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Describuntur maiores privinciae xviii regni Persarum, una cum suis quaeque viribus, moresque nationum.

[1] Res adigit huc prolapsa ut in excessu celeri situm monstrare¹ Persidis, descriptionibus² gentium curiose digestis, in³ quibus aegre vera dixere paucissimi. Quod autem erit paulo prolixior textus, ad scientiam proficiet plenam. Quisquis enim affectat nimiam brevitatem ubi narrantur incognita non quid signatius explicet, sed quid debeat praeteriri, scrutatur.

[2] Hoc regnum quondam exiguum, multisque antea nominibus appellatum, ob causas quas saepe rettulimus, cum apud Babylona Magnum fata rapuissent Alexandrum, in vocabulum Parthi concessit Arsacis, obscuro geniti loco,⁴ latronum inter adulescentiae rudimenta ductoris, verum paulatim in melius mutato proposito, clarorum contextu factorum aucti sublimius.

[3] Qui post multa gloriose et fortiter gesta, superato Nicatore Seleuco, eiusdem Alexandri successore, cui victoriarum crebritas hoc indiderat cognomentum, praesidiisque Macedonum pulsis, ipse tranquillius agens temperator oboedientium fuit et arbiter lenis.

[4] Denique post finitima cuncta vi vel aequitatis consideratione vel metu subacta, civitatum et castrorum castellorumque munimentis oppleta Perside, assuefactaque timori esse accolis omnibus, quos antea formidabat, medium ipse agens cursum aetatis placida morte decessit. Certatimque summatum et vulgi sententiis concinentibus, astris, ut ipsi existimant, ritus sui consecratione permixtus est omnium primus.

[5] Unde ad id tempus reges eiusdem gentis praetumidi, appellari se patiuntur Solis fratres et Lunae, utque imperatoribus nostris Augusta nuncupatio amabilis est et optata, ita regibus Parthicis abiectis et ignobilibus antea, incrementa dignitatum felicibus Arsacis auspiciis accessere vel maxima.

[6] Quam ob rem numinis eum vice venerantur et colunt, eo usque propagatis honoribus, ut ad nostri memoriam temporis,⁵ non nisi Arsacides (si sit usquam)⁶ in suscipiendo regno cunctis anteponatur, et in qualibet civili concertatione, quae assidue apud eos eveniunt, velut sacrilegium quisque caveat, ne dextra sua Arsaciden arma gestantem feriat vel privatum.

[7] Satisque constat, hanc gentem regna populis vi⁷ superatis compluribus dilatasse ad usque Propontidem et Thracias, sed alte spirantium ducum superbia, licenter grassantium per longinqua, aerumnis maximis imminutam, primo per Cyrum, quem Bospori fretum cum multitudine fabulosa transgressum, ad internecionem delevit Tomyris, regina Scytharum, ultrix acerrima filiorum.

[8] Deinde cum Dareus posteaque Xerxes, Graeciam elementorum usu mutato aggressi, cunctis paene copiis terra marique consumptis, vix ipsi tutum invenere discessum, ut bella praetereamus Alexandri, ac⁸ testamento nationem omnem in successoris unius iura translatam.

[9] Quibus peractis, transcursisque temporibus longis sub consulibus et deinceps in potestatem Caesarum redacta re publica, nobiscum hae nationes subinde dimicarunt paribusque momentis interdum, aliquotiens superatae, non numquam abiere victrices.

[10] Nunc locorum situm (quantum ratio sinit), carptim breviterque absolvam. Hae regiones in amplitudines diffusae longas et latas, ex omni latere insulosum et celebre, Persicum ambiunt mare, cuius ostia adeo esse perhibentur angusta, ut⁹ ex Harmozonte, Carmaniae promuntorio, contra oppositum aliud promuntorium, quod appellant incolae Maces, sine impedimento cernatur.

[11] Quibus angustiis permeatis, cum latitudo patuerit nimis extensa, aequa¹⁰ navigatio ad usque urbem Teredona porrigitur, ubi post iacturas multiplices pelago miscetur Euphrates, omnisque sinus dimensione litorea in numerum viginti milium stadiorum velut spatio detornato, finitur, cuius per oras omnes oppidorum est densitas et vicorum, naviumque crebri discursus.

[12] Ergo permeatis angustiis ante dictis venitur ad Carmaniae¹¹ sinum orienti obiectum. Inde longo¹² intervallo cantichus Canthicus nomine panditur sinus australis, haut procul inde alius, quem vocant Chaliten¹³ occiduo obnoxius sideri. Hinc praestrictis pluribus insulis, e quibus paucae sunt notae, Indorum mari iunguntur oceano, qui ferventem solis exortum suscipit omnium primus, ipse quoque nimium calens.

[13] Utque geographici stili formarunt, hac specie distinguitur omnis circuitus ante dictus. Ab arctoo cardine usque ad Caspias portas, Cadusiis conterminat et Scytharum gentibus multis miultis et Arimaspis hominibus luscis et feris. Ab occidua plaga contingit Armenios et Niphaten et in Asia sitos Albanos, Mare Rubrum et Scenitas Arabas quos Saracenos posteritas appellavit: Mesopotamiam sub axe meridiali despectat: orienti a fronte contrarius ad Gangen extenditur flumen, quod Indorum intersecans terras, in pelagus eiectatur australe.

[14] Sunt autem in omini Perside, hae regiones maximae, quas vitaxae (id est magistri equitum) curant, et reges et satrapae—nam minores plurimas recensere difficile est et superfluum—Assyria, Susiana, Media, Persis, Parthia, Carmania maior, Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactriani, Sogdiani, Sacae, Scythia infra Imaum et¹⁴ ultra eundem montem, Serica, Aria, Paropanisadae, Drangiana, Arachosia et Gedrosia.

[15] Citra omnes propinqua est nobis Assyria, celebritate et magnitudine et multiformi feracitate ditissima. Quae per populos pagosque amplos diffusa quondam et copiosos, ad unum concessit vocabulum et nunc omnis appellatur Assyria, ubi inter bacarum vulgariumque abundantiam frugum, bitumen nascitur prope lacum nomine Sosingiten, cuius alveo Tigris voratus, fluensque subterraneus, percursis spatiis longis emergit.

[16] hic Hie et naphtha gignitur picea specie glutinosa, similis ipsa quoque bitumini, cui etiam si avicula insederit brevis, praepedito volatu submersa penitus evanescit. Et cum hoc liquoris ardere coeperit genus, nullum inveniet humana mens praeter pulverem exstinguendi commentum.

[17] In his pagis hiatus quoque conspicitur terrae, unde halitus letalis exsurgens, quodcumque animal proxime steterit, odore gravi consumit. Quae lues oriens a profundo quodam puteo, cum os eius excesserit, si in¹⁵ latum ante quam sublimius vagaretur, terras circumsitas inhabitabiles acerbitate fecisset.

[18] Cuius simile foramen apud Hierapolim Phrygiae antehac (ut asserunt aliqui), videbatur. Unde emergens itidem noxius spiritus, perseveranti odore quidquid prope venerat corrumpebat, absque spadonibus solis, quod qua causa eveniat, rationibus physicis permittatur.

[19] Apud Asbamaei quoque Iovis templum in Cappadocia, ubi amplissimus ille philosophus Apollonius traditur natus prope oppidum Tyana, stagno effluens fons cernitur, qui magnitudine aquarum inflatus, seseque resorbens, numquam extra margines intumescit.

[20] Intra hunc circuitum Adiabena est, Assyria priscis temporibus vocitata, longaque assuetudine ad hoc translata vocabulum, ea re quod inter Onam et Tigridem sita, navigeros fluvios, adiri vado numquam potuit: transire enim διαβαίνειν dicimus Graeci. Et veteres quidem hoc arbitrantur.

[21] Nos autem dicimus quod in his terris amnes sunt duo perpetui, quos ipsi¹⁶ transivimus, Diabas et Adiabas, iunctis¹⁷ navalibus pontibus, ideoque intellegi Adiabenam cognominatam ut a fluminibus maximis Aegyptos, Homero auctore, et India et Euphratensis ante hoc Commagena, itidemque Hiberia ex Hibero (nunc Hispania) et a Baeti amne insigni provincia Baetica.

[22] In hac Adiabena, Ninus est civitas, quae olim Persidis regna possederat, nomen Nini potentissimi quondam regis, Samiramidis mariti, declarans, et Ecbatana et Arbela et Gaugamela, ubi Dareum Alexander post discrimina varia proeliorum, incitato Marte prostravit.

