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In the manners, as in the fable, the Poet should always aim, either at what is necessary, or what is probable; so that such a character shall appear to speak or act, necessarily, or probably, in such a manner, and this event, to be the necessary or probable consequence of that.

Poetics. Aristotle. Thomas Twining (Translator). London, UK. 1789.

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Current edition Experimental

Poetics (Thomas Twining, 1789) (OCR draft) (English) (Thomas Twining's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1789 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.)

Provisional text from uncorrected OCR; expect errors.

Editions (4)

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) (Aristotle, Poetics. Immanuel Bekker, editor, Aristotelis Opera, volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1837.) — 15 focus

Περὶ δὲ τὰ ἤθη τέτταρά ἐστιν ὧν δεῖ στοχάζεσθαι, ἓν μὲν καὶ πρῶτον, ὅπως χρηστὰ ᾖ.

Ἕξει δὲ ἦθος μέν, ἐὰν ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη ποιῇ φανερὰν ὁ λόγος ἢ ἡ πρᾶξις προαίρεσίν. τινα, φαῦλον μὲν ἐὰν φαύλην, χρηστὸν δ᾿ ἐὰν χρηστήν.

Ἔστι δὲ ἐν ἑκάστῳ γένει· καὶ γὰρ γυνή ἐστι χρηστὴ καὶ δοῦλος· καίτοι γε ἴσως τούτων τὸ μὲν χεῖρον, τὸ δὲ ὅλως φαῦλόν ἐστιν.

Δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα· ἔστι γὰρ ἀνδρεῖον μὲν τὸ ἦθος, ἀλλ᾿ οὐχ ἁρμόττον γυναικὶ τὸ ἀνδρείαν ἢ δεινὴν εἶναι.

Τρίτον δὲ τὸ ὅμοιον· τοῦτο γὰρ ἕτερον τοῦ χρηστὸν τὸ ἦθος καὶ ἁρμόττον ποιῆσαι, ὥσπερ εἴρηται.

Τέταρτον δὲ τὸ ὁμαλόν· κἂν γὰρ ἀνώμαλός τις ᾖ ὁ τὴν μίμησιν παρέχων καὶ τοιοῦτον ἦθος ὑποτιθείς, ὅμως ὁμαλῶς ἀνώμαλον δεῖ εἶναι.

Ἔστι δὲ παράδειγμα πονηρίας μὲν ἤθους μὴ ἀναγκαῖον οἷον ὁ Μενέλαος ὁ ἐν τῷ Ὀρέστῃ,

τοῦ δὲ ἀπρεποῦς καὶ μὴ ἁρμόττοντος ὅ τε θρῆνος Ὀδυσσέως ἐν τῇ Σκύλλῃ καὶ ἡ τῆς Μελανίππης ῥῆσις,

τοῦ δὲ ἀνωμάλου ἡ ἐν Αὐλίδι Ἰφιγένεια· οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔοικεν ἡ ἱκετεύουσα τῇ ὑστέρᾳ.

Χρὴ δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐν τῇ τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσει, ἀεὶ ζητεῖν ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τὸ εἰκός, ὥστε τὸν τοιοῦτον τὰ τοιαῦτα λέγειν ἢ πράττειν ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκός,

καὶ τοῦτο μετὰ τοῦτο γίνεσθαι ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκός. Φανερὸν οὖν ὅτι καὶ τὰς λύσεις τῶν μύθων ἐξ αὐτοῦ δεῖ τοῦ μύθου συμβαίνειν, καὶ μὴ ὥσπερ ἐν τῇ Μηδείᾳ ἀπὸ μηχανῆς καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰλιάδι τὰ περὶ τὸν ἀπόπλουν·

ἀλλὰ μηχανῇ χρηστέον ἐπὶ τὰ ἔξω τοῦ δράματος ἢ ὅσα πρὸ τοῦ γέγονεν, ἃ οὐχ οἷόν τε ἄνθρωπον εἰδέναι, ἢ ὅσα ὕστερον, ἃ δεῖται προαγορεύσεως καὶ ἀγγελίας· ἅπαντα γὰρ ἀποδίδομεν τοῖς θεοῖς ὁρᾶν.

Ἄλογον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν, εἰ δὲ μή, ἔξω τῆς τραγῳδίας, οἷον τὰ ἐν τῷ Οἰδίποδι τῷ Σοφοκλέους.

Ἐπεὶ δὲ μίμησίς ἐστιν ἡ τραγῳδία βελτιόνων, ἡμᾶς δεῖ μιμεῖσθαι τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς εἰκονογράφους· καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῖνοι ἀποδιδόντες τὴν ἰδίαν μορφήν, ὁμοίους ποιοῦντες, καλλίους γράφουσιν. Οὕτω καὶ τὸν ποιητὴν μιμούμενον καὶ ὀργίλους καὶ ῥᾳθύμους καὶ τἆλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα ἔχοντας ἐπὶ τῶν ἠθῶν, ἐπιεικείας ποιεῖν παράδειγμα ἢ σκληρότητος δεῖ, οἷον τὸν Ἀχιλλέα Ἀγάθων καὶ Ὅμηρος.

Ταῦτα δὴ δεῖ διατηρεῖν, καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὰ παρὰ τὰς ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀκολουθούσας αἰσθήσεις τῇ ποιητικῇ· καὶ γὰρ κατ᾿ αὐτὰς ἔστιν ἁμαρτάνειν πολλάκις. Εἴρηται δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν ἐν τοῖς ἐκδεδομένοις λόγοις ἱκανῶς.

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) Perseus (Aristotle, De arte poetica liber. Rudolf Kassel, editor. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965. Reference edition for passage alignment.) — 15 focus

περὶ δὲ τὰ ἤθη τέτταρά ἐστιν ὧν δεῖ στοχάζεσθαι, ἓν μὲν καὶ πρῶτον, ὅπως χρηστὰ ᾖ.

ἕξει δὲ ἦθος μὲν ἐὰν ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη ποιῇ φανερὸν ὁ λόγος ἢ ἡ πρᾶξις προαίρεσίν τινα ἥ τις ἂν ᾖ, χρηστὸν δὲ ἐὰν 20 χρηστήν.

ἔστιν δὲ ἐν ἑκάστῳ γένει· καὶ γὰρ γυνή ἐστιν χρηστὴ καὶ δοῦλος, καίτοι γε ἴσως τούτων τὸ μὲν χεῖρον, τὸ δὲ ὅλως φαῦλόν ἐστιν.

δεύτερον δὲ τὸ ἁρμόττοντα· ἔστιν γὰρ ἀνδρείαν μὲν τὸ ἦθος, ἀλλ’ οὐχ ἁρμόττον γυναικὶ οὕτως ἀνδρείαν ἢ δεινὴν εἶναι.

τρίτον δὲ τὸ ὅμοιον. τοῦτο γὰρ ἕτερον 25 τοῦ χρηστὸν τὸ ἦθος καὶ ἁρμόττον ποιῆσαι ὡς προείρηται.

τέταρτον δὲ τὸ ὁμαλόν. κἂν γὰρ ἀνώμαλός τις ᾖ ὁ τὴν μίμησιν παρέχων καὶ τοιοῦτον ἦθος ὑποτεθῇ, ὅμως ὁμαλῶς ἀνώμαλον δεῖ εἶναι.

ἔστιν δὲ παράδειγμα πονηρίας μὲν ἤθους μὴ ἀναγκαίας οἷον ὁ Μενέλαος ὁ ἐν τῷ Ὀρέστῃ,

τοῦ 30 δὲ ἀπρεποῦς καὶ μὴ ἁρμόττοντος ὅ τε θρῆνος Ὀδυσσέως ἐν τῇ Σκύλλῃ καὶ ἡ τῆς Μελανίππης ῥῆσις,

τοῦ δὲ ἀνωμάλου ἡ ἐν Αὐλίδι Ἰφιγένεια· οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔοικεν ἡ ἱκετεύουσα τῇ ὑστέρᾳ.

χρὴ δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν ὁμοίως ὥσπερ καὶ ἐν τῇ τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσει ἀεὶ ζητεῖν ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τὸ εἰκός, 35 ὥστε τὸν τοιοῦτον τὰ τοιαῦτα λέγειν ἢ πράττειν ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκὸς καὶ τοῦτο μετὰ τοῦτο γίνεσθαι ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκός.

φανερὸν οὖν ὅτι καὶ τὰς λύσεις τῶν μύθων ἐξ αὐτοῦ δεῖ τοῦ 1454b 1 μύθου συμβαίνειν, καὶ μὴ ὥσπερ ἐν τῇ Μηδείᾳ ἀπὸ μηχανῆς καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰλιάδι τὰ περὶ τὸν ἀπόπλουν.

ἀλλὰ μηχανῇ χρηστέον ἐπὶ τὰ ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἢ ὅσα πρὸ τοῦ γέγονεν ἃ οὐχ οἷόν τε ἄνθρωπον εἰδέναι, ἢ ὅσα ὕστερον, ἃ 5 δεῖται προαγορεύσεως καὶ ἀγγελίας· ἅπαντα γὰρ ἀποδίδομεν τοῖς θεοῖς ὁρᾶν.

ἄλογον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν, εἰ δὲ μή, ἔξω τῆς τραγῳδίας, οἷον τὸ ἐν τῷ Οἰδίποδι τῷ Σοφοκλέους.

ἐπεὶ δὲ μίμησίς ἐστιν ἡ τραγῳδία βελτιόνων ἢ ἡμεῖς, δεῖ μιμεῖσθαι τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς 10 εἰκονογράφους· καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῖνοι ἀποδιδόντες τὴν ἰδίαν μορφὴν ὁμοίους ποιοῦντες καλλίους γράφουσιν· οὕτω καὶ τὸν ποιητὴν μιμούμενον καὶ ὀργίλους καὶ ῥᾳθύμους καὶ τἆλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα ἔχοντας ἐπὶ τῶν ἠθῶν τοιούτους ὄντας ἐπιεικεῖς ποιεῖν † παράδειγμα σκληρότητος οἷον τὸν Ἀχιλλέα ἀγαθὸν καὶ Ὅμηρος † .

