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SINCE persons acting are the objects of imitation and those persons must necessarily be either good or bad; (for the manners almost always arise from these circumstances alone, it being by virtue or vice that all mankind differ from each other as to their manners ;) the persons imitated must either be represented as better than those of the present time or worse or as they actually [A] are.

Poetics. Aristotle. ed. Henry James Pye. London. 1792.

Current edition Experimental

The Poetic of Aristotle (Henry James Pye, revised 1792) (OCR draft) (English) (Henry James Pye's revised 1792 English translation, corrected against the 1788 first edition, aligned to the Kassel reference edition, and supplied with a selective apparatus of substantive 1788 readings.)

Provisional text from uncorrected OCR; expect errors.

Editions (5)

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) (Aristotle, Poetics. Immanuel Bekker, editor, Aristotelis Opera, volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1837.) — 2 focus

Ἐπεὶ δὲ μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι πράττοντας, ἀνάγκη δὲ τούτους ἢ σπουδαίους ἢ φαύλους εἶναι (τὰ γὰρ ἤθη σχεδὸν ἀεὶ τούτοις ἀκολουθεῖ μόνοις· κακίᾳ γὰρ καὶ ἀρετῇ τὰ ἤθη διαφέρουσι πάντες), ἤτοι βελτίονας ἢ καθ᾿ ἡμᾶς ἢ χείρονας ἢ καὶ τοιούτους, ὥσπερ οἱ γραφεῖς·

Πολύγνωτος μὲν γὰρ κρείττους, Παύσων δὲ χείρους, Διονύσιος δὲ ὁμοίους εἴκαζεν.

Δῆλον δὲ ὅτι καὶ τῶν λεχθεισῶν ἑκάστη μιμήσεων ἕξει ταύτας τὰς διαφοράς, καὶ ἔσται ἑτέρα τῷ ἕτερα μιμεῖσθαι τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον.

Καὶ γὰρ ἐν ὀρχήσει καὶ αὐλήσει καὶ κιθαρίσει ἔστι γενέσθαι ταύτας τὰς ἀνομοιότητας,

καὶ περὶ τοὺς λόγους δὲ καὶ τὴν ψιλομετρίαν, οἷον Ὅμηρος μὲν βελτίους, Κλεοφῶν δὲ ὁμοίους, Ἡγήμων δὲ ὁ Θάσιος ὁ τὰς παρῳδίας ποιήσας πρῶτος καὶ Νικοχάρης ὁ τὴν Δηλιάδα χείρους.

Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ τοὺς διθυράμβους καὶ περὶ τοὺς νόμους, ὡς Πέρσας καὶ Κύκλωπας Τιμόθεος καὶ Φιλόξενος, μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις.

Ἐν αὐτῇ δὲ τῇ διαφορᾷ καὶ ἡ τραγῳδία πρὸς τὴν κωμῳδίαν διέστηκεν· ἡ μὲν γὰρ χείρους ἡ δὲ βελτίους μιμεῖσθαι βούλεται τῶν νῦν.

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) Perseus (Aristotle, De arte poetica liber. Rudolf Kassel, editor. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965. Reference edition for passage alignment.) — 2 focus

1448a 1 ἐπεὶ δὲ μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι πράττοντας, ἀνάγκη δὲ τούτους ἢ σπουδαίους ἢ φαύλους εἶναι (τὰ γὰρ ἤθη σχεδὸν ἀεὶ τούτοις ἀκολουθεῖ μόνοις, κακίᾳ γὰρ καὶ ἀρετῇ τὰ ἤθη διαφέρουσι πάντες), ἤτοι βελτίονας ἢ καθ’ ἡμᾶς ἢ χείρονας 5 ἢ καὶ τοιούτους, ὥσπερ οἱ γραφεῖς·

Πολύγνωτος μὲν γὰρ κρείττους, Παύσων δὲ χείρους, Διονύσιος δὲ ὁμοίους εἴκαζεν.

δῆλον δὲ ὅτι καὶ τῶν λεχθεισῶν ἑκάστη μιμήσεων ἕξει ταύτας τὰς διαφορὰς καὶ ἔσται ἑτέρα τῷ ἕτερα μιμεῖσθαι τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον.

καὶ γὰρ ἐν ὀρχήσει καὶ αὐλήσει καὶ 10 κιθαρίσει ἔστι γενέσθαι ταύτας τὰς ἀνομοιότητας,

καὶ τὸ περὶ τοὺς λόγους δὲ καὶ τὴν ψιλομετρίαν, οἷον Ὅμηρος μὲν βελτίους, Κλεοφῶν δὲ ὁμοίους, Ἡγήμων δὲ ὁ Θάσιος ὁ τὰς παρῳδίας ποιήσας πρῶτος καὶ Νικοχάρης ὁ τὴν Δειλιάδα χείρους·

ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ τοὺς διθυράμβους καὶ περὶ τοὺς 15 νόμους, ὥσπερ † γᾶς † Κύκλωπας Τιμόθεος καὶ Φιλόξενος μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις.