[23] In omni autem Assyria, multae sunt urbes. Inter quas Apamia eminet, Mesene cognominata, et Teredon et Apollonia et Vologessia, hisque similes multae. Splendidissimae vero et pervulgatae hae solae sunt tres: Babylon cuius moenia bitumine Samiramis struxit—arcem enim antiquissimus rex condidit Belus—et Ctesiphon, quam Vardanes temporibus priscis instituit, posteaque rex Pacorus, incolarum viribus amplificatam et moenibus, Graeco indito nomine, Persidis effecit specimen summum. Post hanc Seleucia ambitiosum opus Nicatoris Seleuci.

[24] Qua per duces Veri Caesaris (ut ante rettulimus), expugnata,¹⁸ avulsum sedibus simulacrum Comei Comaei Apollinis, perlatumque Romam, in aede Apollinis Palatini deorum antistites collocarunt. Fertur autem quod post direptum hoc idem figmentum, incensa civitate, milites fanum scrutantes invenere foramen angustum, quo reserato, ut¹⁹ pretiosum aliquid invenirent, ex adyto quodam concluso a Chaldaeorum arcanis, labes primordialis exsiluit, quae insanabilium vi concepta morborum, eiusdem Veri Marcique Antonini temporibus, ab ipsis Persarum finibus ad usque Rhenum et Gallias, cuncta contagiis polluebat et mortibus.

[25] His²⁰ prope Chaldaeorum est regio, altrix philosophiae veteris, ut memorant ipsi, apud quos veridica vaticinandi fides eluxit. Perfluunt autem has easdem terras potiores ante alios amnes, hi quos praediximus, et Marses et Flumen Regium et Euphrates, cunctis excellens. Qui tripertitus navigabilis per omnes est rivos, insulasque circumfluens, et arva cultorum industria diligentius rigans, vomeri et gignendis arbustis habilia facit.

[26] His tractibus Susiani iunguntur, apud quos non multa sunt oppida. Inter alia tamen eminet Susa, saepe domicilium regum, et Arsiana et Sele et Aracha. Cetera brevia sunt et obscura. Fluvii vero multi per haec loca discurrunt, quibus praestant Oroates et Harax et Mosaeus, per harenosas angustias, quae a Rubro prohibent Caspium mare, aequoream multitudinem inundantes.

[27] At in laeva Media confinis Hyrcano panditur mari: quam ante regnum Cyri superioris, et incrementa Persidis Persidos, legimus Asiae reginam totius, Assyriis domitis, quorum plurimos pagos in Atropatenae Agropatenae vocabulum permutatos, belli iure possedit.

[28] Pugnatrix natio et formidanda post Parthos, quibus vincitur solis, regiones inhabitans ad speciem quadratae figurae formatas. Harum terrarum incolae omnes ad latitudinem nimiam extenduntur, eisque maximae celsitudines imminent montium, quos Zagrum et Orontem et Iasonium vocant.

[29] Coroni quoque montis altissimi partem habitantes occiduam, frumentariis agris affluunt et vinariis, pingui fecunditate laetissimi, et²¹ fluminibus fontiumque venis liquidis locupletes.

[30] Edunt²² apud eos prata virentia fetus equorum nobilium, quibus (ut scriptores antiqui docent, nosque vidimus), ineuntes proelia viri summates²³ vehi exsultantes solent, quos Nesaeos appellant.

[31] Abundat itaque²⁴ civitatibus ditibus²⁵ Media, et vicis in modum oppidorum exstructis, et multitudine incolarum. Utque absolute dicatur, uberrimum est habitaculum regum.

[32] In his tractibus Magorum agri sunt fertiles, super quorum secta studiisque, quoniam huc hue incidimus, pauca conveniet expediri. Magiam opinionum insignium auctor amplissimus Plato, hagistiam²⁶ esse verbo mystico docet, divinorum incorruptissimum cultum, cuius scientiae saeculis priscis multa ex Chaldaeorum arcanis Bactrianus addidit Zoroastres, deinde Hystaspes rex prudentissimus, Darei pater.

[33] Qui cum superioris Indiae secreta fidentius penetraret, ad nemorosam quandam venerat solitudinem, cuius tranquillis silentiis praecelsa Brachmanorum ingenia potiuntur, eorumque monitu, rationes mundani motus et siderum, purosque sacrorum ritus (quantum colligere potuit) eruditus, ex his, quae didicit, aliqua sensibus magorum infudit, quae illi cum disciplinis praesentiendi futura, per suam quisque progeniem, posteris aetatibus tradunt.

[34] Ex eo per saecula multa ad praesens, una eademque prosapia, multitudo multitude creata deorum cultibus dedicatur. Feruntque (si iustum est credi), etiam ignem caelitus lapsum apud se sempiternis foculis custodiri, cuius portionem exiguam (ut faustam) praeisse quondam Asiaticis regibus dicunt.

[35] Huius originis apud veteres numerus erat exilis, eiusque ministeriis Persicae potestates in faciendis rebus divinis sollemniter utebantur. Eratque piaculum aras adire, vel hostiam contrectare, antequam magus, conceptis precationibus, libamenta diffunderet praecursoria. Verum aucti paulatim, in amplitudinem gentis solidae concesserunt et nomen, villasque inhabitantes, nulla murorum firmitudine communitas, et legibus suis uti permissi, religionis respectu sunt honorati.

[36] Ex hoc magorum semine septem post mortem Cambysis, regnum inisse Persidos antiqui memorant libri, docentes eos Darei factione faotione oppresses, imperitandi initium equino hinnitu sortiti.

[37] In hac regione oleum conficitur Medicum, quo illitum telum, si emissum lentius laxiore arcu (nam ictu exstinguitur rapido) haeserit usquam, tenaciter cremat,²⁷ et si aqua voluerit obruere²⁸ quisquam, aestus excitat acriores incendiorum, nec remedio ullo quam iactu pulveris consopitur.

[38] Paratur autem hoc modo. Oleum usus²⁹ communis herba quadam infectum, condiunt harum rerum periti, ad³⁰ diuturnitatem servantes et coalescens ooalescens, dum³¹ ex materia venenatur. Alia³² similis oleo crassiori species³³ gignitur apud Persas, quam (ut diximus) naphtam naptham³⁴ vocabulo appellavere gentili.

[39] Per haec loca civitates dispersae sunt plures, quis omnibus praestant Zombis et Patigran et Gazaca. Inter quas opibus et magnitudine moenium conspicuae sunt Heraclia et Arsacia et Europos et Cyropolis et Ecbatana, sub Iasonio monte in terris sitae Syromedorum.

[40] Amnes has regiones praetereunt multi quorum maximi sunt Choaspes et Gyndes et Amardus et Charinda et Cambyses et Cyrus, cui magno et specioso, Cyrus ille superior rex amabilis, abolito vetere, id vocabulum dedit, cum ereptum ire regna Scythica festinaret, quod et fortis est (ut ipse etiam ferebatur), et vias sibi ut ille impetu ingenti molitus in Caspium delabitur³⁵ mare.

[41] Per tractus meridianos expansa post haec confinia litoribus proxima Persis habitatur antiqua, minutis frugibus dives et palmite, aquarumque copia iucundissima. Amnes quippe multi per eam ante dictum influunt³⁶ sinum, quorum maximi sunt Batradites et Rogomanius et Brisoana atque Bagrada.

[42] Oppida vero mediterranea sunt ampliora—incertum enim qua ratione per oras maritimas nihil condiderunt insigne—inter quae Persepolis est clara et Ardea et Obroatis Habroatis atque Tragonice. Insulae vero visuntur ibi tres tantum, Tabiana et Fara et Alexandria.

[43] His propinquant Parthyaei, siti sub aquilone, colentes nivales terras et pruinosas, quorum regiones Choatres fluvius interscindit ceteris abundantior: et haec potiora residuis sunt oppida: Oenunia, Moesia, Charax, Apamia, Artacana et Hecatompylos a cuius finibus per Caspia Caspai litora ad usque portarum angustias stadia quadraginta numerantur et mille.

[44] Feri sunt³⁷ illic habitatores pagorum omnium atque pugnaces, eosque ita certamina iuvant et bella, ut iudicetur inter alios omnes beatus, qui in proelio profuderit animam. Excedentes enim e vita morte fortuita conviciis insectantur ut degeneres et ignavos.