15 ταῦτα δὴ διατηρεῖν, καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὰ παρὰ τὰς ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀκολουθούσας αἰσθήσεις τῇ ποιητικῇ· καὶ γὰρ κατ’ αὐτὰς ἔστιν ἁμαρτάνειν πολλάκις· εἴρηται δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν ἐν τοῖς ἐκδεδομένοις λόγοις ἱκανῶς.

Poetics, Greek text (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's Greek text of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 15 focus

Περὶ δὲ τὰ ἤθη τέτταρά ἐστιν ὧν δεῖ στοχάζεσθαι, ἓν
μὲν καὶ πρῶτον, ὅπως χρηστὰ ᾖ.

ἕξει δὲ ἦθος μὲν ἐὰν
ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη ποιῇ φανερὸν ὁ λόγος ἢ ἡ πρᾶξις προαίρεσίν
τινα ᾖ, χρηστὸν δὲ ἐὰν χρηστήν.

ἔστιν δὲ ἐν
ἑκάστῳ γένει· καὶ γὰρ γυνή ἐστιν χρηστὴ καὶ δοῦλος,
καίτοι γε ἴσως τούτων τὸ μὲν χεῖρον, τὸ δὲ ὅλως φαῦλόν
ἐστιν.

δεύτερον δὲ τὸ ἁρμόττοντα· ἔστιν γὰρ ἀνδρεῖον
μὲν τὸ ἦθος, ἀλλ᾽ οὐχ ἁρμόττον γυναικείῳ τὸ ἀνδρείαν ἢ
δεινὴν εἶναι.

τρίτον δὲ τὸ ὅμοιον. τοῦτο γὰρ ἕτερον τοῦ
χρηστὸν τὸ ἦθος καὶ ἁρμόττον ποιῆσαι ὥσπερ εἴρηται.

τέταρτον δὲ τὸ ὁμαλόν. κἂν γὰρ ἀνώμαλός τις ᾖ ὁ τὴν
μίμησιν παρέχων καὶ τοιοῦτον ἦθος ὑποτιθείς, ὅμως ὁμαλῶς
ἀνώμαλον δεῖ εἶναι.

ἔστω δὲ παράδειγμα πονηρίας μὲν
ἤθους μὴ ἀναγκαίου οἷον ὁ Μενέλαος ὁ ἐν τῷ Ὀρέστῃ,

τοῦ
δὲ ἀπρεποῦς καὶ μὴ ἁρμόττοντος ὅ τε θρῆνος ὁ τοῦ Ὀδυσσέως
ἐν τῇ Σκύλλῃ καὶ ἡ τῆς Μελανίππης ῥῆσις,

τοῦ δὲ ἀνωμάλου
ἡ ἐν Αὐλίδι Ἰφιγένεια· οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔοικεν ἡ ἱκετεύουσα τῇ
ὑστέρᾳ.

χρὴ δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν ὥσπερ καὶ ἐν τῇ τῶν
πραγμάτων συστάσει ἀεὶ ζητεῖν ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τὸ εἰκός,
ὥστε τὸν τοιοῦτον τὰ τοιαῦτα λέγειν ἢ πράττειν ἢ ἀναγκαῖον
ἢ εἰκὸς καὶ τοῦτο μετὰ τοῦτο γίνεσθαι ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκός.

φανερὸν οὖν ὅτι καὶ τὰς λύσεις τῶν μύθων ἐξ αὐτοῦ δεῖ τοῦ
μύθου συμβαίνειν, καὶ μὴ ὥσπερ ἐν τῇ Μηδείᾳ ἀπὸ μηχανῆς
καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰλιάδι τὰ περὶ τὸν ἀπόπλουν.

ἀλλὰ μηχανῇ
χρηστέον ἐπὶ τὰ ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἢ ὅσα πρὸ τοῦ
γέγονεν ἃ οὐχ οἷόν τε ἄνθρωπον εἰδέναι, ἢ ὅσα ὕστερον ἃ
δεῖται προαγορεύσεως καὶ ἀγγελίας· ἅπαντα γὰρ ἀποδίδομεν
τοῖς θεοῖς ὁρᾶν.

ἄλογον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν,
εἰ δὲ μή, ἔξω τῆς τραγῳδίας, οἷον τὸ ἐν τῷ
Οἰδίποδι τῷ Σοφοκλέους.

ἐπεὶ δὲ μίμησίς ἐστιν ἡ τραγῳδία
βελτιόνων, ἡμᾶς δεῖ μιμεῖσθαι τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς εἰκονογράφους·
καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῖνοι ἀποδιδόντες τὴν ἰδίαν μορφὴν ὁμοίους
ποιοῦντες καλλίους γράφουσιν· οὕτω καὶ τὸν ποιητὴν μιμούμενον
καὶ ὀργίλους καὶ ῥᾳθύμους καὶ τἆλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα
ἔχοντας ἐπὶ τῶν ἠθῶν τοιούτους ὄντας ἐπιεικεῖς ποιεῖν
παράδειγμα σκληρότητος, οἷον τὸν Ἀχιλλέα Ἀγάθων καὶ
Ὅμηρος,

ταῦτα δὴ διατηρεῖν, καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὰ παρὰ
τὰς ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀκολουθούσας αἰσθήσεις τῇ ποιητικῇ·
καὶ γὰρ κατ᾽ αὐτὰς ἔστιν ἁμαρτάνειν πολλάκις· εἴρηται
δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν ἐν τοῖς ἐκδεδομένοις λόγοις ἱκανῶς.

Poetics, Greek text (Franz Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's 1839 Greek edition, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 15 focus

Περὶ δὲ τὰ ἤθη τέτταρά ἐστιν ὧν δεῖ στοχάζεσθαι, ἓν μὲν καὶ πρῶτον, ὅπως χρηστὰ ᾖ.

ἕξει δὲ ἦθος μέν, ἐὰν ο ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη ποιῇ φανερὰν ὁ λόγος ἢ ἡ πρᾶξις προαίρεσίν τινα, χρηστὸν δ᾽ ἐὰν χρηστήν.

ἔστι δὲ ἐν ἑκάστῳ γένει· καὶ γὰρ γυνή ἐστι χρηστὴ καὶ δοῦλος· καίτοι γε ἴσως τούτων τὸ μὲν χεῖρον, τὸ δὲ ὅλως φαῦλόν ἐστιν.

δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα· ἔστι γὰρ ἀνδρεῖον μὲν τὸ ἦθος, ἀλλ᾿ οὐχ ὡρμόττον γυναικὶ τὸ ἀνδρείαν ἢ δεινὴν εἶναι.

τρίτον δὲ τὸ¹ ὅμοιον· τοῦτο γὰρ ἕτερον τοῦ χρηστὸν τὸ ἦθος καὶ ἁρμόττον ποιῆσαι, ὥσπερ εἴρηται.

τέταρτον δὲ τὸ ὁμαλόν· κἂν γὰρ ἀνώμαλός τις ᾖ ὁ τὴν μίμησιν παρέχων καὶ τοιοῦτον ἦθος ὑποτιθείς, ὅμως ὁμαλῶς ἀνώμαλον δεῖ εἶναι.

ἔστι δὲ παράδειγμα πονηρίας μὲν ἤθους μὴ ἀναγκαῖον οἷον ὁ Μενέλαος ὁ ἐν τῷ Ορέστῃ,

τοῦ δὲ ἀπρεποῦς καὶ μὴ ἁρμόττοντος ὅ τε θρῆνος Ὀδυσσέως ἐν τῇ Σκύλλῃ καὶ ἡ τῆς Μελανίππης ῥῆσις,

τοῦ δὲ ἀνωμάλου ἡ ἐν Αυλίδι Ιφιγένεια· οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔοικεν ἡ ἱκετεύουσα τῇ ὑστέρᾳ.

χρὴ δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐν τῇ τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσει, ἀεὶ ζητεῖν ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τὸ εἰκός, ὥστε τὸν τοιοῦτον τὰ τοιαῦτα λέγειν ἢ πράττειν ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκός, καὶ τοῦτο μετὰ τοῦτο γίνεσθαι ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκός.

φανερὸν οὖν ὅτι καὶ τὰς λύσεις η τῶν μύθων ἐξ αὐτοῦ δεῖ τοῦ μύθου συμβαίνειν, καὶ μὴ ὥσπερ ἐν τῇ Μηδείᾳ ἀπὸ μηχανῆς καὶ ἐν τῇ Ιλιάδι τὰ περὶ τὸν ἀπόπλουν·

ἀλλὰ μηχανῇ χρηστέον ἐπὶ τὰ ἔξω τοῦ δράμ²ατος ἢ ὅσα πρὸ τοῦ γέγονεν, ἃ οὐχ οἷόν τε ἄνθρωπον εἰδέ ναι, ἢ ὅσα ὕστερον, ἃ δεῖται προαγορεύσεως καὶ ἀγγελίας· ἅπαντα γὰρ ἀποδίδομεν τοῖς θεοῖς ὁρᾶν.

ἄλογον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν, εἰ δὲ μή, ἔξω τῆς τραγῳδίας, οἷον τὰ ἐν τῷ Οἰδίποδι τῷ Σοφοκλέους.

ἐπεὶ δὲ μίμησίς ἐστιν ἡ τραγῳδία βελτιόνων, ἡμᾶς δεῖ μιμεῖσθαι τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς εἰκονογράφους· καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῖνοι ἀποδιδόντες τὴν ἰδίαν μορφήν, ὁμοίους ποιοῦντες, καλλίους γράφουσιν· οὕτω καὶ τὸν ποιητὴν μιμούμενον καὶ ὀργίλους καὶ ῥᾳθύμους καὶ τἆλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα ἔχοντας ἐπὶ τῶν ἠθῶν [τοιούτους ὄντας] ἐπιεικεῖς ποιεῖν [παράδειγμα σκληρότητος], οἷον τὸν Ἀχιλλέα Ἀγάθων καὶ Ὅμηρος.