ἐν αὐτῇ δὲ τῇ διαφορᾷ καὶ ἡ τραγῳδία πρὸς τὴν κωμῳδίαν διέστηκεν· ἡ μὲν γὰρ χείρους ἡ δὲ βελτίους μιμεῖσθαι βούλεται τῶν νῦν.

Poetics, Greek text (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's Greek text of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 2 focus

Ἐπεὶ δὲ μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι πράττοντας, ἀνάγκη
δὲ τούτους ἢ σπουδαίους ἢ φαύλους εἶναι (τὰ γὰρ ἤθη σχεδὸν
ἀεὶ τούτοις ἀκολουθεῖ μόνοις, κακίᾳ γὰρ καὶ ἀρετῇ τὰ ἤθη
διαφέρουσι πάντες), ἤτοι βελτίονας ἢ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς ἢ χείρονας
ἢ καὶ τοιούτους, ὥσπερ οἱ γραφεῖς·

Πολύγνωτος μὲν γὰρ
κρείττους, Παύσων δὲ χείρους, Διονύσιος δὲ ὁμοίους εἴκαζεν.

δῆλον δὲ ὅτι καὶ τῶν λεχθεισῶν ἑκάστη μιμήσεων ἔξει
ταύτας τὰς διαφορὰς καὶ ἔσται ἑτέρα τῷ ἕτερα μιμεῖσθαι
τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον.

καὶ γὰρ ἐν ὀρχήσει καὶ αὐλήσει καὶ
κιθαρίσει ἔστι γενέσθαι ταύτας τὰς ἀνομοιότητας,

καὶ τῷ
περὶ τοὺς λόγους δὲ καὶ τὴν ψιλομετρίαν, οἷον Ὅμηρος μὲν
βελτίους, Κλεοφῶν δὲ ὁμοίους, Ἡγήμων δὲ ὁ Θάσιος ὁ τὰς
παρῳδίας ποιήσας πρῶτος καὶ Νικοχάρης ὁ τὴν Δειλιάδα
χείρους·

ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ τοὺς διθυράμβους καὶ περὶ τοὺς
νόμους, ὥσπερ Κύκλωπας Τιμόθεος καὶ Φιλόξενος,
μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις.

ἐν ταύτῃ δὲ τῇ διαφορᾷ καὶ ἡ τραγῳδία
πρὸς τὴν κωμῳδίαν διέστηκεν· ἡ μὲν γὰρ χείρους ἡ δὲ
βελτίους μιμεῖσθαι βούλεται τῶν νῦν.

Poetics, Greek text (S. H. Butcher, 1911) (OCR draft) Experimental (S. H. Butcher's Greek text from Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, fourth edition, 1911.) — 1 focus

[1] 1447a 8 Περὶ ποιητικῆς αὐτῆς τε καὶ τῶν εἰδῶν αὐτῆς, ἥν τινα δύναμιν ἕκαστον ἔχει, καὶ πῶς δεῖ συνίστασθαι τοὺς μύθους εἰ μέλλει καλῶς ἕξειν ἡ ποίησις, ἔτι δὲ ἐκ πόσων καὶ ποίων ἐστὶ μορίων, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅσα τῆς αὐτῆς ἐστι μεθόδου, λέγωμεν λέγωμεν λέγομεν¹ ἀρξάμενοι κατὰ φύσιν πρῶτον ἀπὸ τῶν πρώτων.

[2] ἐποποιία δὴ καὶ ἡ τῆς τραγῳδίας ποίησις ἔτι δὲ κωμῳδία καὶ ἡ διθυραμβοποιητικὴ καὶ τῆς 15 αὐλητικῆς ἡ πλείστη καὶ κιθαριστικῆς πᾶαι τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι μιμήσεις τὸ σύνολον,

[3] διαφέρουσι δὲ ἀλλήλων τρισίν, ἢ γὰρ τῷ ἐν ἑτέροις ἐν ἑτέροις γένει² μιμεῖσθαι ἢ τῷ ἕτερα ἢ τῷ ἑτέρως καὶ μὴ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον.

[4] ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ χρώμασι καὶ σχήμασι πολλὰ μιμοῦνταί τινες ἀπεικάζοντες (οἱ μὲν διὰ τέχνης οἱ δὲ διὰ συνηθείας), ἕτεροι δὲ διὰ τῆς φωνῆς τῆς φωνῆς τῆς φύσεως αὐτῆς τῆς φύσεως³, οὕτω κἀν κὰν καὶ ἐν καὶ ταῖς εἰρημέναις τέχναις· ἅπασαι μὲν ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν ἐν ῥυθμῷ καὶ λόγῳ καὶ ἁρμονίᾳ, τούτοις δ᾽ ἢ χωρὶς ἢ μεμιγμένοις· οἷον ἁρμονίᾳ μὲν καὶ ῥυθμῷ χρώμεναι μόνον ἥ τε αὐλητικὴ καὶ ἡ κιθαριστικὴ κἂν εἴ τινες ἕτεραι τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι τοιαῦται τὴν δύναμιν, οἷον ἡ τῶν συρίγγων.