[45] Quibus ab orientali australique plaga Arabes beati conterminant, ideo sic appellati quod frugibus iuxta et fetibus et palmite odorumque suavitate multiplici sunt locupletes, magnaeque eorum partes mare rubrum a latere dextro contingunt, laeva Persico mari collimitant, elementi utriusque potiri bonis omnibus³⁸ assueti.

[46] Ubi et stationes et portus tranquilli sunt plures, et emporia densa, et diversoria regum ambitiosa nimium et decora, aquarumque suapte natura calentium saluberrimi fontes et rivorum fluminumque multitude perspicua, sospitalisque temperies caeli, ut recte spectantibus nihil eis videatur ad felicitatem deesse supremam.

[47] Ac licet abundet urbibus mediterraneis atque maritimis, campisque copiosis et vallibus, has tamen civitates habet eximias: Geapolim et Nascon et Baraba, itidemque Nagara et Maepham Maephen³⁹ et Tapphara Taphra et Dioscurida. Insulas autem complures habet per utrumque proximas mare, quas dinumerare non refert. Insignior tamen aliis Turgana⁴⁰ est, in qua Serapidis maximum esse dicitur templum.

[48] Post huius terminos gentis, Carmania maior verticibus celsis erigitur, ad usque Indicum pertinens mare, fructuariis arboreisque fetibus culta, sed obscurior Arabum terris multo et minor. Fluminibus tamen ipsa quoque non minus abundans, caespiteque ubere iuxta fecunda.

[49] Amnes autem sunt hic ceteris notiores, Sagareus et Saganis et Hydriacus. Sunt etiam civitates, licet numero paucae, victu tamen et cultu perquam copiosae, inter quas nitet Carmana omnium mater et Portospana et Alexandria et Hermupolis.

[50] Interius vero pergenti occurrunt Hyrcani, quos eiusdem nominis alluit mare. Apud quos glebae macie internecante⁴¹ sementes, ruris colendi cura est levior, sed vescuntur venatibus, quorum varietate immane quantum exuberant. Ubi etiam tigridum milia multa cernuntur, feraeque bestiae plures, quae cuiusmodi solent capi commentis, dudum nos meminimus rettulisse.

[51] Nec ideo tamen stivam ignorant, sed seminibus teguntur aliquae partes, ubi solum est pinguius, nec arbusta desunt in locis habilibus ad plantandum, et marinis mercibus plerique sustentantur.

[52] Hic amnes duo pervulgat sunt nominis, Oxus et Maxera, quos urgente inedia, superantes natatu, aliquotiens tigres improvisae finitima populantur. Habent etiam civitates inter minora municipia validas, duas quidem maritimas, Socanda⁴² et Saramanna, mediterraneas alias Asmurnam⁴³ et Salen et his nobiliorem Hyrcanam.

[53] Contra hanc gentem sub aquilone dicuntur Abii versari, genus piissimum, calcare cuncta mortalia consuetum, quos (ut Homerus fabulosius canit) Iuppiter ab Idaeis montibus contuetur.

[54] Sedes vicinas post Hyrcanos sortiti sunt Margiani, omnes paene collibus altis undique circumsaepti, ideo a mari discreti. Et quamquam pleraque sunt ibi deserta soli aquarum penuria,⁴⁴ quaedam tamen habent oppida; sed Iasonion et Antiochia et Nigaea sunt aliis notiora.

[55] Proximos his limites possident Bactriani, natio antehac bellatrix et potentissima, Persisque semper infesta, antequam circumsitos populos omnes ad dicionem gentilitatemque traheret nominis sui, quam rexere veteribus saeculis etiam Arsaci formidabiles reges.

[56] Eius pleraeque partes ita ut Margiana, procul a litoribus sunt disparatae, sed humi gignentium fertiles, et pecus quod illic per campestria loca vescitur et montana, membris est magnis compactum et validis, ut indicio sunt cameli, a Mithridate exinde perducti, et primitus in obsidione Cyzicena visi Romanis.⁴⁵

[57] Gentes eisdem Bactrianis oboediunt plures, quas exsuperant Tochari, et ad Italiae speciem crebris fluminibus inundantur, E quibus Artamis et Zariaspes ante sibi consociati, itidemque Ochus et Dargomanes Orgomanes, iuncti convenis aquis augent immania Oxi fluenta.

[58] Sunt et hic civitates, quas amnes diversi perstringunt, his cedentes ut melioribus, Chatracharta⁴⁶ et Alicodra Alicodrae et Astacana Astatiae et Menapilae et Bactris ipsis, unde regnum et vocabulum nationis est institutum.

[59] Hinc Sogdiani agunt⁴⁷ sub imis montium pedibus, quos appellant Sogdios, inter quos amnes duo fluunt navium capacissimi, Araxates et Dymas, qui per⁴⁸ iuga vallesque praecipites, in campestrem planitiem fluvii decurrentes, Oxiam nomine paludem efficiunt, late longeque diffusam. Hie inter alia oppida celebrantur Alexandria et Cyreschata et Drepsa metropolis.

[60] His contigui sunt Sacae natio fera, squalentia incolens loca, solum⁴⁹ pecori fructuosa, ideo nec civitatibus culta. Cui Ascanimia mons imminet et Comedus. Praeter quorum radices et vicum, quem Lithinon pyrgon appellant, iter longissimum patet, mercatoribus pervium, ad Seras subinde commeantibus.

[61] Circa defectus et crepidines montium, quos Imavos et Apurios vocant, Scythae sunt varii,⁵⁰ intra Persicos fines Asianis contermini Sarmatis, Halanorumque latus tangentes extremum. Qui velut agentes quodam secessu, coalitique solitudine, per intervalla dispersi sunt longa, assueti victu vili et paupertino.

[62] Et gentes quidem variae hos incolunt tractus, quas nunc recensere, alio properans, superfluum puto. Illud tamen sciendum est, inter has nationes paene ob asperitatem nimiam inaccessas homines esse quosdam mites et pios, ut Iaxartae sunt et Galactophagi, quorum meminit vates Homerus in hoc versu

γλακτοφάγων Ἀβίων τε δικαιοτάτων ἀνθρώπων.

[63] Inter flumina vero multa, quae per has terras vel potioribus iungit natura, vel lapsu ipso⁵¹ trahit in mare, Rhymmus celebris est et Iaxartes, et Daicus. Civitates autem non nisi tres solas habere noscuntur, Aspabota et Chauriana et Saga.

[64] Ultra haec utriusque Scythiae loca, contra orientalem plagam in orbis speciem consertae, celsorum aggerum summitates ambiunt Seras, ubertate regionum et amplitudine circumspectos, ab occidentali latere Scythis adnexos annexes, a septentrione et orientali nivosae⁵² solitudini cohaerentes: qua meridiem spectant ad usque Indiam porrectos et Gangen. Appellantur autem ibidem⁵³ montes Anniba et Auzacium Nazavicium⁵⁴ et Asmira et Emodon et Oporocorra Opurocorra.⁵⁵

[65] Hanc itaque planitiem undique prona declivitate praeruptam, terrasque lato situ distentas, duo famosi nominis flumina Oechardes Oechartis et Bautis lentiore meatu percurrunt. Et dispar est tractuum diversorum ingenium: hic patulum alibi molli devexitate subductum, ideoque satietate frugum et pecoribus et arbustis exuberat.

[66] Incolunt autem fecundissimam glebam variae gentes, e⁵⁶ quibus Anthropophagi⁵⁷ et Annibi Anibi et Sizyges et Chardi aquilonibus obiecti sunt et pruinis. Exortum vero solis suspiciunt Rabannae et Asmirae, et Essedones omnium splendidissimi, quibus Athagurae Athagorae⁵⁸ ab occidentali parte cohaerent et Aspacarae.⁵⁹ Baetae vero australi celsitudine montium inclinati, urbibus licet non multis, magnis tamen celebrantur et opulentis, inter quas maximae Asmira et Essedon et Aspacara Asparata et Sera nitidae sunt et notissimae.

[67] Agunt autem ipsi quietius Seres, armorum semper et proeliorum expertes, utque hominibus sedatis et placidis otium⁶⁰ est voluptabile, nulli finitimorum molesti. Caeli apud eos iucunda salubrisque temperies, aeris facies munda, leniumque ventorum commodissimus flatus, et abunde silvae sublucidae, a quibus arborum fetus aquarum asperginibus crebris, velut quaedam vellera molientes, ex lanugine et liquore mixtam subtilitatem tenerrimam pectunt, nentesque subtegmina conficiunt sericum, ad usus nobilium antehac,⁶¹ nunc etiam infimorum sine ulla discretione proficiens.