ταῦτα δὴ δεῖ διατηρεῖν, καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὰς παρὰ τὰς ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀκολουθούσας αἰσθήσεις τῇ ποιητικῇ· καὶ γὰρ κατ᾿ αὐτὰς ἔστιν ἁμαρτάνειν πολλάκις. εἴρηται δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν ἐν τοῖς ἐκδεδομένοις λόγοις ἱκανῶς.

Translations (13)

Poetics (W. H. Fyfe) (OCR draft) Perseus (William Hamilton Fyfe's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, Loeb Classical Library, 1939 printing.) — 15 focus

Concerning character there are four points to aim at. The first and most important is that the character should be good.

The play will show character if, as we said above,¹ either the dialogue or the actions reveal some choice; and the character will be good, if the choice is good.

20 But this is relative to each class of people. Even a woman is good and so is a slave, although it may be said that a woman is an inferior thing and a slave beneath consideration.

The second point is that the characters should be appropriate. A character may be manly, but it is not appropriate for a woman to be manly or clever.

Thirdly, it should be like.² This is different from making the character good and from making it appropriate in the sense of the word as used above.

Fourthly, it should be consistent. Even if the original be inconsistent and offers such a character to the poet for representation, still he must be consistently inconsistent.

An example of unnecessary badness of character is Menelaos in the Orestes³;

of character that is unfitting and inappropriate the lament of Odysseus in the Scylla⁴ and Melanippe’s speech⁵;

of inconsistent character Iphigeneia in Aulis , for the suppliant Iphigeneia is not at all like her later character.

In character-drawing just as much as in the arrangement of the incidents one should always seek what is inevitable or probable, so as to make it inevitable or probable that such and such a person should say or do such and such; and inevitable or probable that one thing should follow another.

Clearly therefore the denouement⁶ of each play should also be the result of the plot itself and not produced mechanically as in the Medea and the incident of the embarkation in the Iliad. 1454b 1 ⁷

The god in the car⁸ should only be used to explain what lies outside the play, either what happened earlier and is therefore beyond human knowledge, or what happens later and needs to be foretold in a proclamation. For we ascribe to the gods the power of seeing everything.

There must, however, be nothing inexplicable in the incidents, or, if there is, it must lie outside the tragedy. There is an example in Sophocles’ Oedipus.⁹

Since tragedy is a representation of men better than ourselves we must copy the good portrait-painters who, while rendering the distinctive form and making a likeness, yet paint people better than they are. It is the same with the poet. When representing people who are hot-tempered or lazy, or have other such traits of character, he should make them such, yet men of worth [an example of hardness]¹⁰; take the way in which Agathon and Homer portray Achilles.

Keep, then, a careful eye on these rules and also on the appeal to the eye¹¹ which is necessarily bound up with the poet’s business; for that offers many opportunities of going wrong. But this subject has been adequately discussed in the published treatises.¹²

Arabic Poetics (Badawī edition, 1953) (OCR draft) (The ancient Arabic translation of Aristotle's Poetics in ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Badawī's 1953 edition.) — 15 focus

〈الأخلاق؛ الاحتمال والضرورة؛ «الإله بالآلة»〉

فأما فى العادات فلنتكلم الآن فنقول: إن العادات التى منها نتعرف الحق ونستدل عليه — أربع: الأول منها هو أن تكون العادات جياداً، ويكون كل واحد منها — إن كان قول الأمر الذى هو أعرف قد يؤثر بالفعل الإرادى فى الاعتقاد شيئاً — أن تكون حال كل واحدة من العادات هذه الحال. والخير والجيد إن كان موجوداً فهو موجود خيراً فى كل جنس. وذاك أنه قد توجد مرأة جيدة وفعل جيد. هذا على أنه لعله يكون هذا منهم رذل وهذا مزيف.

والثانى ذلك الذى يصلح. وذلك أن العادة التى هى للرجال قد توجد، إلا أنها لا تصلح للمرأة، ولا أيضاً أن ترى فيها ألبتة.

والثالثة الشبيه بذلك: أن الذى له هذه العادة غير ذلك الذى له عادة جيدة إن كان قد يصلح أن يفعل أيضاً، كما تقدم فقيل.

وأما الرابعة فذاك المتساوى. وذلك أنه إن كان إنسان مما يأتى بالتشبيه والمحاكاة مساوياً، ووضع مثل هذا الخلق كذلك على جهة التساوى، فقد يجب أن يكون غير مساو.

وأيضاً أما مثال رذيلة العادة فليس هو ضرورى، وذلك كما كانت الرحمة لأورسطس والحزن عليه. وما كان غير لائق هو أنه لما كان يصلح ويطابق مثل نوح أوديسوس على المعروفة بـ«ـأسقلى» البحرانية، ولا أيضاً النصنصة ونلحبس (!) المعروفة بميلانافى؛ فأما الذى للامتساوى فكحال ايفيغانيا فى دير المعروف [ببنات] بأولى، وذلك أنه ما تشبهت تلك التى كانت تتضرع بتلك الأخيرة.

وقد يجب أن يطلب دائماً مجرى التشابه كما نطلب ذلك فى قوام الأمور أيضاً: إما ما هو على الحقيقة، وإما ما هو ضرورى، وإما الشبيه. وعند هذه تكون العادة ضرورية أو شبيهاً.

ومن البين أن أواخر الخرافات إما ينبغى أن تعرض لها وتنوبها من العادة نفسها، وليس كالحال فيما كان من الحيلة عند «ميديا» وكما كان إلى «الياذس» من انقلاب المراكب، لا للغرق، لكن إنما ينبغى أن نستعمل نحو خارج القينة، وآخرها الحيلة إما بمقدار ما احتملوا هؤلاء المذكورين، وإما بمبلغ ما لا يمكن الإنسان أن يقف ويعرف أو بمبلغ ما يحتاجون أخيراً فى المقولة أو القول. وذلك أن كل شىء يسلم إلى الآلهة يرى ويبصر؛ فأما ما هو خارج عن النطق فلا ينبغى أن يكون فى الأمور، وإلا كان هذا المعنى خارجاً عن المدائح، بمنزلة ما كان ما أتى به أوديفس من محاكاة سوفقلس حريصاً.

والتشبيه والمحاكاة هى مدائح الأشياء التى هى فى غاية الفضيلة، أو كما يجب أن يشبهوا المصورون الحذاق الجياد؛ وذلك أن هؤلاء بأجمعهم عندما يأتون بصورهم وخلقهم من حيث يشبهون يأتون بالرسوم جياداً، كذلك الشاعر أيضاً عندما يشبه الغضابى والكسالى يأتى هذه الأشياء الأخر التى توجد لهم فى عاداتهم، فعلى هذا ينبغى للحذاق أن يأتوا بمثال الصعوبة، بمنزلة ما أبان أوميروس من خبر أخيلوس.

وهذه ينبغى أن تحفظ؛ ومع هذه أيضاً الاحساسات التى تلزمهم فى صناعة الشعر من الاضطرار، وذلك أن كثيراً ما قد يكون فى هذه زلل وخطأ. وقد تكلم فيها كلاماً كافياً فى الأقاويل التى أتى بها.

Poetics (S. H. Butcher, 1911) (OCR draft) Experimental (S. H. Butcher's English translation from Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, fourth edition, 1911.) — 15 focus

In respect of Character there are four things to be
aimed at. First, and most important, it must be good.

Now any speech or action that manifests moral purpose
of any kind will be expressive of character: the character
will be good if the purpose is good.

This rule is relative
to each class. Even a woman may be good, and also a
slave;
though the woman may be said to be an inferior
being, and the slave quite worthless.

The second thing
to aim at is propriety. There is a type of manly valour;
but valour in a woman, or unscrupulous cleverness, is in-
appropriate.

Thirdly, character must be true to life: for
this is a distinct thing from goodness and propriety, as here
described.

The fourth point is consistency: for though
the subject of the imitation, who suggested the type,
be inconsistent, still he must be consistently inconsistent.

As an example of motiveless degradation of character, we
have Menelaus in the Orestes;

of
character indecorous and inappropriate, the lament of Odysseus in
the Scylla, and the speech of Melanippe:

of inconsistency, the
Iphigenia at Aulis, — for Iphigenia the suppliant in no
way resembles her later self.

In the portraiture of character, as in the structure of the
plot, the poet should always aim either at the necessary
or the probable.
Thus a person of a given character should speak or act in
a given way, by the rule either of necessity or of probability;
just as this event should follow that by necessary or probable
sequence.

It is therefore evident that the unravelling
of the plot, no less than the complication, must arise out
of the plot itself,

it must not be brought about by the
Deus ex Machina as in the Medea, or in the Return of
the Greeks in the Iliad.
The Deus ex Machina should
be employed only for events external to the drama, —
for antecedent or subsequent events, which lie beyond
the range of human knowledge, and which require to be
reported or foretold; for to the gods we ascribe the power
of seeing all things.

Within the action there must be
nothing irrational. If the irrational cannot be excluded,
it should be outside the scope of the tragedy.
Such is
the irrational element in the Oedipus of Sophocles.

Again, since Tragedy is an imitation of persons who
are above the common level, the example of good portrait-
painters should be followed.
They, while reproducing
the distinctive form of the original, make a likeness
which is true to life and yet more beautiful.
So too
the poet, in representing men who are irascible or
indolent, or have other defects of character, should
preserve the type and yet ennoble it.
In this way
Achilles is portrayed by Agathon and Homer.

These then are rules the poet should observe. Nor
should he neglect those appeals to the senses, which,
though not among the essentials, are the concomitants of
poetry;
for here too there is much room for error. But
of this enough has been said in our published treatises.

Aristotle on the Art of Poetry (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 15 focus

In the Characters there are four points to aim at. First
and foremost, that they shall be good.

There will be an
element of character in the play, if (as has been observed)
what a personage says or does reveals a certain moral
purpose;
and a good element of character, if the purpose
so revealed is good.

Such goodness is possible in every
type of personage, even in a woman or a slave, though the
one is perhaps an inferior, and the other a wholly worthless
being.

The second point is to make them appropriate. The
Character before us may be, say, manly;
but it is not appro-
priate in a female Character to be manly, or clever.