[5] αὐτῷ δὲ τῷ ῥυθμῷ τῷ αὐτῷ δὲ⁴ [μιμοῦνται]⁵ χωρὶς ἁρμονίας ἡ⁶ τῶν ὀρχηστῶν, καὶ γὰρ οὗτοι διὰ τῶν σχηματιζομένων ῥυθμῶν μιμοῦνται καὶ ἤθη καὶ πάθη καὶ πράξεις.

[6] ἡ δὲ [ἐποποιία]⁷ μόνον τοῖς λόγοις ψιλοῖς ἢ τοῖς μέτροις καὶ τούτοις 1447b 8 εἴτε μιγνῦσα μετ’ ἀλλήλων εἴθ’ ἑνί τινι γένει χρωμένη τῶν μέτρων, ἀνώνυμος⁸ τυγχάνει οὖσα τυγχάνουσα μέχρι τοῦ νῦν.

Poetics, Greek text (Franz Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's 1839 Greek edition, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 2 focus

Ἐπεὶ δὲ μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι πράττοντας, ἀνάγκη δὲ τούτους ἢ σπουδαίους ἢ φαύλους εἶναι (τὰ γὰρ ἤθη σχεδὸν ἀεὶ τούτοις ἀκολουθεῖ μόνοις· κακίᾳ γὰρ καὶ ἀρετῇ τὰ ἤθη διαφέρουσι πάντες), ἤτοι βελτίονας ἢ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς ἢ χείρονας¹ ἢ καὶ τοιούτους, – ὥσπερ οἱ γραφεῖς·

Πολύγνωτος μὲν γὰρ κρείττους, Παύσων δὲ χείρους, Διονύσιος δὲ ὁμοίους εἴκαζεν.

δῆλον δὲ ὅτι καὶ τῶν λεχθεισῶν ἑκάστη μιμήσεων ἕξει ταύτας τὰς διαφοράς, καὶ ἔσται ἑτέρα τῷ ἕτερα μιμεῖσθαι τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον.

καὶ γὰρ ἐν ὀρχήσει καὶ αὐλήσει καὶ κιθαρίσει ἔστι γενέσθαι ταύτας τὰς ἀνομοιότητας,

ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ τοὺς διθυράμβους καὶ περὶ τοὺς νόμους [, ὡς Πέρσας καὶ Κύκλωπας Τιμόθεος καὶ Φιλόξενος,] μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις.

Translations (13)

Poetics (W. H. Fyfe) (OCR draft) Perseus (William Hamilton Fyfe's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, Loeb Classical Library, 1939 printing.) — 2 focus

1448a 1 Since living persons¹ are the objects of representation, these must necessarily be either good men or inferior—thus only are characters normally distinguished, since ethical differences depend upon vice and virtue—that is to say either better than ourselves or worse or much what we are. It is the same with painters.

Polygnotus depicted men as better than they are and Pauson worse, while Dionysius made likenesses.²

Clearly each of the above mentioned arts will admit of these distinctions, and they will differ in representing objects which differ from each other in the way here described.

In painting too, and flute-playing and harp-playing, these diversities may certainly be found, and it is the same in prose and in unaccompanied verse.

For instance Homer’s people are better, Cleophon’s are like, while in Hegemon of Thasos , the first writer of parodies, and in Nicochares, the author of the Poltrooniad, they are worse.³

It is the same in dithyrambic and nomic poetry, for instance . . . a writer might draw characters like the Cyclops as drawn by Timotheus and Philoxenus.⁴

It is just in this respect that tragedy differs from comedy. The latter sets out to represent people as worse than they are to-day, the former as better.

Arabic Poetics (Badawī edition, 1953) (OCR draft) (The ancient Arabic translation of Aristotle's Poetics in ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Badawī's 1953 edition.) — 2 focus

〈اختلاف ضروب الشعر باختلاف موضوعاته〉

ولما كان الذين يحاكون ويشبهون قد يأتون بذلك بأن يعملوا العمل الارادى، فقد يجب ضرورةً أن يكون هؤلاء إما أفاضل، وإما أراذل (وذلك أن العادات والأخلاق مثلا هى تابعة لهذين فقط) وذلك أن عاداتهم وأخلاقهم بأجمعهم إنما الخلاف بينها بالرذيلة والفضيلة ونأتى بالحكاية والتشبيه إما الأفاضل وإ[لا] ما [و] الأر〈ا〉ذل، وإما من كانت 〈له〉 حال فى ذلك 〈كحالنا〉 كما يشبه المصورون فى صنائعهم: أما الأخيار منهم للأخيار، والأشرار، كما 〈أنه〉 أما 〈فولوغنوطس فقد حاكى الأفاضل، وأما〉 [أن] فاوسن 〈فقد〉 حاكى الأشرار وشبه، وأما ديونوسيوس 〈فقد〉 كان يشبه ويحاكى 〈حسب〉 الشبيه. فظاهر بين أن يكون كل تشبيه وحكاية من التى وصفت. وكل واحد واحد من الأفعال الإرادية لها هذه الأصناف والفصول، وأن تكون الواحدة تشبه بالأخرى وتحاكيها بهذا الضرب.