[68] Ipsi praeter alios frugalissimi pacatioris vitae cultores, vitantes reliquorum mortalium coetus. Cumque ad coemenda fila vel quaedam alia fluvium transierint advenae, nulla sermonum vice propositarum rerum pretia solis oculis aestimantur, et ita sunt abstinentes, ut apud se tradentes gignentia, nihil ipsi comparent adventicium.

[69] Ariani vivunt post Seras, Boreae obnoxii flatibus, quorum terras amnis vehendis sufficiens navibus, Arias perfluit nomine, faciens lacum ingentem, eodem vocabulo dictitatum. Abundat autem haec eadem Aria oppidis, inter quae sunt celebria Vitaxa Sarmatina et Sotira et Nisibis et Alexandria, unde naviganti ad Caspium mare quingenta stadia numerantur et mille.

[70] His locis Paropanisadae sunt proximi, Indos ab oriente, Caucasumque ab occidentali latere prospectantes, ipsi quoque montium defectibus inclinati, quos residuis omnibus maior, Gordomaris⁶² interluit fluvius a Bactrianis exsurgens. Habent autem etiam civitates aliquas, quibus clariores sunt Agazaca et Naulibus et Ortospana,⁶³ unde litorea navigatio ad usque Mediae fines, portis proximos Caspiis stadiorum sunt duo milia et ducenta.

[71] Ante dictis continui sunt Drangiani collibus cohaerentes, quos flumen alluit⁶⁴ Arabium nomine ideo appellatum, quod inde exoritur, interque alia duobus municipiis exultantes, Prophthasia et Ariaspe, ut opulentis et claris.

[72] Post quos exadversum Arachosia visitur, dextrum vergens in latus, Indis obiecta, quam ab Indo fluviorum maximo (unde regiones cognominatae sunt) amnis multo minor exoriens, aquarum alluit amplitudine, efficitque paludem quam⁶⁵ Arachotoscrenen appellant. Hic quoque civitates sunt inter alias viles, Alexandria et Arbaca et Choaspa.

[73] At in penitissima parte Persidos, Gedrosia est dextra terminos contingens Indorum, inter minores alios Arabio Artabio uberior flumine, ubi montes deficiunt Arbitani, quorum ex pedibus imis emergentes alii fluvii Indo miscentur, amittentes nomina magnitudine potioris. Civitates autem etiam hic sunt inclyta⁶⁶ epraeter insulas, sed Ratira⁶⁷ et Gynaecon limen meliores residuis aestimantur.

[74] Ne igitur orae maritimae spatia alluentia Persidos⁶⁸ extremitates per minutias demonstrantes, a proposito longius aberremus, id sufficiet dici, quod mare praetentum a Caspiis montibus per borium latus ad usque memoratas angustias, novem milium stadiorum, australe vero ab ostiis Nili fluminis ad usque principia Carmanorum, quattuordecim milium stadiorum numero definitur.

[75] Per has nationes dissonas et multiplices, hominum quoque diversitates sunt ut locorum. Sed ut⁶⁹ generaliter corpora describamus, et mores,⁷⁰ graciles paene sunt omnes, subnigri vel livido colore pallentes, caprinis oculis torvi, et superciliis in semiorbium speciem curvatis iunctisque, non indecoribus barbis, capillisque promissis hirsuti, omnes tamen promiscue promise vel inter epulas festosque dies gladiis cincti cernuntur. Quem Graecorum veterum morem abiecisse primos Athenienses, Thucydides est auctor amplissimus.

[76] Effusius plerique soluti in venerem, aegreque contenti multitudine pelicum, puerilium stuprorum expertes, pro opibus quisque adsciscens matrimonia plura vel pauca. Unde apud eos per libidines varias caritas dispersa torpescit, munditias conviviorum et luxum maximeque potandi aviditatem vitante ut luem.

[77] Nec apud eos extra regales mensas hora est praestituta prandendi, sed venter uni cuique velut solarium est, eoque monente quod incident editur, nec quisquam post satietatem superfluos sibi ingerit cibos.

[78] Inmane quantum restricti et cauti, ut inter hostiles hortos gradientes non numquam et vineta, nec cupiant aliquid nec contingant, venenorum et secretarum artium metu.

[79] Super his nec stando mingens nec ad requisita naturae secedens, facile visitur Persa: ita observantius haec aliaque pudenda declinant.

[80] Adeo autem dissoluti sunt et artuum laxitate, vagoque incessu se iactitantes, ut effeminatos existimes, cum sint acerrimi bellatores, sed magis artifices quam fortes, eminusque terribiles, abundantes inanibus verbis, insanumque loquentes et ferum, magnidici et graves ac taetri, minaces iuxta in adversis rebus et prosperis, callidi superbi crudeles, vitae necisque potestatem in servos et plebeios vindicantes obscuros: cutes vivis hominibus detrahunt, particulatim vel solidas, nec ministranti apud eos famulo mensaeque adstanti, hiscere vel loqui licet vel spuere: ita praestratis⁷¹ pellibus labra omnium vinciuntur.

[81] Leges apud eos impendio formidatae, inter quas diritate exsuperant latae contra ingratos et desertores, et abominandae aliae per quas ob noxam unius, omnis propinquitas perit.

[82] Ad iudicandum autem usu rerum spectati destinantur et integri, parum alienis consiliis indigentes, unde nostram consuetudinem rident, quae interdum facundos, iurisque publici peritissimos, post indoctorum collocat terga. Nam quod supersidere corio damnati ob iniquitatem iudicis, iudex alius cogebatur, aut finxit vetustas, aut olim recepta consuetudo cessavit.

[83] Militari cultu ac disciplina proludiisque continuis rei castrensis et armaturae, quam saepe formavimus,⁷² metuendi vel exercitibus maximis, equitatus virtute confisi, ubi desudat nobilitas omnis et splendor. Pedites enim in speciem mirmillonum murmillonum contecti, iussa faciunt ut calones. Sequiturque semper haec turba, tamquam addicta perenni servitio, nec stipendiis aliquando fulta nec donis. Et gentes plurimas praeter eas quas abunde perdomuit, sub iugum haec natio miserat, ita audax et ad pulveres Martios erudita, ni bellis civilibus externisque assidue vexarentur.

[84] Indumentis plerique eorum ita operiuntur lumine colorum fulgentibus vario, ut (licet sinus lateraque dissuta relinquant flatibus agitari ventorum) inter calceos tamen et verticem nihil videatur intectum. Armillis uti monilibusque aureis, et gemmis, praecipue margaritis, quibus abundant, assuefacti post Lydiam victam et Croesum.

[85] Restat ut super ortu lapidis huius, pauca succinctius explicentur. Apud Indos et Persas, margaritae reperiuntur in testis marinis robustis et candidis, permixtione roris anni tempore praestituto conceptae. Cupientes enim velut coitum quendam, humores ex lunari aspergine capiunt, densius oscitando. Exindeque gravidulae, edunt minutas binas aut ternas, vel uniones, ideo sic appellatas quod evisceratae conchulae singulas aliquotiens pariunt, sed maiores.

[86] Idque indicium est aetheria potius derivatione, quam saginis pelagi hos oriri fetus et vesci, quod guttae matutini roris eisdem infusae, claros efficiunt lapillos et teretes, vespertini vero flexuosos contra et rutilos et maculosos interdum. Minima autem vel magna pro qualitate haustuum figurantur, casibus variatis. Conclusae vero saepissime metu fulgurum inanescunt, aut debilia pariunt, aut certe vitiis diffluunt abortivis.

[87] Capturas autem difficiles et periculosas, et amplitudines pretiorum illa efficit ratio, quod frequentari sueta litora propter piscantium insidias declinantes, ut quidam coniciunt, circa devios scopulos et marinorum canum receptacula delitescunt.

[88] Quod genus gemmae etiam in Britannici secessibus maris gigni legique (licet dignitate dispari)⁷³ non ignoramus.

Res Gestae. Ammianus Marcellinus. John C. Rolfe (Translator). Cambridge, MA. 1935-1940.

Sponsored by Perseus Project, Tufts University.

Funding provided by Tufts University.

Current edition Perseus

Res Gestae (Ammianus Marcellinus. Ammianus Marcellinus, with an English translation, Vols. I-III. Rolfe, John C., editor. Cambridge, MA; London: Harvard University Press; W. Heinemann, 1935-1940 (printing).)