The
third is to make them like the reality, which is not the same
as their being good and appropriate, in our sense of the
term.

The fourth is to make them consistent and the same
throughout;
even if inconsistency be part of the man before
one for imitation as presenting that form of character, he
should still be consistently inconsistent.

We have an in-
stance of baseness of character, not required for the story,
in the Menelaus in Orestes;

of the incongruous and un-
befitting in the lamentation of Ulysses in Scylla, and in
the (clever) speech of Melanippe;

and of inconsistency in
Iphigenia at Aulis, where Iphigenia the suppliant is utterly
unlike the later Iphigenia.

The right thing, however, is
in the Characters just as in the incidents of the play to
endeavour always after the necessary or the probable;
so that
whenever such-and-such a personage says or does such-
and-such a thing, it shall be the probable or necessary
outcome of his character;
and whenever this incident
follows on that, it shall be either the necessary or the
probable consequence of it.

From this one sees (to digress
for a moment) that the Dénouement also should arise out
of the plot itself, and not depend on a stage-artifice, as in
Medea, or in the story of the (arrested) departure of the
Greeks in the Iliad.

The artifice must be reserved for
matters outside the play for past events beyond human
knowledge, or events yet to come, which require to be
foretold or announced; since it is the privilege of the Gods
to know everything.

There should be nothing improbable
among the actual incidents. If it be unavoidable, however,
it should be outside the tragedy, like the improbability in
the Oedipus of Sophocles.

But to return to the Characters.
as Tragedy is an imitation of personages better than the
ordinary man, we in our way should follow the example of
good portrait-painters, who reproduce the distinctive features
of a man, and at the same time, without losing the likeness,
make him handsomer than he is.
The poet in like manner,
in portraying men quick or slow to anger, or with similar
infirmities of character, must know how to represent them
as such, and at the same time as good men, as Agathon
and Homer have represented Achilles.

All these rules one must keep in mind throughout, and
further, those also for such points of stage-effect as directly
depend on the art of the poet, since in these too one may
often make mistakes.
Enough, however, has been said on
the subject in one of our published writings.

The Poetic of Aristotle (Henry James Pye, revised 1792) (OCR draft) Experimental (Henry James Pye's revised 1792 English translation, corrected against the 1788 first edition, aligned to the Kassel reference edition, and supplied with a selective apparatus of substantive 1788 readings.) — 15.10 focus

A poet, therefore, who imitates passionate or effeminate [E] persons or other characters of that kind, should represent them as¹

The Poetic of Aristotle (Theodore Alois Buckley) (OCR draft) Experimental (Theodore Alois Buckley's English translation, first published in 1850 and represented from the Henry G. Bohn 1857 printing; corrected against a second OCR and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 15.10 focus

Thus, also, it is requisite that the poet, in imitating the wrathful and the indolent,

Poetica Latine conversa (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's Latin translation, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 15 focus

In moribus autem quattuor sunt quae oportet sectari, unum ac primum, ut boni sint.

habebit autem mores, si, ut dictum est, manifestum faciat oratio vel actio studium quoddam, et bonos quidem, si bonum.

inest autem hoc in quovis genere: nam et mulier est bona et servus; quamquam fortasse alterum genus deterius, alterum omnino vile est.

secundum vero ut apti sint: sunt enim viriles quidam mores, sed non aptum mulieri esse virilem vel terribilem, tertium ut similes: hoc enim aliud atque bonos mores et aptos facere, ut dictum est.

quartum vero ut sibi constent: etenim quamvis inconstans sit qui imitationem praebet et eiusmodi mores suppeditat, tamen constanter inconstantem esse oportet.

est

autem exemplar pravitatis morum haud necessarium qualis Menelaus in Oreste,

eorum qui absurdi et non apti lamentatio Ulixis in Scylla et Melanippae oratio, eorum qui sibi non constant Iphigenia Aulidensis:

nam quae supplicat nihil similis videtur ei quae postea est.

decet autem etiam in moribus, ut in factorum compositione, semper sectari sive quod necessarium sive quod verisimile, ut talem talia dicere vel facere sive necessarium sive verisimile sit, utque hoc post illud fieri sive necessarium sive verisimile sit.

itaque manifestum est etiam solutiones fabularum ex ipsa fabula debere contingere, et non sicuti in Medea ex machina et in Iliade quae pertinent ad discessum:

sed machina utendum in iis 3 quae extra fabulam sunt, sive quae ante acciderunt, quae homo scire non potest, sive quae postea, quae indigent praedictione et expositione: omnia enim cernere dis tribuimus.

quod ratione careat nihil inesse in factis decet, sin minus, extra tragoediam, ut quae sunt in Oedipo Sophoclis.

sed quoniam imitatio est tragoedia meliorum, imitari nos decet bonos pictores: etenim illi propriam cuiusque speciem dum praebent, similes exhibentes, meliores pingunt; sic quoque pocta dum imitatur iracundos et inertes et qui cetera huiusmodi in moribus habent [eos qui tales sunt] bonos facere debet [exemplar asperitatis], sicut Achillem Agatho et Homerus.

haec igitur decet observare, et insuper eas perceptiones quae praeter necessarias poesin comitantur: nam in his quoque peccari saepe solet. dictum autem de iis in libris editis quantum est satis.

La poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) Experimental (André Dacier's French translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1692.) — 15.10 focus

Or dans les mœurs, comme dans la diſpoſition du ſujet, il faut toûjours chercher, ou le neceſſaire ou le vray-ſemblable, de ſorte que les choſes arrivent ou neceſſairement ou vray-ſemblablement.

9.

Il eſt donc évident par là que le denoüement du ſujet doit être tiré du ſujet même, ſans qu'on y employe le ſecours d'une machine, comme dans la Medée, ou comme dans l'Iliade ſur le retour des Grecs.

Si l'on ſe ſert d'une machine, il faut que ce ſoit toûjours hors de l'action de la Tragedie, ou pour expliquer les choſes qui ſont arrivées auparavant, & qu'il n'eſt pas poſſible que l'homme ſcache, ou pour avertir de celles qui arriveront enſuite, & dont il eſt neceſſaire qu'on ſoit inſtruit, car nous ſommes tous perſuadez que les Dieux peuvent tout voir.

Il faut abſolument que dans tous les Incidens qui compoſent la fable, il n'y ait rien qui ſoit ſans raiſon, ou ſi cela eſt impoſſible, on doit faire en ſorte, que ce qui eſt ſans raiſon ſe trouve toûjours hors de la Tragedie, comme Sophocle l'a ſagement obſervé dans ſon Edipe.

10.

Poetica d'Aristotile (Bernardo Segni, 1549) (OCR draft) Experimental (Bernardo Segni's 1549 Florentine Italian translation, aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 15 focus

Vanto a' coſtumi ſon quattro coſe, che biſogna hauere in confideratione Vna, & la principale è, in che modo i coſtumi ui fieno buoni.¹

Ha rà costume il parlare, & laattione, ſe ella (ſi come s'è detto) e detto) vi farà qualche elettione manifeſta. Fia il coſtu me cattiuo, ſe l'elettione fia cattiua. Et buono, ſe l'elet. tione fia buona.

Et queſto ſi può vedere in ciaſchedun genere, conciofia che la Donna, & il ſeruo poſſa eſſer buono, anchor che forse l'un de due ſia men buo no, & l'altro fia in tutto cattiuo Nel ſecondo luogo è quando i coſtumi ſono contienienti, concioſſa che e ſi poffa efprimere vn coſtume forte;

ma e non è già conueniente à vna Donna l'apparire o forte, ò terribile. Nel terzo luogo è, che e' fia fimile.

Et ciò non è il medefimo col fare il costume, è buono, ò conueniente; ficome 10'ho detto Nel quarto & vltimo è, che e fia uguale;

et auuenga che l'Iftrione, che fa l'imitatione, & che tal coftume ci mette dauanti appariſca inequale: nondimeno detta inequalità debbe eſſere retta ugual mente.

In effempio di coſtume cattiuo, & non neceffa rio fiaci Menelao nello Oreſte.

Et di coſtume indecoto,& non conueniente il pianto dVliffe nella Scilla:& il parlare che fa Menalippe.

Et di coſtume inuguale, fiaci Ifigenia nella Aulide; doue ella, fupplicheuole da prima, non appariſce la medefima in vltimo.

Debbefi nel formare coſtumi, coſi come nel formare il fuggetto, ricercaruiſi ſempre il neceffario,ò il verifimile; & fa re, che l'un caſo ſucceda doppo l'altro nell'uno de' due modı. Et diqui è manifeſto, che gli ſcioglimenti d'eſſe Fauole da eſſe Fauole debbono dependere;

& non fi come è nella Medea, per via di Macchine, ò come è quella nella Iliade, quando i Greci voleuon con l'arma ta ritornarfene à cafa.

Ma la Macchina ſi debbe vſare nelle coſe, che fon fuori della Tragedia, ò in tutte quel le, che ſeguite imprima, era impoſsibile, che vno le fapeſſe; o intutte quelle, che, douendo ſeguire dappoi, hanna biſogno d'eſſere indouinate, o racconte:concio RR ΙΑΤΡΟΙΕΤICA ſia che agli Dei s'attribuiſca la preſcienza di tutte le co ſe.

Che egli è nel vero coſa diſconueneuole à crederfi, che nelle attioni ſteſſe non ſia coſa alcuna da ſcior la Fauola;& ſe pure ella non v'è, ella ſarà fuori della Tragedia:ficome ella è tolta nello Edippo di Sofocle.

