المسمى سطاوررور واما بالاخرة وبالابطا فاستعملوا العفة وهذا الوزن من الرباعية التى ليامبو واما مٮدلدں العامل فكانوا يستعملون رباعية الوزن بسبب الرقص المعروف بساطورانقى لكيما يتشبه به الشعر اكثروا عند ما كانت تنشوا مقولة وكلام فالطبيعة كانت تجد وزنها ولا سيما من قبل ان الوزن كان يعمل الاخر اٮـ*سها

‏وقد يجارى بعضنا بعضا بالمخاطبة والمكايلة دليل هذه السبيل المسماة ايامبو منذ قط واما الوزن فاقلٮ ذاك وعند ما ننحرف عن التاليف الجدلى وايضا اكثر الكلام والمخاطبة الرافع

‏وهذه الوحيادات الاخر انما تقال نحو التحٮل والحسن فى الاقتصاص لكل واحدة واحدة

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