Translations (1)

History Perseus (Ammianus Marcellinus. Ammianus Marcellinus, with an English translation, Vols. I-III. Rolfe, John C., translator. Cambridge, MA; London: Harvard University Press; W. Heinemann, 1935-1940 (printing).) — 23.6 focus

[1] Affairs have reached a point where I am led in a rapid digression to explain the topography of the Persian kingdom, carefully compiled from the descriptions of the nations, in only a few of which the truth has been told, and that barely. My account, however, will be a little fuller, which will be to the advantage of complete knowledge. For anyone who aims at extreme brevity in telling of the unknown tries to discover what he ought to leave out rather than what he may explain more clearly.

[2] This kingdom, which was once small and for reasons which we have often given was called before by various names, after the fates had taken off Alexander the Great at Babylon, took its name from the Parthian Arsaces,¹ a man of low birth; he had been a brigand chief during his younger days, but since his ideals gradually changed for the better, by a series of brilliant exploits he rose to greater heights.

[3] After many glorious and valiant deeds, and after he had conquered Seleucus Nicator,² successor of the said Alexander, on whom his many victories had conferred that surname,³ and had driven out the Macedonian garrisons, he passed his life in quiet peace, and was a mild ruler and judge of his subjects.

[4] Finally, after all the neighbouring lands had been brought under his rule, by force, by regard for justice, or by fear, and he had filled Persia with cities, with fortified camps, and with strongholds, and to all the neighbouring peoples, which she had previously feared, he had made her a constant cause of dread, he died a peaceful death in middle life. And nobles and commons rivalling each other in agreement, he was placed among the stars according to the sacred custom of their country; and (as they believe) he was the first of all to be so honoured.

[5] Hence to this very day the over-boastful kings of that race suffer themselves to be called brothers of the Sun and Moon, and just as for our emperors the title of Augustus is beloved and coveted, so to the Parthian kings, who were formerly low and obscure, there fell the very greatest increase in distinction, won by the happy auspices of Arsaces.

[6] Hence they venerate and worship Arsaces as a god, and their regard for him has been carried so far, that even down to the memory of our time only a man who is of the stock of Arsaces (if there is one anywhere) is preferred to all in mounting the throne. Even in any civil strife, which constantly arises among them, everyone avoids as sacrilege the lifting of his hand against an Arsacid, whether he is bearing arms or is a private citizen.

[7] It is well known that this nation, after vanquishing many peoples by its power, extended its domain as far as the Propontis and Thrace,⁴ but through the arrogance of its haughty leaders, who lawlessly extended their raids to a great distance, it was weakened by severe losses: first through Cyrus, who crossed the Bosporus with an army of incredible size, but was completely annihilated by the Scythian queen Tomyris, the fierce avenger of her sons.⁵

[8] Later, when Darius, and after him Xerxes, changed the use of the elements⁶ and attacked Greece, almost all their forces were destroyed by land and sea, and they themselves barely found a safe return; not to mention the wars of Alexander and the passing by his will and testament of the whole nation to the jurisdiction of a single successor.⁷

[9] After this was done and a long time had passed, during which the Roman commonwealth was governed by consuls and later brought under the sway of the Caesars, these nations carried on wars with us from time to time, and sometimes the contest was equal, at other times they were conquered, and occasionally they came off victorious.

[10] I shall now describe the lie of the land—so far as my purpose allows—briefly and succinctly. These regions extend to a wide area in length and breadth,⁸ and run all along the Persian Gulf, which has many islands and peoples all round. The entrance to this sea (they say) is so narrow that from Harmoz, the promontory of Carmania, the other headland opposite it, which the natives call Maces, may be seen without difficulty.

[11] After one has passed through this narrow strait, a wide expanse of sea opens, which is favourable to navigation as far as the city of Teredon,⁹ where after many losses the Euphrates mingles with the deep.¹⁰ The entire gulf is bounded by a shore of 20,000 stadia, which is rounded as if turned on a lathe. All along the coast is a throng of cities and villages, and many ships sail to and fro.

[12] After passing the strait which has been mentioned, one comes to the bay of Carmania facing the east. Then, a long distance to the south, the bay of Canthicus opens, and not far off is another, called Chalites, facing the setting sun. Next, after one has skirted many islands, few of which are well known, those bays unite with the Indian ocean, which is first of all to receive the glowing sun when it rises, and is itself also exceedingly warm.

[13] And as the pens of geographers have drawn it, the whole circuit just described has this form. In the northern direction, to the Caspian Gates¹¹ it borders on the Cadusii, on many tribes of the Scythians, and on the Arimaspse, wild, one-eyed men. On the west it touches Armenia, Niphates,¹² the Asiatic Albani, the Red Sea,¹³ and the Scenitic Arabs, whom men of later times called the Saracens.¹⁴ Under the southern heaven it looks down on Mesopotamia.¹⁵ Opposite the eastern front it extends to the Ganges river, which cuts through India and empties into the southern ocean.

[14] Now there are in all Persia these greater provinces, ruled by vitaxae, or commanders of cavalry, by kings, and by satraps-for to enumerate the great number of smaller districts would be difficult and superfluous-namely, Assyria, Susiana, Media, Persis, Parthia, Greater Carmania, Hyrcania, Margiana, the Bactriani, the Sogdiani, the Sacae, Scythia at the foot of Imaus,¹⁶ and beyond the same mountain, Serica, Aria, the Paropanisadae, Drangiana, Arachosia, and Gedrosia.

[15] Nearest to us of all the provinces is Assyria, famous for its large population, its size, and the abundance and great variety of its products. This province once spread over great and prosperous peoples and districts,¹⁷ then it was combined under a single name, and to-day the whole region is called Assyria. There, besides a great abundance of berries and common fruits, bitumen is found near the lake called Sosingites, in whose bed the Tigris is swallowed up, and then, after flowing under ground, and traversing a long distance,¹⁸ appears again.

[16] Here naphtha also is produced, a glutinous substance which looks like pitch. This too is similar to bitumen, and even a little bird, if it lights upon it, is prevented from flying, sinks, and disappears utterly. And when fluid of this kind catches fire, the mind of man will find no means of putting it out, except dust.¹⁹

[17] In these regions there is also to be seen a cleft in the earth,²⁰ from which rises a deadly exhalation, which with its foul odour destroys every living creature that comes near it. If this pestilential stuff, rising from a kind of deep well, should spread out widely from its opening before rising on high, it would by its fetid odour have made the surrounding country a desert.

[18] A similar opening was formerly to be seen (as some say) at Hierapolis in Phrygia. And from this also a noxious vapour with a penetrating stench came forth and was destructive to whatever came near it, excepting only eunuchs; and the reason for this may be left to natural philosophers to determine.²¹

[19] Also at the temple of Jupiter Asbamaeus in Cappadocia, where that famous philosopher Apollonius²² is said to have been born near the town of Tyana, a spring may be seen, flowing from a pool, which now is filled with an abundance of water, and again sucks itself back, and so never swells beyond its banks.²³

[20] Within this area is Adiabena, called Assyria in ancient times, but by long custom changed to this name because, lying between the navigable rivers Ona and Tigris it could never be approached by a ford; for we Greeks for transire say διαβαίνειν. At least, this is the opinion of the ancients.

[21] But I myself say that there are two perpetually flowing rivers to be found in these lands, the Diabas and Adiabas,²⁴ which I myself have crossed,²⁵ and over which there are bridges of boats; and therefore it is to be assumed that Adiabena was named from them, as from great rivers Egypt²⁶ was named, according to Homer, as well as India, and the Euphratensis, before my time called Commagena; likewise from the Hiberus,²⁷ Hiberia (now Hispania), and the province of Baetica from the noble river Baetis.²⁸

[22] In this Adiabena is the city of Ninus,²⁹ which once possessed the rule over Persia, perpetuating the name of Ninus, once a most powerful king and the husband of Semiramis; also Ecbatana,³⁰ Arbela, and Gaugamela,³¹ where Alexander, after various other battles, overthrew Darius in a hot contest.

[23] But in all Assyria there are many cities, among which Apamia, formerly called Mesene,³² and Teredon, Apollonia and Vologessia, and many similar ones are conspicuous. But these three are especially magnificent and widely known: Babylon,³³ whose walls Semiramis built with bitumen³⁴ (for the ancient king Belus built the citadel), and Ctesiphon, which Vardanes³⁵ founded long ago; and later king Pacorus³⁶ strengthened it with additional inhabitants and with walls, gave it a Greek name, and made it the crowning ornament of Persia. And finally there is Seleucia, the splendid work of Seleucus Nicator.