Ma conciofia che ella ſia imitatione d'huomini, & di coſe eccellenti; perciò imitiſi in queſto il modo tenuto da buon dipintori, 1 quali nel formar le propie figure per renderle ſimili le dipıngono ſempre più belle. Che il Poeta medefimamente nello imitare vno adirato, vno da poco,ò vnaltro di ſimili coſtumi, debbe ſempre fingerlo per eſſempio dell'una, ò dell'altra qualità di coſtu meiſicome fa Homero d'Acchille, che lo finge vno ef ſempio di Fortezza, Et queſte ſono le cofe, che auuere tir' fi debbono;

& oltradiqueſto quei ſentimenti, che conſeguitano alla Poetica neceſſariamente: conciofia: che mediante queſti noi cinganniamo molteuoltex Della qual materia n'ho 10 ragionato à bastanza negli ſcritti ſopra di ciò dati fuori gilansiodo

De poetica (Antonio Riccobono, 1587) (OCR draft) Experimental (Antonio Riccobono's Latin translation, first published in 1587; text represented from Immanuel Bekker's 1831 edition.) — 15 focus

Ceterum de moribus quattuor sunt quae spectare oportet. unum quidem et primum, quomodo boni sint.

habebit autem mores, si, ut dictum est, oratio aut actio manifestam efficiat praeelectionem aliquam; malos quidem, si malam, bonos vero, si bonam,

est vero hoc in unoquoque genere: etenim mulier est bona et servus, etiamsi fortasse ex his illud quidem peius, hoc omnino malum est. secundum est, quando sint convenientes: est enim virorum mos,

sed non conveniens mulieri, fortem vel terribilem esse. tertium quando sint similes:

hoc enim aliud est ab eo quod est bonos et convenientes mores facere, ut dictum est. quartum,

quomodo aequales: tametsi enim inaequalis quidam sit qui praebet imitationem, et talibus moribus suppositus sit,

tamen aequaliter inaequalem oportet esse. est autem exemplum improborum morum non ex necessitate, ut Menelaus in Oreste,

eius vero quod non deceat et non conveniat, tum lamentatio Ulyssis in Scylla, tum Menalippae dictio.

at inaequalium in Aulide Iphigenia: nullam enim in partem similis est, dum orat, ei quae apparet posterius.

oportet autem et in moribus, ut etiam in rerum constitutione, semper quaerere vel necessarium vel verisimile; et hoc post hoc fieri vel ex necessitate vel ex verisimilitudine.

apparet igitur et solutiones fa¿ bularum ex ipsa oportere fabula contingere, et non ut in Medea a machina, et in Iliade ea quae sunt circa renavigationem.

sed machina uti opus est ad ea quae sunt extra actionem, aut quaecunque ante facta sunt, quae fieri non potest ut homo sciat, aut quaecunque postea, quae egent praedicatione et nuntiatione: omnia enim videre tribuimus diis.

at sine ratione in rebus nihil esse oportet: sin minus, id extra tragoediam sit, ut quae sunt in Oedipode Sophoclis.

quoniam autem tragoedia est meliorum imitatio, oportet nos imitari bonos formarum fictores. etenim illi cum tribuant propriam formam, faciendo similes pulchriores fingunt. sic etiam oportet poetam imitantem et iracundos et socordes et alia talia habentes in moribus, cum tales sint, probitatis facere exemplum ac duritiae, at Achillem bonum etiam Homerus.

iam vero haec oportet servare, et ad haec ea quae sub sensum cadunt consequentia poëticae, praeter illa quae sunt ex necessitate: etenim secundum ipsa saepenumero contingit peccare. dictum autem est satis de ipsis in editis libris.

De arte poetica liber (William of Moerbeke, ca. 1277) (OCR draft) Experimental (William of Moerbeke's medieval Latin translation, represented by the 1953 Aristoteles Latinus edition.) — 15 focus

Circa mores autem quatuor sunt que oportet coniecturare '

unum quidem et primum, quatinus boni sint ; habebit autem morem quidem si, sicut dictum est, faciat manifestum sermo aut actio electionem que sit, bonum autem si bona.

Est autem in unoquoque genere; et enim mulier est bona et servus, et quidem forte horum hoc quidem peius, hoc autem totaliter pravum est. —

Secundum autem congruentia; est enim virilis quidem mos, sed non congruens mulieri aut virilem aut diram esse. —

Tertium autem quod simile ; hoc enim alterum a bonum morem et congruum facere, sicut dictum est. —

Quartum autem quod regulare. Et si enim irregularis aliquis sit qui imitationem exhibet et talem morem supponens, tamen regulariter irregularem autem esse. —

Est autem exemplum malignitatis quidem moris non necessarium, puta Menelaus qui in Horeste,

indecentis autem et non congruentis lamentatio Odysei in Skyla et que Melaniptis series;

irregularis autem que in Aulide Ifigenia; nichil enim visa est ministrans posteriori. —

Oportet autem et in moribus sicut et in rerum consistentia semper querere aut quod necessarium aut quod verisimile, ut talem talia dicere aut agere sit necessarium aut verisimile, et hoc post hoc fieri aut necessarium aut verisimile. —

Manifestum igitur quod et solutiones fabularum oportet ex ipsa fabula accidere et non sicut in Medea ab ingenio et in Iliade que circa simplicem ;

sed ingenio utendum deinde extra opus, aut quecumque ante hoc fuerunt que non possibile hominem nosse, aut quecumque posterius que indigent preappellatione et nuntiatione ; omnia enim attribuimus diis videre.

Irrationabile autem nichil esse in rebus, si autem non, extra tragodiam, puta quod in Oidipode Sophocleis. —

Quoniam autem imitatio est tragodia meliorum, nos oportet imitari bonos ymaginum pictores; et enim illi assignantes propriam formam similes facientes meliores pingunt ; sic et poetam imitantem et iracundos et desides et alia talia habentes in moribus tales entes epieikees facere ; exemplar duriciei velut Achillem Agathon et Homerus.

Hec itaque observare eas que preter eas que ex necessitate assequentes sensus poetice ; et enim secundum ipsas est peccare multotiens ; dictum est autem de ipsis in traditis sermonibus sufficienter.

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition) (OCR draft) Experimental (The Arabic translation attributed to Abū Bishr Mattā, edited by Jaroslaus Tkatsch in 1928 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 15 focus

‏فاما فى العادات فلنتكلم الان فنقول ان العادات التى منها يتعرف الحق ويستدل عليه اربع الاول منها هو ان يكون العادات جيادا

‏ويكون كل واحد منها ان كان قول الامر الذى هو اعرف قد يوثر بالفعل الارادى فى الاعتقاد شيا ما ان يكون حال كل واحد من العادات هذه الحال

‏والخير والجيد ان كان موجودا فهو موجود [خيرا] فى كل جنس وذاك انه قد يوجد مرة جيدة وفعل جيد هذا على انه لعله يكون هذا منهم ردل وهذا مزيف

‏والثانى ذلك الذى يصلح وذلك ان العادة التى هى للرجال قد توجد الا انها لا تصلح للمرة ولا ايضا ان ترى فيها الثيه

‏والثالثة الشبيه بذلك ان الذى له هذه العادة غير ذلك الذى له عادة جيدة اذ كان قد يصلح ان يفعل ايضا كما تقدم فقيل⸫

‏واما الرابعة فذاك المتساوى وذلك انه ان كان انسان مما ياتى بالتشبه والمحاكاة مساو ووضع مثل هذا الخلق كذلك على جهة التساوى فقد يجب ان يكون غير مساو

‏وايضا اما مثال رذيلة العادة فليس هو ضرورى وذلك كما كانت الرحمة لاورسطس

‏والحزن عليه وما كان غير لايق هو انه لما كان يصلح ويطابق مثل نوح اودسيوس على المعرفة باسقلى البحرانية ولا ايضا الٮصٮصه وٮلجس المعروفة بميلانافى

‏فاما الذى للا متساو فكحال ايفيغانيا فى دير [المعروف ببنات اوى] وذلك انه ما تشبهت تلك التى كانت تتضرع بتلك الاخيرة

‏وقد يجب ان يطلب دايما مجرى التشابه كما نطلب ذلك فى قوام الامور ايضا اما ما هو على الحقيقة واما ما هو ضرورى واما الشبيه وعند هذه تكون العادة ضرورية او شبيه

‏ومن البين ان اواخر الخرافات انما ينبغى ان تعرض لها وتنوبها من العادة نفسها وليس كحال فيما كان من الحيلة عند ميديا وكما كان مما كان الى اٮٮلس من انقلاب المراكب [لا للغرق]

‏لكن انما ينبغى ان يستعمل نحو خارج القينة واخرها الحيلة اما بمقدار ما احٮملوا هولا المذكورين واما بمبلغ ما لا يمكن الانسان ان يقف ويعرف او بمبلغ ما يحتاجون اخيرا ڡى المقولة او القول وذلك ان كل شى نسلم الى الالهة يرى ويبصر

‏فاما ما هو خارج عن النطق فلا ينبغى ان يكون فى الامور والا كان هذا المعنى خارجا عن المدايح بمنزلة ما كان ما اتا به اوديقس من محاكاة سوفقلس حرٮصا

‏والتشبيه والماحكاة هى مدايح الاشيا التى هى فى غاية الفضيلة او كما يجب ان سٮهوا المصورون الحذاق الجياد وذلك ان هولا باجمعهم عند ما ياتون بصورهم وخلقهم من حيث يشبهون ياتون بالرسوم جيادا كذلك الشاعر ايضا عند ما يشبه الغضابى والكسالى ياتى هذه الاشيا الاخر التى توجد لهم فى عاداتهم فعلى هذا ينبغى للحذاق ان ياتوا بمثال الصعوبة بمنزلة ما اجاں اوميرس من خبر اخيلوس

‏وهذه ينبغى ان تحفظ ومع هذه ايضا الاحساسات التى تلزمهم فى صناعة الشعر من الاضطرار وذلك انه كثيرا ما قد يكون فى هذه زلل وخطا وقد تكلم فيها كلاما كافيا فى الاقاويل التى اتى بها

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition, unaligned) (OCR draft) Experimental (Tkatsch's edition of the medieval Arabic translation in its original, unaligned segmentation.) — 15 focus

‏ويكون كل واحد منها ان كان قول الامر الذى هو اعرف قد يوثر بالفعل الارادى فى الاعتقاد شيا ما

‏ان يكون حال كل واحد من العادات هذه الحال

‏والثانى ذلك الذى يصلح وذلك ان العادة التى هى للرجال قد توجد الا انها لا تصلح للمرة ولا ايضا ان ترى فيها الثيه