وذلك أنه فى الرقص والزمر وصناعة العيدان قد يوجد لهذه أن تكون غير متشابهة، ونحو الكلام والوزن المرسل — مثال ذلك أما أوميروس فالفاضل، وأما قالاوفون فالأشياء الشبيهة، وإما ايجيمن المنسوب إلى ثاسيا، وهو الذى كان أولاً يعمل المديح، ونيقوخارس المنسوب إلى 〈د〉 الادى الذى كان يحاكى الأرذل، وكذلك ونحو هذه الداثورامبوس و〈الـ〉ـنواميس كما يشبه الانسان ويحاكى هكذا لقوقلوفاس طيموثاوس وفيلوكسانس.

وبهذا الفصل بعينه الخلاف الذى للمديح عند الهجاء: وهو أنه أما تلك فبالأراذل، وأما هذه فكانت تشبه بالأخيار وإياهم كانت تحاكى.

Poetics (S. H. Butcher, 1911) (OCR draft) Experimental (S. H. Butcher's English translation from Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, fourth edition, 1911.) — 2 focus

Since the objects of imitation are men in action, and
these men must be either of a higher or a lower type (for
moral character mainly answers to these divisions,
goodness and badness being the distinguishing marks of
moral differences), it follows that we must represent men
either as better than in real life, or as worse, or as they
are.

It is the same in painting. Polygnotus depicted men as
nobler than they are, Pauson as less noble, Dionysius
drew them true to life.

Now it is evident that each of the modes of imitation
above mentioned will exhibit these differences, and
become a distinct kind in imitating objects that are thus
distinct.

Such diversities may be found even in dancing, flute-playing,
and lyre-playing.

So again in language, whether prose or verse
unaccompanied by music. Homer, for example, makes
men better than they are; Cleophon as they are;
Hegemon the Thasian, the inventor of parodies, and
Nicochares, the author of the Deiliad, worse than they
are.

The same thing holds good of Dithyrambs and Nomes;
here too one may portray different types, as Timotheus
and Philoxenus differed in representing their Cyclopes.

The same distinction marks off Tragedy from Comedy;
for Comedy aims at representing men as worse, Tragedy
as better than in actual life.

Aristotle on the Art of Poetry (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 2 focus

The objects the imitator represents are actions, with
agents who are necessarily either good men or bad—the
diversities of human character being nearly always derivative
from this primary distinction, since the line between virtue
and vice is one dividing the whole of mankind. It follows
therefore, that the agents represented must be either above
our own level of goodness, or beneath it, or just such as we
are;

in the same way as, with the painters, the personages of
Polygnotus are better than we are, those of Pauson worse,
and those of Dionysius just like ourselves.

It is clear
that each of the above-mentioned arts will admit of these
differences, and that it will become a separate art by
representing objects with this point of difference.

Even in
dancing, flute-playing, and lyre-playing such diversities are
possible;

and they are also possible in the nameless art that
uses language, prose or verse without harmony, as its means;
Homer's personages, for instance, are better than we are;
Cleophon's are on our own level; and those of Hegemon of
Thasos, the first writer of parodies, and Nicochares, the
author of the Diliad, are beneath it.

The same is true of
the Dithyramb and the Nome: the personages may be
presented in them with the difference exemplified in the ...
of ... and Argas, and in the Cyclopses of Timotheus and
Philoxenus.

This difference it is that distinguishes Tragedy
and Comedy also; the one would make its personages worse,
and the other better, than the men of the present day.

Poetics (Thomas Twining, 1789) (OCR draft) Experimental (Thomas Twining's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1789 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 2.1 focus

But, as the objects of imitation are the actions of men, and these men must of necessity be either good or bad, (for on this does character principally depend; the manners being, in all men, most strongly marked by virtue and vice,) it follows, that we can only men, either as better than they actually are, or worse, or exactly as they are:

The Poetic of Aristotle (Theodore Alois Buckley) (OCR draft) Experimental (Theodore Alois Buckley's English translation, first published in 1850 and represented from the Henry G. Bohn 1857 printing; corrected against a second OCR and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 2.1 focus

(for manners nearly always depend on these alone, since all men differ in their manners by vice and virtue;)

it is necessary either [to imitate] those who are better than we are, ¹² or those who are worse, or such as are like ourselves 1, in the same manner as painters do.

Poetica Latine conversa (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's Latin translation, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 2 focus

Quoniam autem qui imitantur agentes imitantur, eos autem necesse est aut graves esse aut viles (mores enim ferme haec sequuntur sola: nequitia enim et virtute in moribus differunt omnes), aut meliores quam ipsi sumus aut peiores aut eiusdem moduli, ut pictores:

Polygnotus enim meliores, Pauso peiores, Dionysius similes pingebat.

manifestum vero est etiam illarum quas dixi imitationum unamquamque habituram esse has differentias, diversamque futuram, prout diversa in hoc genere imitabitur.

etenim in saltatione et in tibiarum citharaeque cantu licet

inesse hasce diversitates, etiam in sermonibus et nudis metris, veluti Homerus meliores, Cleophon similes, Hegemo autem Thasius, qui parodias primus fecit et Nicochares Deliadis auctor, peiores.

pariterque circa dithyrambos et circa nomos [, ut Persas et Cyclopes Timotheus et Philoxenus,] possit aliquis imitari.

ipsa hac differentia tragoedia discessit a comoedia: haec enim peiores illa autem meliores imitari vult quam qui nunc sunt.

La poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) Experimental (André Dacier's French translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1692.) — 2.1 focus

COMME tous ceux qui imitent, imitent des actions, & qu'il eſt impoſſible que ces actions ne ſoient ou bonnes ou mauvaiſes, car les mœurs ne peuvent être diſtinguées que par ces deux qualitez, & les hommes ne different entre eux que par la vertu ou par le vice, il s'enfuit neceſſairement de là que les Poëtes dans leur imitation font les hommes ou meilleurs par rapport à nous, ou plus méchans, ou ſemblables, tout de même que les Peintres. En effet

Poetica d'Aristotile (Bernardo Segni, 1549) (OCR draft) Experimental (Bernardo Segni's 1549 Florentine Italian translation, aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 2 focus

Ma cóciofia che chiûche imita, imiti coloro, che operano. Et queſti è di neceſsità, che ſieno ò buoni, ò maluagi; perchè i coſtumi quaſi ſempre confeguitano à queſti ſoli : per eſſer ciaſcheduno differente ne' coſtumi mediante la virtù, òl vitio. Conſeguita pe rò neceffariamente, che e'ſi vada imitando ò gli migliori degli altri ; ò gli ſimili, ò gli peggiori: ſicome an chora interuenne fra' dipintori, che Polignoto andò ri trahendo i migliori.

Pauſone i peggiori. Et Dionifio li ſimili. Onde è manifeſto, che ciascuna delle imitationi ſopradette haurà queſte differenze;

& fia diuerfa l'u na dall'altra, s'ella imitera coſe diuerſe nel modo detto. Perchè queſte medeſime differenze anchora ſi poſſono ſcorgere nell'arte faltatoria, & in quella de ſuoni detti diſopra.

Nè queſto medefimo ancora ci è nafcoſto nelle profe, & nei verfi, oue ſi faccia l'imitatione he roica; ficome ſi può vedere in Homero, che imita li mi gliori.

In Cleofone, che imita i fimili. In Egemone da Tafio, che fu il primo, che compoſe le Parodie. Et in Nicocle, che compoſe la Deliade. Che amendue imita rono i piu vili.

Queſto ſimigliante ſi vede anchora nel la poeſia de'Ditirambi, & delle leggi. Doue fi potrebbe far l'imitatione di ſimil fatta; ſicome la fe Timoteo, & Filoſſeno nella fauola, chiamata I Perfi.

Et in quella, che fu chiamata I Ciclopi. Queſta medefima differenza ha la Tragedia con la Commedia, perchè infino al di d'hoggi l'una vuole imitare i piu rei; & l'altra vuole imitare i piu buoni.

De poetica (Antonio Riccobono, 1587) (OCR draft) Experimental (Antonio Riccobono's Latin translation, first published in 1587; text represented from Immanuel Bekker's 1831 edition.) — 2 focus

Quoniam autem ii qui imitantur agentes imitantur, necesse vero est eos aut bonos ant aut malos esse (mores enim ferme hos consequuntur solos: nam vitiositate et virtute in moribus differunt omnes), aut meliores quam secundum nos aut peiores necesse est imitari, ut ex pictoribus Polygnotus quidem meliores,

Pauson vero deteriores, at Dionysius similes pingebat. manifestum autem est quod et ex iis quae dictae sunt imitationibus unaquaeque habebit has differentias,

et erit diversa eo quod diversa imitabitur. nam in saltatione et auletica et citharistica possunt esse huiusmodi dissimi- litudines dissimilitudines.

et circa sermones et nuda metra, ut Homerus quidem meliores,

Cleophon vero similes: at Hegemon Thasius, qui parodias, et Nicocharis, qui Deiliada, peiores.

similiter vero etiam circa dithyrambos et circa nomos, ut qui fecit Cyclopes Timotheus et Philoxenus, posset aliquis imitari.

in eadem vero differentia et tragoedia et comoedia separata est: haec enim peiores, illa meliores imitari vult quam ii qui nunc sint.

De arte poetica liber (William of Moerbeke, ca. 1277) (OCR draft) Experimental (William of Moerbeke's medieval Latin translation, represented by the 1953 Aristoteles Latinus edition.) — 2 focus

Quoniam autem imitantes imitantur agentes, necesse autem hos aut studiosos aut pravos esse (mores enim fere semper hiis assecuntur solis, malitia enim et virtute secundum mores differunt omnes) aut meliores quam secundum nos aut peiores aut et tales, sicut pictores :

Polygnostus quidem enim meliores, Pauson autem peiores, Dionisius autem similes assimilavit. —

Palam autem quod et dictarum imitationum unaqueque habebit has differentias et erit altera per altera imitari hoc modo.

Et enim in saltatione et fystulatione et cytharizatione est fieri has dissimilitudines.

Et circa sermones autem et nudam metrizationem, puta Homerus quidem meliores, Cleofon autem similes, Igimon autem Thasius parodias poetizans primus, et Nicokhares qui Diliadem peiores.