[24] When this city was stormed by the generals of Verus Caesar (as I have related before),³⁷ the statue of Apollo Comaeus was torn from its place and taken to Rome, where the priests of the gods set it up in the temple of the Palatine Apollo. And it is said that, after this same statue had been carried off and the city burned, the soldiers in ransacking the temple found a narrow crevice; this they widened in the hope of finding something valuable; but from a kind of shrine, closed by the occult arts of the Chaldaeans, the germ of that pestilence burst forth, which after generating the virulence of incurable diseases, in the time of the same Verus and of Marcus Antoninus polluted everything with contagion and death, from the frontiers of Persia all the way to the Rhine and to Gaul.³⁸

[25] Near these is the land of the Chaldaeans, the foster-mother of the old-time philosophy—as they themselves say—where the true art of divination first made its appearance. Now the most important rivers that flow through those lands, besides the others that I have mentioned, are the Marses, the Royal River,³⁹ and the Euphrates, greatest of all. The last-named divides into three branches, all of which are navigable, forms several islands, and often thoroughly waters the fields through the diligence of the farmers,⁴⁰ and prepares them for the ploughshare and for tree-culture.

[26] Neighbours to these lands are the Susiani, who have few cities. Conspicuous among them, however, is Susa, often the residence of the kings,⁴¹ and Arsiana, Sele, and Aracha. The others are small and little known. On the other hand, many rivers flow through this region; most notable among them are the Oroates, Harax, and Mosaeus, which along the narrow sandy tract that separates the Caspian from the Red Sea overflow into a great number of pools.

[27] On the left Media extends, bordering on the Hyrcanian⁴² Sea. Of this province we read that before the reign of the elder Cyrus and the growth in Persia’s power, it was the queen of all Asia, after it had overcome Assyria,⁴³ whose many provinces, changed in name to Agropatena, it possessed by the right of conquest.

[28] It is a warlike nation, and most of all to be feared next to the Parthians, by whom alone it is surpassed, and its territory has the form of a rectangle. The inhabitants of these lands as a whole dwell in a most spacious country, overhung by very lofty mountains, which they call Zagrus, Orontes, and Iasonius.⁴⁴

[29] Those who dwell on the western side of the lofty mountain Coronus⁴⁵ abound in fields of grain and vineyards,⁴⁶ enjoy the fertility of a productive soil, and are rich in rivers and clear springs.

[30] Their green meadows produce a noble breed of horses, on which their chiefs (as the writers of old say, and as I myself have seen) when entering battle are wont to ride full of courage. These horses they call Nesaean.⁴⁷

[31] Therefore Media abounds in rich cities, in villages built up like towns, and in a great number of inhabitants; it is (to speak briefly) the richest residence of the kings.

[32] In these parts are the fertile fields of the Magi, about whose sects and pursuits—since we have chanced on this point—it will be in place to give a few words of explanation. According to Plato,⁴⁸ the most eminent author of lofty ideas, magic, under the mystic name of hagistia,⁴⁹ is thepurest worship of the gods. To the science of this, derived from the secret lore of the Chaldaeans, in ages long past the Bactrian Zoroaster⁵⁰ made many contributions, and after him the wise king Hystaspes,⁵¹ the father of Darius.

[33] When Zoroaster had boldly made his way into the unknown regions of Upper India, he reached a wooded wilderness, whose calm silence the lofty intellects of the Brahmins control. From their teaching he learned as much as he could grasp of the laws regulating the movements of the earth and the stars, and of the pure sacrificial rites. Of what he had learned he communicated something to the understanding of the Magi, which they, along with the art of divining the future, hand on from generation to generation to later times.

[34] From that time on for many ages down to the present a large class of men of one and the same descent have devoted themselves to the service of the gods.⁵² The Magi also say (if it is right to believe them) that they guard on ever-burning braziers a fire sent down from heaven in their country, and that a small portion of it, as a good omen, used to be carried before the Asiatic kings.

[35] The number of Magi of this origin in old times was very small, and the Persian potentates made regular use of their services in the worship of their gods. And it was sin to approach an altar, or touch a sacrificial victim, before one of the Magi, with a set form of prayer, poured the preliminary libations. But they gradually increased in number and became a strong clan, with a name of their own; they possessed country residences, which were protected by no great walls,⁵³ and they were allowed to live in accordance with their own laws, and through respect for religion were held in high esteem.

[36] From this seed of the Magi, as the ancient records relate, seven men after the death of Cambyses mounted the Persian throne, but (we are told), they were overthrown by the party of Darius, who made himself king by the neighing of a horse.⁵⁴

[37] In this neighbourhood the Medic oil is made. If a missile is smeared with this oil and shot somewhat slowly from a loosened bow (for it is extinguished by a swift flight), wherever it lands it burns persistently; and if one tries to put it out with water, he makes it burn the more fiercely, and it can be quelled in no other way than by throwing dust upon it.⁵⁵

[38] Now, the oil is made in this way. Those who are skilled in such matters take oil of general use, mix it with a certain herb, and let it stand for a long time and thicken, until it gets magic power from the material. Another kind, like a thicker sort of oil, is native to Persia, and (as I have said)⁵⁶ is called in that language naphtha.

[39] In these lands are many scattered cities; greater than all the rest are Zombis, Patigran and Gazaca.⁵⁷ Conspicuous for their wealth and their mighty walls are Heraclia, Arsacia, Europos,⁵⁸ Cyropolis and Ecbatana,⁵⁹ all situated at the foot of Mount Iasonius in the land of the Syromedi.⁶⁰

[40] Many streams flow through this country, of which the greatest are the Choaspes, Gyndes,⁶¹ Amardus, Charinda, Cambyses, and Cyrus. To this last, a great and beautiful river, the elder Cyrus, that lovable king, when he was hastening on his way to seize the realms of the Scythians, gave that name in place of its older one, because it is valiant, as he himself also was said to be, and forcing its way with the exercise of great power, as he did, flows into the Caspian Sea.

[41] Beyond these tracts, but extending farther to the south, next to the seacoast lies Old Persia, rich in small fruits,⁶² date-palms, and an abundance of excellent water. For many rivers flow through it into the above-mentioned gulf, the greatest of which are the Batradites,⁶³ Rogomanius, Brisoana, and Bagrada.

[42] But the inland cities are the greater -and it is uncertain for what reason they built nothing conspicuous along the seacoast-notable among which are Persepolis,⁶⁴ Ardea, Habroatis, and Tragonice. But only three islands are to be seen there: Tabiana, Fara, and Alexandria.

[43] Near these to the north are the Parthians, dwelling in lands abounding in snow and frost. Their land is cut by Choatres river, more copious than the rest, and the following cities are more important than the others: Oenunia, Moesia, Charax, Apamia,⁶⁵ Artacana, and Hecatompylos,⁶⁶ from which place one reckons along the Caspian Sea to the Caspian Gates 1040 stadia.

[44] There the inhabitants of all the districts are savage and warlike, and take such pleasure in war and conflict, that one who loses his life in battle is regarded as happy beyond all others. For those who depart from this life by a natural death they assail with insults, as degenerate and cowardly.

[45] On the south-eastern border of these are the Happy Arabs,⁶⁷ so-called because they are rich in the fruits of the field, as well as in cattle, dates, and many varieties of perfumes. A great part of their lands border to the right on the Red Sea, and on the left form the boundary of the Persian Sea, and the people know how to avail themselves of all the advantages of both elements.

[46] On that coast there are both many anchorages and numerous safe harbours, trading cities in an uninterrupted line, uncommonly splendid and richly adorned residences of their kings, natural hot springs of remarkable curative powers, a conspicuous abundance of brooks and rivers, and a very salubrious climate; so that to men of good judgement they evidently lack nothing for supreme happiness.

[47] And while they have an abundance of towns, inland and on the coast, as well as fruitful plains and valleys, yet the choicest cities are Geapolis and Nascos, Baraba, and also Nagara, Maephe, Taphra, and Dioscuris.⁶⁸ Moreover, in both seas, and near to the shore, there are many islands, which it is not worth while to enumerate. The most prominent among them is Turgana,⁶⁹ on which there is said to be a great temple of Serapis.

[48] Beyond the frontier of this people Greater Carmania rises with lofty peaks, extending as far as the Indian Sea, supplied with products of the soil and fruit trees, but far inferior in fame and in extent to the lands of the Arabs; however, the country is no less rich in rivers, and equally blest with a fertile soil.