‏وايضا اما مثال رذيلة العادة فليس هو ضرورى وذلك كما كانت الرحمة لاورسطس والحزن عليه وما كان غير لايق هو انه لما كان يصلح ويطابق مثل نوح اودسيوس على المعرفة باسقلى البحرانية ولا ايضا الٮصٮصه وٮلجس المعروفة بميلانافى فاما الذى للا متساو فكحال ايفيغانيا فى دير [المعروف ببنات اوى] وذلك انه ما تشبهت تلك التى كانت تتضرع بتلك الاخيرة

‏ومن البين ان اواخر الخرافات انما ينبغى ان تعرض لها وتنوبها من العادة نفسها وليس كحال فيما كان من الحيلة عند ميديا وكما كان مما كان الى اٮٮلس من انقلاب المراكب [لا للغرق] لكن انما ينبغى ان يستعمل نحو خارج القينة واخرها الحيلة اما بمقدار ما احٮملوا هولا المذكورين واما بمبلغ ما لا يمكن الانسان ان يقف ويعرف او بمبلغ ما يحتاجون اخيرا ڡى المقولة او القول وذلك ان كل شى نسلم الى الالهة يرى ويبصر

‏كذلك الشاعر ايضا عند ما يشبه الغضابى والكسالى ياتى هذه الاشيا الاخر التى توجد لهم فى عاداتهم فعلى هذا ينبغى للحذاق ان ياتوا بمثال الصعوبة بمنزلة ما اجاں اوميرس من خبر اخيلوس

‏وهذه ينبغى ان تحفظ ومع هذه ايضا الاحساسات التى تلزمهم فى صناعة الشعر من الاضطرار وذلك انه كثيرا ما قد يكون فى هذه زلل وخطا

—

Commentary

Commentary on the Poetics (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) (Ingram Bywater's English commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.) focus

10. mvp-aristotle-comment-539

χρὴ δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν κτέ. There should be a unity of 33 character just as there should be a unity of action in every play. This incidental reference to the action reminds Aristotle of a point (the use of the μηχανή) which had not been considered in his general theory of the plot in chaps. 8-11 .

10. mvp-aristotle-comment-540

1454a34 τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τὸ εἰκός: comp. especially 9, 1451 38 and 10, 1452 24 .

10. mvp-aristotle-comment-541

1454a35 ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκὸς, scil. εἶναι ( Bon. Ind. 239a22 ; see on 24, 1459b9 ).

10b. mvp-aristotle-comment-542

1454a37 λύσεις: see 18, 1455b24 , 1456a9 , where the λύσις (the un- ravelling, or dénouement) is distinguished from the δέσις or πλοκή (the knotting, or intrigue). This is the first appearance of these terms in this sense, though they may be presumed to have been already well established in the technical language of the theatre (see on 10, 1452a15 ).

10b. mvp-aristotle-comment-543

1454a37_2 ἐν τῇ Μηδείᾳ: Eurip. Med.1317 .

1454b1

10b. mvp-aristotle-comment-544

1454b μηχανῆς. On the mechanical contrivance, whereby a god or other personage was suddenly brought on, or removed from the stage, see Haigh, Attic Theatre p. 209 . Aristotle regards a dénouement effected by such means as an inartistic way out of the difficulty, or else allowable only in certain exceptional cases (3-6). A similar view of the μηχανή is implied in Plato Crat. 425 D

οἱ τραγῳδοποιοί, ἐπειδάν τι ἀπορῶσιν, ἐπὶ τὰς μηχανὰς κατα- φεύγουσι θεοὺς αἴροντες.

From this theatrical use the term is sometimes metaphorically extended to matters apart from the stage, when a difficulty is solved by means which savour too much of artifice or miracle. Thus even in the present context ( b2) the sudden appearance of Athene in Il. 2. 166 is said to be ἀπὸ μηχανῆς; and in Metaph. A 5, 985 b 18 reason is said to come in as a deus ex machina in the cosmogony of Anaxagoras :

Ἀναξα- γόρας τε γὰρ μηχανῇ χρῆται τῷ νῷ πρὸς τὴν κοσμοποιίαν, καὶ ὅταν ἀπορήσῃ διὰ τίν᾿ αἰτίαν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἐστί, τότε παρέλκει αὐτόν.

10b. mvp-aristotle-comment-545

1454b2 τὰ περὶ τὸν ἀπόπλουν: Il. 2. 155 ; comp. Porphyry on Il. 2. 144, p. 26 Schrader :

ἡ Ἀθηνᾶ παραγίνεται ἀπὸ μηχανῆς [so cod. Townl.] ὥσπερ καθεύδοντα τὸν Ὀδυσσέα ἐγείρουσα.

His note on Il. 2. 73 (where Agamemnon tries the feeling of his army) is worth quoting as a typical attempt to reconcile Homeric practice and Aristotelian theory:

δια τί ὁ Ἀγαμέμνων ἀπεπειρᾶτο τῶν ᾿Ἀχαιῶν, καὶ οὕτως ἔπραξεν ὥστε ὀλίγου τὰ ἐναντία συμβῆναι ἢ ἐβουλεύετο; καὶ τὸ κώλυμα ἀπὸ μηχανῆς· ἡ γὰρ Ἀθηνᾶ ἐκώλυσεν· ἔστι δὲ ἀποίητον τὸ μηχάνημα λύειν ἄλλως εἰ μὴ ἐξ αὐτοῦ τοῦ μύθου. φησὶ δὲ ὁ Ἀριστο- τέλης (Fr. 142 Teubn.) ποιητικὸν μὲν εἶναι τὸ μιμεῖσθαι τὰ εἰωθότα γίνεσθαι καὶ ποιητῶν μᾶλλον τὸ κινδύνους παρεισάγειν· εἰκὸς δὲ καὶ ἐκ λοιμοῦ πεπονημένους καὶ τῷ μήκει τοῦ χρόνου ἀπαυδήσαντας ... μὴ εὐθὺς παρακαλεῖν ἐπὶ τὴν ἔξοδον ἀλλὰ πειραθῆναι ἡγήσασθαι δεῖν εἰ οὕτως ἔχουσιν . . ἡ δὲ λύσις οὐκ ἀπὸ μηχανῆς· ὅταν γὰρ διὰ τῶν εἰκότων γίγνηται, οὐ μηχανὴ τοῦτ᾽ ἔστιν, ἅμ᾽ [? ἀλλ᾽] ὅτε πρόσκειται θεός· ἀλλὰ τοῦτ᾽ εἰπὼν εἱκὸς ἦν αὐτοῖς γίνεσθαι εἰς θεὸν ἀνέθηκε τὸν Ὀδυσσέα διανοηθῆναι ταῦτα δρᾶν ἃ πρᾶξαι ἂν εἰκός ἐστιν

(p. 24-25 Schrader). ¹

1454b2_2

10c. mvp-aristotle-comment-546

ἀλλὰ μηχανῇ κτέ.: μηχανῇ breviter dicit pro theώ ἀπὸ μηχανῆς (Ritter). This clause (which ends apparently with θεοῖς ὁρᾶν in b 6) is a digression within a digression; Aristotle remembers 15. 14541-9 231 that the appearance of a god on the stage may be necessary for a certain purpose, to reveal matters of interest which lie outside the play itself as being either anterior or subsequent to the action of the piece. This may be taken as a tacit apology for the proce- dure of Euripides, who opens several of his plays with a prologue delivered by a god to explain the historical antecedents of the situation, and concludes others with a sort of epilogue, in which a god announces the future fortunes of the personages (see Haigh, Tragic Drama p. 246-7 ). A distorted reminiscence of this state- ment may be recognized in the Horatian precept, A. P. 191

nec deus intersit nisi dignus vindice nodus inciderit

10d. mvp-aristotle-comment-547

1454b6 ἄλογον is a general term for that which cannot be seen to be either necessary or probable (see above 1454 a 36

ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκός

), in other words for that which does not admit of explanation, that which we find unaccountable. It is of frequent occurrence in the later chapters of the Poetics (see esp. 24, 1460 a 28 and 25, 1461 b 14 ). The clause continues the statement in 1454 a 37 - b 2 . No improbability can be allowed within the story ( ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν) of the play, unless it happens to be in the part only pre- supposed and not actually presented on the stage ( ἔξω τῆς τραγῳδίας). Bonitz ( Ind. 343 a 32 ) seems to take a different view of the clause, connecting it with that which immediately precedes it, μηχανῇ χρηστέον κτέ. The rule in the text is repeated in very similar terms in 24, 1460 27 .

10d. mvp-aristotle-comment-548

1454b6_2 μηδὲν εἶναι, scil. δεῖ, understood from 37.

10d. mvp-aristotle-comment-549

1454b6_3 ἔξω τῆς τραγῳδίας: see on 14, 1453 b 32 .

10d. mvp-aristotle-comment-550

1454b6_4 τὸ ἐν τῷ Οἰδίποδι: see 24, 1400 a 29

1454b8

Remarques sur la poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) (André Dacier's French commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.) focus

14. mvp-aristotle-comment-374

15.10 Or dans les mœurs, comme dans la diſpoſition du ſujet, il faut toûjours chercher, ou le neceſſaire, ou le vray-ſembla-ble.]¹

15. mvp-aristotle-comment-375

15.10 De ſorte que les choſes arrivent les unes aprés les autres, ou neceſſairement ou vray-ſemblablement.]²

16. mvp-aristotle-comment-376

15.10b Il est donc évident par là que le denoüement du ſujet doit ètre tiré du sujet même.]³

17. mvp-aristotle-comment-377

15.10b Sans qu'on y employe le ſecours d'une machine, comme dans la Medée.]⁴

18. mvp-aristotle-comment-378

15.10b Ou comme dans l'Iliade ſur le retour des Grecs.]⁵

19. mvp-aristotle-comment-379

15.10c Si l'on ſe ſert d'une machine, il faut que ce ſoit toujours hors de l'action de la Tragedie, ou pour expliquer les choſes qui ſont arrivées auparavant, & qu'il n'eſt pas poſſible que l'hom-me ſçache, ou pour avertir de celles qui arriveront enſuite, & dont il eſt neceſſaire qu'on ſoit inſtruit.]⁶

20. mvp-aristotle-comment-380

15.10c Car nous ſommes tous perſuadez que les Dieux peuvent tout voir.]⁷

21. mvp-aristotle-comment-381

15.10d Il faut absolument que dans tous les Incidens qui compo-ſent la fable il n'y ayt rien qui ſoit ſans raiſon.]⁸

22. mvp-aristotle-comment-382

15.10d Ou, ſi cela est impoſſible, on doit faire en ſorte que ce qui eſt ſans raiſon, ſe trouve toûjours hors de la Tragedie, comme Sophocle l'a ſagement obſervé dans ſon Œdipe.]⁹

Commentary on the Poetics (Thomas Twining, 1789) (OCR draft) (Thomas Twining's notes on Aristotle's Poetics, aligned to the Kassel reference edition.) focus

114. mvp-aristotle-comment-114

NOTE 114. P. 94.