Similiter autem et circa dithyrambos et circa leges, sicut Kyclopas Thimotheus et Filoxenus, imitabitur utique aliquis.

In ipsa autem differentia et tragodia ad komodiam distat: hec quidem enim peiores, hec autem meliores imitari vult nunc. —

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition) (OCR draft) Experimental (The Arabic translation attributed to Abū Bishr Mattā, edited by Jaroslaus Tkatsch in 1928 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 2 focus

‏ولما كان الذين يحاكون ويشبهون قد ياتون بذلك بان يعملوا العمل الارادى فقد يجب ضرورة ان يكون هولا اما افاضل واما اراذل وذلك ان العادات والاخلاق مثلا هى تابعة لهذين فقط وذلك ان عادتهم واخلاقهم باجمعهم انما الخلاف بينها بالرذيلة والفضيلة وياتى بالحكاية والتشبيه اما الافاضل منا والاما [و]الاراذل واما من كانت حال فى ذلك كما يشبه المصورون فى صنايعهم اما الاخيار منهم للاخيار والاشرار للاشرار كما

‏اما ان فاوسن حاكا الاشرار وشبه واما ديونوسيوس كان يشبه ويحاكى الشبيه

‏فظاهر بين ان يكون كل تشبيه وحكاية من التى وصفت وكل واحد واحد من الافعال الاراديه لها هذه الاصناف والفصول وان تكون الواحدة تشبه بالاخرى وتحاكيها بهذا الضرب

‏وذلك انه فى الرقص والزمر وصناعة العيدان قد يوجد لهذه ان تكون غير متشابهة

‏ونحو الكلام والوزن المرسل مثال ذلك اما اوميروس فالقاٮل واما قالاوفون فالاشيا الشبيهة واما ايجيمن المنسوب الى ثاسيا وهو الذى كان اولا يعمل المديح ونيقوخارس المنسوب الى الارى الذى كان يحاكى الارذل

‏وكذلك ونحو هذه الى لثورامى ونوامس كما يشبه الانسان ويحاكى هكذى لقوقلوفاس طيموثاوس وفيلوكسانس

‏وبهذا الفصل بعينه الخلاف الذى للمديح عند الهجا وهو انه اما تلك فبالاراذل اما هذه فكانت تشبه بالاخيار واياهم كانت تحاكى

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition, unaligned) (OCR draft) Experimental (Tkatsch's edition of the medieval Arabic translation in its original, unaligned segmentation.) — 2 focus

‏وذلك انه فى الرقص والزمر وصناعة العيدان قد يوجد لهذه ان تكون غير متشابهة ونحو الكلام والوزن المرسل مثال ذلك اما اوميروس فالقاٮل واما قالاوفون فالاشيا الشبيهة واما ايجيمن المنسوب الى ثاسيا وهو الذى كان اولا يعمل المديح ونيقوخارس المنسوب الى الارى الذى كان يحاكى الارذل

‏وكذلك ونحو هذه الى لثورامى ونوامس كما يشبه الانسان ويحاكى هكذى لقوقلوفاس طيموثاوس وفيلوكسانس

Commentary

Commentary on the Poetics (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) (Ingram Bywater's English commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.) focus

1. mvp-aristotle-comment-50

1. mvp-aristotle-comment-51

1448a1 μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι πράττοντας : comp. 1, 1447 a 28 ; 3, 1448 a 27 ; 6, 1449 b 36 ; 1450 b 3 , 9; 1451 b 29 . This is to all appearance another reminiscence of Plato: Rep. 396 C

μιμούμενος τὸν ἀγαθὸν ἀσφαλῶς τε καὶ ἐμφρόνως πράττοντα

. — 603 C

πράττοντας, φαμέν, ἀνθρώπους μιμεῖται ἡ μιμητικὴ βιαίους ἢ ἑκουσίας πράξεις

1. mvp-aristotle-comment-52

1448a2 ἢ σπουδαίους ἢ φαύλους is explained by what follows,

κακίᾳ γὰρ καὶ ἀρετῇ τὰ ἤθη διαφέρουσι πάντες

(comp. 5, 1449 a 32 ). This, Aristotle adds, is the primary and most universal distinction between man and man; nearly all other distinctions of character may be classed under this one common head. Pol. 5. 2, 1303 b 15

μεγίστη μὲν οὖν ἴσως διάστασις ἀρετὴ καὶ μοχθηρία

1. mvp-aristotle-comment-53

1448a3 ἀκολουθεῖ : De part. an. 2. 1, 646 a 17

αἱ δ᾿ ἄλλαι διαφοραὶ ταύταις ἀκολουθοῦσιν

1. mvp-aristotle-comment-54

1448a4 ἤτοι βελτίονας ... τοιούτους , scil. μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι. We have been prepared for this distinction by the preceding

ἐπεὶ μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι πράττοντας, ἀνάγκη δὲ τούτους ἢ σπουδαίους ἢ φαύλους εἶναι

; but the third possibility, that the personages represented may be on the same level as ourselves ( ἢ καὶ τοιούτους), is a new point, which is felt to require a word of proof. Aristotle accordingly reminds us of a similar fact in painting (a5): the personages in the works of Dionysius are just like ourselves ( ὁμοίους).