[49] The rivers better known than the rest are the Sagareus, Saganis, and Hydriacus. There are also cities which, though few in number, are very rich in all that contributes to the maintenance and enjoyment of life. Conspicuous among them are Carmana, mother city of them all, Portospana, Alexandria, and Hermupolis.

[50] Proceeding inland, one meets with the Hyrcanians, whose coast the sea of the same name washes.⁷⁰ Among them, since the leanness of their soil kills the seeds, less attention is given to agriculture, but they live upon game, of which there is a monstrous great variety and abundance. There are also many thousand tigers, and numerous other wild beasts, and by what kind of devices they are usually taken I recall that I gave an account long ago.⁷¹

[51] But for all that, they are not unacquainted with the plough-tail, but some districts, where the soil is richer, are covered over with sown fields. Groves of trees, too, are not lacking in places suited for planting them, and many people support themselves by commerce on the sea.⁷²

[52] Here are two rivers well known by name, the Oxus and the Maxera, over which tigers, driven by hunger, sometimes swim and unexpectedly cause great losses to the neighbouring places. They also have some strong cities, among lesser towns; two are on the sea, Socanda and Saramanna, and others inland, Asmurna, Sale, and, better known than these, Hyrcana.

[53] Over against this people to the north the Abii are said to dwell, a most kindly race, accustomed to trample on all mortal things, on whom, as Homer sings as part of his tale, Jupiter looks with favour from the mountains of Ida.⁷³

[54] Next after the Hyrcanians the Margiani have found homes, a people all but wholly surrounded by lofty hills, and thus separated from the sea. And although the greater part of their soil, from dearth of water, is a desert, they nevertheless have some towns; but Iasonion, Antiochia,⁷⁴ and Nigaea⁷⁵ are better known than the others.

[55] The lands next to these the Bactriani possess, a nation formerly warlike and very powerful, and always at odds with the Persians, until they reduced all the peoples about them to submission and incorporated them under their own name. In ancient times they were ruled by kings who were formidable even to Arsaces.⁷⁶

[56] Many parts of this land, like Margiana, are widely separated from the coast, but rich in vegetation; and the herds which graze on their plains and mountains are thickset, with strong limbs, as appears from the camels brought from there by Mithridates and seen for the first time by the Romans at the siege of Cyzicus.⁷⁷

[57] Several peoples are subject to these same Bactrians, notably the Tochari, and like Italy the country is watered by many rivers. Of these, the Artamis and Zariaspes first unite, as well as the Ochus and Orgomanes, and when joined they increase the mighty flow of the Oxus with their combined⁷⁸ waters.

[58] There are also cities here which are laved by other rivers, but they recognise these as their betters: namely, Chatracharta, Alicodra, Astatia, Menapila, and Bactra itself, from which the kingdom and the nation have derived their name.

[59] Next the Sogdiani dwell at the foot of the mountains which they call the Sogdii, through whose territories two rivers flow which are navigable by ships, the Araxates⁷⁹ and the Dymas. These streams rush headlong over mountains and valleys into a level plain and form a lake, Oxia by name, which is both long and broad. Here among other towns Alexandria, Cyreschata,⁸⁰ and the metropolis, Drepsa, are famous.

[60] Next to these are the Sacae, a tribe of savages, inhabiting a rough country rich only for cattle, and hence without cities. It is overhung by the mountains Ascanimia and Comedus, along the base of which and through a village, which they call Lithinos Pyrgos,⁸¹ a very long road extends, which is the route taken by the traders who journey from time to time to the land of the Seres.

[61] Along the slopes and at the foot of the mountains which they call Imavi and Apurii, various Scythian tribes dwell within the Persian territories, bordering on the Asiatic Sarmatians and reaching to the outermost side of the Halani. These, as if living in a nook of the world, and brought up in solitude, are widely scattered, and are accustomed to common and poor food.

[62] And various other tribes dwell in these parts, which at present I think it superfluous to enumerate, since I am hastening on to another topic. It is necessary only to know, that among these nations, which because of the extreme roughness of their land are almost inaccessible, there are some mild and kindly folk, such as the Iaxartae and the Galactophagi,⁸² whom the bard Homer mentions in this verse⁸³:

Of the Galactophagi and Abii, righteous men.

[63] Now, among the many rivers of this land, which nature either joins with larger streams or by their own flow carries on to the sea, the Rhymmus, Iaxartes and Daicus are celebrated. But there are only three cities which the region is known to have, namely, Aspabota, Chauriana, and Saga.

[64] Beyond these lands of both Scythias,⁸⁴ towards the east, the summits of lofty walls⁸⁵ form a circle and enclose the Seres,⁸⁶ remarkable for the richness and extent of their country. On the west they are bounded by the Scythians, and on the north and the east they extend to a snowclad waste; on the south they reach India and the Ganges. There are mountains there, called Anniba, Nazavicium, Asmira, Emodon, and Opurocorra.

[65] Through this land, consisting of a plain of wide extent,⁸⁷ surrounded on all sides by precipitous cliffs, two rivers of famous name, the Oechartis and the Bautis,⁸⁸ flow in a somewhat slow course. The nature of the various tracts is unlike, being now open and flat and now descending in gentle slopes; and therefore the land overflows in grain, flocks, and orchards.

[66] On this very fruitful soil dwell various peoples, of which the Anthropophagi, Anibi, Sizyges and Chardi lie towards the north and the snows. Towards the rising sun are the Rabannae, Asmirae, and the Essedones, the most famed of all; close to them, on the west, are the Athagorae, and the Aspacarae. In the south are the Baetae, dwelling on the slopes of high mountains. They are famed for cities which, though not numerous, are large and prosperous; the greatest of these, Asmira, Essedon, Asparata, and Sera, are beautiful and well known.

[67] The Seres themselves live a peaceful life, for ever unacquainted with arms and warfare; and since to gentle and quiet folk ease is pleasurable, they are troublesome to none of their neighbours. Their climate is agreeable and healthful, the sky is clear, the winds gentle and very pleasant. There is an abundance of well-lighted woods, the trees of which produce a substance which they work with frequent sprinkling, like a kind of fleece; then from the wool-like material, mixed with water, they draw out very fine threads, spin the yarn, and make sericum,⁸⁹ formerly for the use of the nobility, but nowadays available even to the lowest without any distinction.

[68] The Seres themselves are frugal beyond all others, live a quiet life, and avoid intercourse with the rest of mortals. And when strangers, in order to buy threads or anything else, cross the river, their wares are laid out and with no exchange of words their value is estimated by the eye alone;⁹⁰ and they are so abstemious, that they hand over their own products without themselves getting any foreign ware in return.

[69] Beyond the Seres live the Ariani, exposed to the blasts of the north wind; through their lands flows a river called the Arias, large enough to carry ships, which forms a great lake called by the same name. Moreover, this same Aria has many cities, among which the following are renowned: Vitaxa Sarmatina, Sotira, Nisibis, and Alexandria, from which the voyage to the Caspian Sea is reckoned as fifteen hundred stadia.

[70] Neighbours to these places are the Paro- panisadae,⁹¹ facing the Indi on the east, and the Caucasus on the west; they themselves also dwell on the slopes of the mountains and through their country (besides some smaller rivers) flows the Gordomaris, rising in Bactria. And they also have some cities, of which the better-known are Agazaca, Naulibus, and Ortospana, from which the distance along the bank of the river to the frontiers of Media next to the Caspian Gates is 2200 stadia.

[71] Joining the aforesaid are the Drangiani, connected with them by hills. Their land is washed by the river Arabius, so-called from the place of its rise.⁹² Among other towns they are proud of two, Prophthasia and Ariaspe, because of their wealth and fame.

[72] Then, opposite to these, we see Arachosia, on the right facing the Indi. From a much smaller river,⁹³ flowing out from the mighty Indus, from which the whole region takes its name, Arachosia receives an abundance of water; this river forms a lake, called Arachotoscrene.⁹⁴ Here also among insignificant cities, are Alexandria,⁹⁵ Arbaca, and Choaspa.

[73] Now far within Persia lies Gedrosia, on the right reaching the frontiers of the Indi; it is made fertile by the Artabius, in addition to smaller streams. Here the Arbitani mountains come to an end, and from their bases flow other rivers, which mingle with the Indus, losing their names through the size of the greater stream. But here, too, there are famous cities, in addition to islands; but Ratira and Gynaecon limen⁹⁶ are more highly esteemed than the rest.