15.10b HENCE IT IS EVIDENT THAT THE DEVELOPMENT ALSO, &C. — Heinsius pronounces this whole passage, to the words,

εν τω Οιδ. τε Σοφ.

—inclusively, to be certainly out of its proper place¹. And I should be of his opinion, if such digressive and parenthetical insertions were not very usual with Aristotle . The expression, how- ever, should be observed:

φανερον ἐν ὅτι ΚΑΙ τας λύσεις

, &c. that "the development also," &c. i. e. as well as the other incidents of the fable, just mentioned. Most of the versions neglect the word

και

, which is important, and greatly helps the connection. This digression, however, though not unrelated, is but flightly and obliquely related, to his present subject; and seems introduced rather

ἀπο μηχανης

, and in violation of his own rule—

τετο μετα τατο ἡ ἀναγκαιον ἐικο

. It interrupts the connection, and obscures the purport, of the chapter; and though we allow it to be where the author placed it, we may fairly question, whether he has placed it where it should be.

115. mvp-aristotle-comment-115

NOTE 115. P. 94.

15.10b MACHINERY.

Απο μηχανης

. — It appears from Jul. Pollux, lib. iv. cap. 19 . that the term,

μηχανη

, was not applied indiscriminately to the machinery of the play-house in general, but was appropriated to that particular machine, in which Gods and Heroes made their appearance in the air.

Μηχανη δε, θεους δεικνυσι και ήρωας τους ἐν ἀερι

. I hope it was something better than the

Μηχανη

of the French opera, so pleasantly described by Rousseau: — ²

"Les chars des Dieux et des Déesses sont composés de quatre solives encadrées et suspendues à une grosse corde en forme d’escarpolette; entre ces solives est une planche en travers, sur laquelle le Dieu s’assaye, et sur le devant pend un morceau de grosse toile barbouillée, qui sert de nuage à ce magnifique char. On voit vers le bas de la machine l’illumination de deux ou trois chandelles puantes et mal mouchées, qui, tandis que le personnage se démene et crie en branlant dans son escarpolette, l’enfume tout à son aise. Encens digne de la divinité."

The account of the machinery of a Greek Theatre, in the chapter of Jul. Pollux above referred to, is curious, and amusing, as far as it is intelligible.

116. mvp-aristotle-comment-116

NOTE 116. P. 94.

15.10c OR THE RETURN OF THE GREEKS IN THE ILIAD.

Και ἐν ΤΗΙ ΙΛΙΑΔΙ τα περι τον ἀποπλουν

. It has been disputed, whether Aristotle here speaks of the Iliad of Homer, or of some Tragedy called The Iliad. See Dacier’s note. But, if we suppose the text to be right here, I see not how we can reasonably reject the first of these interpretations.

Ἡ ΙΛΙΑΣ

, as Beni has well observed, can only be, THE Iliad, i. e. Homer’s Iliad. Dacier supposes the Tragedy to have been called, "The Iliad, or, The return of the Greeks;" and to be that mentioned by Longinus, Sect. 15 , and attributed to Sophocles. But, even supposing a Tragedy to be meant, it seems very clear from Aristotle’s expression, that the title must have been,

Ιλιας

, only; for he says,

ΕΝ τη Ιλιάδι ΤΑ ΠΕΡΙ τον ἀποπλουν

i. e. "the circumstances, or incidents, relative to the return of the Greeks, in [the Tragedy of] The Iliad." — So, cap. xxiv.

ἐν τῇ Οδυσσεια — τα περι την ἐκθεσιν

. — Indeed, The Iliad, taken alone, seems an improbable title for a Tragedy; but Dacier’s junction is still more improbable. He might as well have imagined a Tragedy with this title —

Η Οδύσσεια, η, Ἡ ΕΚΘΕΣΙΣ

. As to the Tragedy of Sophocles mentioned by Longinus, it seems clearly to have been his POLYXENA. ³

Supposing, then, the text not to be defective, we cannot, I think, avoid understanding Aristotle to speak of the machinery, (to use the word in his general sense,) in the second book of the Iliad, ⁴ where Minerva descends to prevent the return of the Greeks. It is true indeed, as has been objected, that an instance drawn from an Epic Poem is not what one would expect here, where the subject is Tragedy; and, that though there be, in this instance, a difficulty solved — a knot cut — yet this

λυσις

, is not, properly,

λυσις μυθου

in that sense, in which Aristotle applies the term in cap. xviii. ⁵ to the final denouëment of a Tragic fable. We must therefore suppose him to have produced this, merely as an obvious and well known example of the sort of supernatural interposition, or machinery, that would be improper in the

λυσις

of a Tragedy. For, that he intended to censure the "

ministeria Deorum

," so necessary to the Epic Poem, and so frequent in the great model of all Epic Poems, cannot be imagined without absurdity, and is by no means necessarily implied, as Dacier seems to think, in this interpretation.

Such appears to me to be the only meaning, and the best apology, which the passage will bear, taking for granted the integrity of the original. But of this, I confess, I doubt. M. Batteux translates " la petite Iliade." But if we admit that sense, as Aristotle certainly would not have called that Poem THE Iliad, without distinction, we must necessarily suppose the text defective, and the word

ΜΙΚΡΑ

to be omitted; ⁶ and it seems very probable that this was the case. The illustration, indeed, will still be drawn from an Epic Poem; but from one of an irregular and historic structure, consisting of a string of ill-united stories, and which seems to have been considered as a sort of seed-plot, or nursery, of subjects for the use of the Tragic Poets: so that in referring to it, Aristotle may be understood to refer to such Tragedies as were founded on it; of which he enumerates himself no fewer than eight, and one of these was called ΑΠΟΠΛΟΥΣ; taken, I suppose, like the Polyxena of Sophocles mentioned by Longinus, from that part of the Little Iliad, which related the detention of the Greeks in the Thracian Chersonese, and the appearance of the ghost of Achilles demanding the sacrifice of Polyxena. ⁷

Commentary on the Poetics (Henry James Pye, 1792) (OCR draft) (Henry James Pye's 1792 English commentary, aligned to the Kassel reference edition.) focus

15.7. mvp-aristotle-comment-56 15.10

SO ACHILLES IS DRAWN AS A GOOD CHARACTER EVEN BY HOMER.

THE paragraph preceding that of which this sentence is the conclusion, whether from being displaced by transcribers or from the defultory mode of composition so frequently apparent in this work, seems to have little to do with the rest of this chapter. Here however Ariftotle returns to his subject. He has before been giving examples of the breach

POETIC OF ARISTOTLE. breach of three of the essential qualities of manners, goodness as in the character of Menelaus, propriety as in Ulysses and Menalippe, and consistency as in Iphigenia. We may now suppose him to recollect his omiffion of the other, of which probably the Achilles in the same tragedy may have been generally quoted as an example, where, in order to give him the requifite poetical goodness of character, the poet has deviated from his traditional manners, and even the manners, according to Plato [v], given him by Homer. In answer to this the critic points out the mode by which the faults of a traditional character may be so represented as not to lose their resemblance, and yet retain the neceffary poetical goodness; and this he not only gives such directions how to perform as must appear to every person perfectly confonant with reason, but he illustrates it by the example of the usual practice of another imitative art. And having done this, he observes that even Homer, who has been supposed to have followed a different plan, has really given the requisite poetical goodness of character to Achilles. The contrary opinion however seems to have been generally adopted, even by the moderns; and many are ready to join in opinion with Dr. Jortin, as quoted by Mr. Twining; ' that Achilles is a boisterous, rapa- ، cious, mercenary, cruel and unrelenting brute; and the reader pities none of his calamities, and is pleased with none of his successes.' This is rather a summary mode of deciding a question by a sentence, which if just, is a compleat condemnation of the father of poetry, and all his admirers. For if Homer has so drawn Achilles as to make him not only [Y] See the passage quoted from Plato's Republic, by Mr. Twining, where the Achilles of Homer is accused of possessing together the two opposite vices of mean rapaciousness, and infolent contempt both of gods and men. compleatly

compleatly bad, but compleatly despicable and uninteresting, the Iliad is effentially defective; and those who have admired it, or rather have pretended to admire it, have acted in opposition to their own feelings. Perhaps many modern readers, and Dr. Jortin among the rest, have never been much interested either in the character of Achilles or in any part of the Iliad or Odyssey; as these divine poems are seldom introduced to us in a very pleasing manner, and as early associations of ideas are not very easily eradicated [z], perhaps some feelings of restraint and punishment may always be connected with a work with which we were first acquainted, under the influence of such circumstances. To recur to my own feelings on this subject, it happened to me, that my first knowledge of the Tale of Troy divine was unaccompanied by any restraint, and yet drawn from the Iliad. (A) Pope's Homer being one of the first books I ever read for my own, amusement, I declare I was as much interested in the character of Achilles as I ever was for the most perfect hero of novel or romance. I certainly was then no critic, and had never heard of Ari- [z] I think this is a strong objection to the use of the fcriptures, in the teaching either English, Latin, or Greek. [A] I do not pretend to say Pope gives an accurate copy of the original, but a much more perfect idea of the general story of the Iliad would be acquired even by Ogilvie's tranflation, read so as to comprehend the whole, than by reading and studying the original in parts. I could gain a more accurate idea of the general and relative situation of a country by looking at a map for ten minutes, than I could by riding over it, without such assistance, in as many years. Mr. Spence declares in his Polymetis, he never perfectly understood the Epistles and Satires of Horace, as to their general connection, till he read Pope's Imitations of them. Pope has not given Achilles virtues denied him by Homer; but a striking instance of the contrary conduct is pointed out by Dr. Beattie in his Essay on Poetry and Music, Part 1, Chap. Iv. page 81.. note. In the same place will be found a complete and unanswerable defence of the Achilles of Homer against such critics as Dr. Jortin. stotle,