1. mvp-aristotle-comment-55

1448a5 ὥσπερ οἱ γραφεῖς Plutarch, who defines poetry as a μιμητική τέχνη καὶ δύναμις ἀντίστροφος τῇ ζωγραφίᾳ, quotes a saying, commonly attributed to Simonides,

ζωγραφίαν μὲν εἶναι φθεγγομένην τὴν ποίησιν, ποίησιν δὲ σιγῶσαν τὴν ζωγραφίαν

( De aud. poet. 17 F ). The comparison is of very frequent occurrence in Plato (v. Rep. 377 E , 597 E , 603 B , 605 A etc.).

1. mvp-aristotle-comment-56

γραφεῖς The Attic form γραφῆς has survived in the text of Meteor. 3. 2, 372 a 7 , and De sensu 3, 440 a 8 .

1448a6

Remarques sur la poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) (André Dacier's French commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.) focus

1. mvp-aristotle-comment-38

2.1 Omme tous ceux qui imitent, imitent des actions.]¹

2. mvp-aristotle-comment-39

2.1 Car les mœurs ne peuvent être diftinguées que par ces deux qualitez.]²

3. mvp-aristotle-comment-40

2.1 Ou meilleurs par rapport à nous, ou plus méchans, ou ſemblables.]³

Commentary on the Poetics (Henry James Pye, 1792) (OCR draft) (Henry James Pye's 1792 English commentary, aligned to the Kassel reference edition.) focus

2.1. mvp-aristotle-comment-4 2.1

THE PERSONS IMITATED MUST EITHER BE REPRESENTED AS BETTER THAN THOSE OF THE PRESENT TIME, OR WORSE, OR AS THEY ACTUALLY ARE.

BY better, in this place, as Mr. Twining justly observes, fuperiority in mental and bodily accomplishments is rather meant than in moral virtues; a distinction which will be confidered more at large hereafter, when poetical manners are investigated and distinguished [A]. Even Homer tells us his heroes were of a nature superior to the degenerate race of men in his time. With regard to modern compositions, this rule seems to be observed in the following manner. In tragedy and the regular epopee, the characters are drawn better, or beyond the life: in farce, in pantomime, and in the burlesque tragedy and epopee, they are drawn worse; and in the comic epopee or comedy, whether truly comic, like Tom Jones and the School for Scandal, or serious, like Grandifon and Clariffa, the School for Rakes, and the Gamester [B], as they actually are [A] See note I, chap. xv. See alfo Beattie's Essay on Poetry and Music, part i. chap. iv. page 69. [B] It may appear odd to class such imitations as Clarifsfa and the Gamester with Comedy; but so they must be, according to the definition given here by Aristotle. Even the Fatal Curiofity

ΙΟΙ POETIC OF ARISTOTLE. are at the time. Such characters as Grandison and Lovelace, though possessing virtues and vices beyond common life, and let me add, out of nature, are yet not drawn with manners different from those of the present day, which cannot be faid of Macbeth and of Pofthumus, of Hudibras, and of Pierrot. It must be observed, that many of our afterpieces, though called farces, are in reality short comedies. As a further illustration of this, it may be observed that there are few tragic fables, (taking tragic in its usual sense,) which may not be rendered comic or burlesque, by altering the station and manners of the persons. For to use the words of Dr. Beattie, ' in most human cha- ⚫racters there are blemishes moral, intellectual, or corporeal, by augmenting which to a certain degree you may form a comic character, or by • raifing the virtues, abilities, or external advantages of an individual, you • form epic, and tragic characters [c].' This subject is alluded to with some humour in Lloyd's Prologue to the Jealous Wife. Quarrels, upbraidings, jealoufies and spleen, • Grow too familiar in the comic scene; Curiosity of Lillo falls under the same circumstance, though given as a perfect mode of Tragedy, equal to the Edipus, by a most elegant Critic, whom Mr. Winstanley justly calls * vir fi quis alius ἀρισοζελικώταλος,' ، see Philological Enquiries. For a refutation of this eulogium on the Fatal Curiosity, see note III. chap. xiii, [c] Eflay on Poetry and Music, part i. chap. v. page 120. See also the Effay on the Dramatic Character of Falstaff, page 158, and Phil. Enquiries, page 159. Tinge !

، Tinge but the language with heroic chime, ''Tis paffion, pathos, character fublime. • What big round words had swell'd the pompous scene, • A king the husband, and the wife a queen!'