POETIC OF ARISTOTLE. stotle, and what I read of hím occasionally in the notes I did not understand; but I as certainly could not be deceived as to my own feelings. How often have we heard the absurd story of Achilles being invulnerable every where except in the heel, (which is mentioned by no ancient writer except Statius) imputed to Homer. [B] Tom Brown, of facetious memory, but a very good classical scholar, taking this for granted, makes this curious, and indeed if he were right in his first assertion, just remark. • Homer not only makes Achilles invulnerable every where but in • his heel, but likewise bestows a suit of impenetrable armour upon his in- • vulnerable body. (c) Bully Dawson would have fought the devil with ⚫ these advantages. So far however has Homer been from giving Achilles any unfair advantage over his principal antagonist, that he takes great pains to make Hector his match. Whatever excellence there was in armour made by a divine artist and given by the gods, such armour was possessed by Hector; as he had taken from Patroclus, the arms worn by Achilles through the first nine years of the war; and as for his being invulnerable, befides the proof I have brought [D] elsewhere, and particularly the wound given him by Afteropæus in his hand, in the twentyfirst Iliad; in the eighteenth Iliad, when the body of his friend Patroclus [B] He was the first English critic who noticed the impropriety of calling such irregular compositions as the Odes of Cowley, Pindaric Odes. [c] For an account of this hero, the reader is referred to a note on the second number of the Spectator. Edition of 1789. [D] In a note on verse 112 (82 in the tranflation) of the ninth Olympic Ode of Pindar. is

is on the point of being seized by the Trojans, and he is defired to interfere by a message from Juno, he excuses himself and with some degree of petulance as if to an unreasonable request [E]. 'How can I go into ' the battle? They have got my armour, and I know of no other • whose armour I can put on unless the shield of Ajax Telamon, and ' that is I hope already engaged among the front ranks of the battle.' If Achilles was invulnerable then he did not know it himself. Neither did Eustathius who, though he has a long note on this passage, does not drop the remotest hint of it [F]. [E] See Iliad XVIII. v. 187. I have not taken Mr. Pope's version, because when an author is quoted to establish any point of this fort, his literal sense is necessary; besides the word arms used by Pope is equivocal, but the Greek words ἔνεα and τέυχεα fignify only defensive armour. Pope however, though the words he puts in the mouth of Achilles are not so expressive of indignation as the original, shews he felt the idea, by adding - He cries, (with fury warm'd.') [F] In the note on Pindar above-mentioned, I have taken notice of an observation of a scholiaft on that poet, and another on verse 820 of Iliad XXIII, which shew that Ajax being invulnerable, was a popular story among the ancients. In Villoifon's edition of Homer, with the ancient Scholia, where particular passages are diftinguished by such a mark as this which is called διπλή καθαρά, there is one on that very verse, and its occasion noted in these words, ἡ διπλῆ ὁτι ἐκ τέτων καὶ τῶν τοιέτων φάινεται κάθ Ὁμηρον μὴ ὤν ἄτρωῖος ὁ Αίας : « The mark is put because from this verse and others like it, it appears that Ajax was * not invulnerable according to Homer;' a proof certainly that there was an opinion at least that Homer had made Ajax invulnerable. NOTE

POETIC OF ARISTOTLE. !

Commentarius in Aristotelis Poeticam (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) (Ritter's Latin commentary, extracted from the 1839 volume, divided by Ritter's chapters and sections, and linked to the corresponding Perseus reference subsections.) focus

6. mvp-aristotle-comment-106

Ritter, cap. 15 § 6

χρὴ δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν-γίνεσθαι ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τὸ εἰκός: hoc quartum esse praeceptum, tragoediarum scriptori in moribus effingendis probe observandum ab Aristotele propositum, ego existimo: sed epitomatorem cum hoc fugisset, et iste mancam esse disputationem credidisset, illas de τῷ ὁμοίῳ nugas (§. 3) suo iudicio inseruit, ut non tria sed quattuor enumerasse videretur. praecipit igitur Aristoteles poetae tragico, ut is in moribus describendis anquirat quod verisimile sit vel necessarium. hoc ipsum fit cum unusquisque agentium pro moribus suis et loquitur et agit, cumque ea accidunt, quae ex moribus illis aut semper aut plerumque consequuntur.

7. mvp-aristotle-comment-107

Ritter, cap. 15 § 7

φανερὸν οὖν ὅτι καὶ τὰς λύσεις- συμτ βαίνειν: si quis fingit quae ex moribus hominum in scenam adductorum aut probabiliter aut necessario eveniunt, fabularum quas pertractavit solutio ex ipsis procedit, neque opus est ut ea externis quibusdam instrumentis efficiatur. sed qui deum ex machina quem vocant adhibet vel deos agere facit quae hominum sunt, is hoc praeceptum violare solet. ad hoc illustrandum quae sequuntur exempla ex Euripide et Homero petita luculente epitomatorem demonstrant, dico illa καὶ μὴ ὥσπερ ἐν τῇ Μηδείᾳ ἀπὸ μεχανῆς καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰλιάδι τὰ περὶ τὸν ἀπόπλουν, quod statim ostendam ubi verba ipsa explicavero. hoc igitur reprehendit philosophus quod Medea Euripidea solari curru ( μεχανῇ) Corinthum iustasque scelerum poenas incolumis aufugit (v. 1320 sqq.), ut poeta τὸ ἀναγκαῖον vel τὸ εἰκὸς non observaverit. nam qui tanta est morum atrocitate quanta est Medea, quae quidem infantes suos pueros trucidare sustinet, eum non incolumem evasurum sed iustas crudelitatis poenas daturum exspectamus. quae succedunt, καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰλιάδι τὰ περὶ τὸν ἀπόπλουν, haec non iam pertinent ad verba ἀπὸ μηχανῆς, sed eiusmodi exemplum est, ubi solutio non ex ipso rerum nexu et pro moribus agentium nascatur. reprehenditur locus quidam ex Homeri Iliade, et quidem ille quem etiamnum legimus B. 155- 181. nam cum Agamemnoni duci amicisque placuisset ad tentandam exercitus fidem repetendae patriae consilium simulare, Achivi tanto patriae desiderio moti sunt, ut etiam contra fatum conscensis navibus domum redirent, nisi Minervae interventu excitatus Ulixes id consilium dissuasisset. deae igitur auxilio ad hoc efficiendum non opus fuisse Arist. significavit: immo intervenire deam nunc quidem a nemine exspectari, sed unumquemque ex ducibus ad tam inhonestum inceptum praepediendum pro virili parte niti, hoc moribus corum convenisse. iam haec observatio tam acuta est ut interpolatori tribui nequeat, sed eadem loco adeo non apto posita est, ut qui hoc viro sapientissimo imputare velit prudentiae iniuriam facturus videatur. sed si Aristoteles finita primaria illa disputatione de fabularum tragicarum solutione moribus et rerum nexui rite adaptanda contrarium illud ex Euripide exemplum attulit ac deinceps monuit etiam ab epicis poetis in hoc praeceptum saepe peccari, quo facto si idem illud ex Homero exemplum protulit, sane hoc prudenter et apte institutum esse, ut decet Aristotelem, dicemus. hoc ipsum igitur ego statuo: technicus illam disputationem contrahendo quae media inter utrumque exemplum posita erant sustulit, exempla ipsa (quippe his ubique studet) servavit, sed usque adeo verborum parcus ut etiam Euripidis et Homeri nomina supprimeret. Aristoteles ipse Euripidem Medeae auctorem non reticuit c. 14, 6. Carcini Medea ad partes vocatur in Rhetoricis II, 23. p. 1400 b 9. Hermannus in Commentariis p. 161. veram loci interpretationem postquam tetigit, addit: "sed videndum ne de parva Iliade sermo sit, cuius partem fuisse ἀπόπλουν colligimus ex XXIII, 7 (c. 23, 4). id quidem non aliter fieri potuit, nisi si excidit vocabulum μι κρᾷ." Graefenhanius in Commentariis ad h. 1. p. 112. "innui aliquam tragoediam huius nominis" opinatur, cui assentiens Welckerus (in Museo Rhenano philolog. tom. V. p. 492) hanc tragoediam fuisse Aeschyli Philoctetam, quae alio nomine Ἰλίου πέρσις vocata sit, coniecit. ἀλλὰ μηχανῇ χρηστέον-προαγορεύσεως καὶ ἀγγελίας: μηχανῇ breviter dicit pro θεῷ ἀπὸ μηχανῆς. Horatius in Arte poetica v. 191. commendat hoc, nec deus intersit, nisi dignus vindice nodus inciderit. τὰ ἔξω τοι δράματος quae sint, illatis ἢ ὅσα πρὸ τοῦ γέγονεν .... ὅσα ὕστερον explicatur. ἢ ἄλογον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι: si quis fingit quae moribus agentium convenienter accidunt et ex ipsa rerum coniunctione consequuntur, nihil a ratione alienum admittere potest. itaque quartum illud praeceptum egreditur qui ἄλογόν τι admiscet. οἷον τὰ ἐν τῷ Οἰδίποδι τῷ Σοφοκλέους: illud ratione caret quod Sophoclis Oedipus rex multis demum annis post Laii caedem a coniuge locasta comperit, qua clade et quo in loco Laius perierit, respicit Oedipi v. 715-754. sed rursus agnosce mihi epitomatorem. observatio bona est, sed tam obscure enuntiata, ut eam omnino non intelligeremus, nisi infra (c. 24, 10) eandem clarius verbis expressam posuisset: illic vero hunc hominem non epitomatoris partes agere sed interpolatoris demonstrabo.

Aristotle Poetics 15.10

Thomas Twining (Translator)