Commentarius in Aristotelis Poeticam (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) (Ritter's Latin commentary, extracted from the 1839 volume, divided by Ritter's chapters and sections, and linked to the corresponding Perseus reference subsections.) focus

1. mvp-aristotle-comment-11

Ritter, cap. 2 § 1

Quid sit ἕτερα μιμείσθat, quomodo singulae artes imitentur homines diversis moribus praeditos. ἐπεὶ δὲ μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι πράττοντας: haec dicit de cuiusvis generis imitatione; quod incommune manifestum sit, idem valere in singulis artibus imitationem peragentibus paulo post (§. 2.) monet. ceterum non obliviscendum est πράττειν a Graecis diei non solum eos qui aliquid negotii peragant, sed eos etiam quorum mentis animive vires quocumque modo declarentur. σπουδαίους ἢ φαύλους: nomen σπουδαῖος h. Ι. significatione passiva accipiendum est; gravis est et honestus, proprie qui in magno pretio habetur, ὃν σπουδῆς ἄξιον οἴον. ται ἢ σπουδάζουσιν οἱ ἄνθρωποι. φαῦλος est nullius pretii ideoque pravus et abiectus. ἢ καὶ τοιούτους: aut eos qui vulgo reperiuntur; structura abrumpitur, quod incommodum corrector quidam removere studuit scribens ἢ καὶ τοιούτους ἀνάγκη μιμεῖσθαι. haec ex editione Aldina per subsequentes propagata sunt, ut iam a Victorio "in plurimis excusis," ut ait ille, invenirentur. sed additum illud ἀνάγκη μιμεῖσθαι deest AcBcNa et Mediceis omnibus et Burgesii codicibus; deerant quoque Victorianis: nam quod Buhlius ait Victorium ex tribus libris scriptis restituisse ἢ καὶ τοιούτους ἀνάγκη μιμεῖσθαι, id ille Victorii commentario negligenter inspecto scripsit. itaque in nullo cadice voces ἀνάγκη μιμεῖ σθαι videntur inesse, absunt certe ab optimis plurimisque. num forte abesse plane non possunt? immo possunt: nam illa orationis pars ἤτοι βελτίονας - τοιούτους non in apodosi collocata est, sed protasis accuratius per eam definitur. ipsa autem apodosis deest, si formam spectamus, sin sententiam, sequitur inde a §. 2. δῆλον δὲ ὅτι κτλ. conf. Comment. ad c. 7, 4. abruptam structuram posita lineola indicavi, hacc constructionis licentia multo magis placet quam scriptura ista sine ulla solertia interpolata, secundum quam post ἀνάγκη εἶναι continuo sequitur ἀνάγκη μιμεῖσθαι. Πολύγνωτος - εἴκαζεν: Polygnotus Thasius, arte sua eximius circa Olympiadem 80., in pingendis figuris ad speciem animo inhaerentem cum omnia referret, cas humanis celsiores delineavit, Dionysius naturam ducem et normam secutus est, Pauso humilia anquirens homines quam vulgo sunt deteriores pinxit. de Polygnote videndi suntpraecipue Pausanias X, 25-32, Plinius Nat. Hist. XXXV, 9, 35. Harpocratio s. v. Boettiger in Archaeolog. pictur. I. p. 274-369. Sillig in Catalogo artif. p. 372-378. Odofr. Müller in Historia art. §. 134. ed. secund, Pausonem Polygnoto aetate supparem fuisse nonnullis indiciis colligitur. Aristophanes enim in Acharnensihus (h. e. Olymp. 88, 4) v. 854. Pausonem exagitat τὸν παμπόνηρον, atque in eiusdem Thesmophoriazusis (h. e. Olymp. 92, 3) v. 949 (958.) idem Pauso celebrare Thesmophoria ciboque abstinere, scilicet ob paupertatem, dicitur, tandem Olymp. 97, 4. (vel potius 98, 1) in Pluto altero v. 602. pictori Aristophanes illusit, eo quod Paupertas expostulatur ad invocandum auxilium Pausonis τοῦ ξυσσίτου. ad eum locum scholiasta scribit ὁ Παύσων δὲ ἐπὶ πενίᾳ κωμῳδεῖται ζωγράφος ὧν. innotuit igitur et malis artibus et singulari pingendi ratione et domesticis difficultatibus circa Olympiadem 90., cum in vivis etiam tum Polygnotus esset. tabulis ab eo pictis adspiciendis corrumpi iuvenum mores, contra emendari Polygnotis Aristoteles pronuntiat in Politicis VIII, 5. p. 1340 a 36. δεῖ μὴ τὰ Παύσωνος Θεωρεῖν τοὺς νέους, ἀλλὰ τὰ Πολυγνώτου, κἂν εἴ τις ἄλλος τῶν γραφέων ἢ τῶν ἀγαλματοποιῶν ἐστὶν ἠθικός. moralis pictor prae ceteris Polygnotus erat, cf. e. 6, 11. Themist. Or. XXXIV, 11. p. 456. ed. Dindorf. Dionysius Colophonius, Polygnoto fere aequalis, cum nonnisi hominum figuras quae vulgo agnoscuntur, exprimere posset aut vellet, a pingendis heroibus atque dis abstinuit et inde ἀνθρωπογράφος cognominatus est. Plin. N. H. XXXV, 10, 37. hic (Serapio) scenas optime pinxit, sed hominem pingere non potuit: contra Dionysius nihil aliud quam homines pinxit, ob id ἀνθρωπογράφος cognominatus. conf. Aelianus Var. Histor. IV, 3.

Aristotle Poetics 2.1

ed. Henry James Pye

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Commentary

THE PERSONS IMITATED MUST EITHER BE REPRESENTED AS BETTER THAN THOSE OF THE PRESENT TIME, OR WORSE, OR AS THEY ACTUALLY ARE.

Ritter, cap. 2 § 1

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