[74] But we would not give a detailed account of the seacoast at the extremities of Persia, and wander too far from our subject. So it will be enough to say that the sea extending from the Caspian mountains along the northern side to the above-mentioned strait is 9000 stadia;⁹⁷ but the southern frontier, from the mouths of the river Nile to where Carmania begins, is reckoned at 14,000 stadia.

[75] Among these many men of differing tongues there are varieties of persons, as well as of places. But, to describe their bodily characteristics and their customs in general, they are almost all slender, somewhat dark, or of a leaden pallor, with eyes grim as goats’, eyebrows joined and curved in the form of a half-circle, not uncomely beards, and long, shaggy hair. All of them without exception, even at banquets and on festal days, appear girt with swords; an old Greek custom which, according to the trustworthy testimony of Thucydides,⁹⁸ the Athenians were the first to abandon.

[76] Most of them are extravagantly given to venery, and are hardly contented with a multitude of concubines;⁹⁹ they are free from immoral relations with boys.¹⁰⁰ Each man according to his means contracts many or few marriages, whence their affection, divided as it is among various objects, grows cold.¹⁰¹ They avoid as they would the plague splendid and luxurious banquets, and especially, excessive drinking.¹⁰²

[77] Except for the kings’ tables, they have no fixed hours for meal-times, but every man’s belly is, as it were, his sundial;¹⁰³ when this gives the call, they eat whatever is at hand, and no one, after he is satisfied, loads himself with superfluous food.¹⁰⁴

[78] They are immensely moderate and cautious, so much so that they sometimes march through an enemy’s gardens and vineyards without coveting or touching anything, through fear of poison or magic arts.

[79] Besides this, one seldom sees a Persian stop to pass water or step aside in response to a call of nature;¹⁰⁵ so scrupulously do they avoid these and other unseemly actions.

[80] On the other hand, they are so free and easy, and stroll about with such a loose and unsteady gait, that one might think them effeminate; but, in fact, they are most gallant warriors, though rather crafty than courageous, and to be feared only at long range. They are given to empty words, and talk madly and extravagantly. They are boastful, harsh and offensive, threatening in adversity and prosperity alike, crafty, haughty, cruel, claiming the power of life and death over slaves and commons. They flay men alive, either bit by bit or all at once, and no servant who waits upon them, or stands at table, is allowed to open his mouth, either to speak or to spit; to such a degree, after the skins are spread,¹⁰⁶ are the mouths of all fettered.

[81] They stand in special fear of the laws, among which those dealing with ingrates and deserters are particularly severe; and some laws are detestable, namely, those which provide that because of the guilt of a single person all his relatives are put to death.¹⁰⁷

[82] For the office of judge, upright men of proved experience are chosen, who have little need of advice from others; therefore they ridicule our custom, which at times places eloquent men, highly skilled in public law, behind the backs of judges without learning.¹⁰⁸ But that one judge was forced to take his seat on the skin of another who had been condemned to death for injustice¹⁰⁹ is either a fiction of antiquity, or, if once customary, has long since been given up.

[83] Through military training and discipline, through constant exercise in warfare and military manoeuvres, which we have often described, they cause dread even to great armies; they rely especially on the valour of their cavalry, in which all the nobles and men of rank undergo hard service; for the infantry are armed like the murmillones,¹¹⁰ and they obey orders like so many horse-boys. The whole throng of them always follows in the rear, as if doomed to perpetual slavery, without ever being supported by pay or gifts. And this nation, so bold and so well trained for the dust of Mars, would have brought many other peoples under the yoke in addition to those whom they fully subdued, were they not constantly plagued by domestic and foreign wars.

[84] Most of them are so covered with clothes gleaming with many shimmering colours, that although they leave their robes open in front and on the sides, and let them flutter in the wind, yet from their head to their shoes no part of the body is seen uncovered. To the use of golden armlets and neckchains, gems, and especially pearls, of which they possess a great number, they first became accustomed after their victory over Lydia and Croesus.¹¹¹

[85] It remains for me to speak briefly about the origin of this gem.¹¹² Among the Indians and the Persians pearls are found in strong, white sea-shells, being conceived at a definite time of the year by mixture with dew. For at that time they desire, as it were, a kind of copulation, and by often opening and shutting quickly they take in moisture by sprinkling with moonlight. Thereby becoming pregnant, they each bear two or three small pearls, or else uniones,¹¹³ so called because the shell-fish, when opened, sometimes yield only one pearl, but in that case they are of greater size.

[86] And it is a proof that they are of ethereal origin, rather than that they are conceived and fed from nourishment derived from the sea, that when drops of morning dew fall upon these gems, they make them brilliant and round, but the dew of evening, on the contrary, makes them irregular, red, and sometimes spotted; and they become large or small under varying conditions, according to the quality of what they have taken in. Very often the shell-fish close through fear of thunderstorms, and either produce imperfect stones or none at all; or at any rate, it melts away as the result of abortion.

[87] Their taking is difficult and dangerous, and their price is high, for the reason that they avoid shores that are usually frequented, to escape the snares of the pearlfishers, as some believe, and hide amid solitary rocks and the lairs of sea-hounds.¹¹⁴

[88] That this kind of gem is found and gathered in the lonely bays of the Britannic Sea,¹¹⁵ although of less value than these, is well known to us.

Notes on the current edition

Res Gestae

1. monstrarem, Bent.; monstrare, V.

2. descriptionibus, Pet.; descriptoribus, V.

3. digenstis in, Pet.; digestum e, AG; digestis, V.

4. obscuro geniti loco, Clark; obscure geniti, V.

5. temporis, added by Novák.

6. si sit usquam, Her.; is sit, quisquam, Lind.; is situs quam, V.

7. vi, added by G; deleted by Novák as dittography; suis superatis (last i from u), V.

8. Alexandri, ac, Her.; Alexandrina et, G; Alexandrinae testamento, V.

9. ut, added by EAG; V omits.

10. aequa, Pet.; vacua, Her.; qua, V.

11. Carmaniae, Bent., Gardt.; Armeniae, EBG; armeme, V, armeniae, V 3.

12. inde longo, added by Her.; obiectum intervallo, V.

13. Sachaliten, Ptolemy.

14. infra Imaum et, added by Gardt., cf. Ptol. vi. 1; V omits.

15. si in, added by Madvig; V omits.

16. ipsi, Eyssen., sie, V (deleted as dittogr. by Novák).

17. iunctis, Gardt.; iuncti, V.

18. expugnata, C. F. W. M.; expoliata, Pet.; expulsata, V.

19. ut, added by N (afterwards deleted), AG; quasi, Her.; V omits.

20. his, Her.; hic, V.

21. et, added in g (Sephanus' ed. of Gelanius); V omits.

22. edunt, Gardt.; fovent, Novák, cf. xvii. 12, 3, etc.; dent, V.

23. summates, Haupt; summa vi, BG; summa, V.

24. abundat itaque, Madvig, Novák; a. aeque, G; abundantia que, V.

25. ditibus, Haupt; pinguibus, Damsté; insignibus, Walter; quibus, V, del. Novák.

26. hagistiam, Wagner; machagistiam, V.

27. cremat, frag. M begins with this word; for numerous additional variants see Clark's ed., pp. 317 ff.

28. obruere, Salmasius from Solinus, p. 241; abluere, MV.

29. usus, M; usue, V.

30. periti ad, C 2AG; peritia ad, MV.

31. dum, Her.; durant, G; duri, MV.

32. venenatur. alia, Clark; venae naturalis, G; bene (from uene, m. 1) naturalia, M; bene (uene, V 3 naturalia (ra written above tu by m. 1).

33. crassiori species, T 2bA; crassiori: quae species, G; crassiorispecies, M; crassioris pecies, V (corrected).

34. naptham, Clark; naitham, MV ( napitham, V 3.

35. delabitur, vulgo; dilabitur, MV.

36. influunt, vulgo; defluunt, Novák; fluunt, MV.

37. feri sunt, tr. by Her.; sunt fere, MV (repeating sunt after habitatores; del V 2.

38. omnibus, frag. M ends with this word.

39. Maefen, Clark; Maepham, Gardt. from Ptol.; mefre, V 2(from inefre, V).

40. Turgana, V, Clark; Organa, Gardt.

41. macie internecante, Salmasius; intermicantes ementes, V.

42. Socanda, Gardt.; Socunda, BG; soconda (second o added by V 3in an erasure), V.

43. Asmurnam, Gardt.; Azmornam G; azmorna ( m added by V 2 V.

44. soli aquarum penuria, tr. by Gardt.; paenuria soli quaedam, V ( soli omitted by BG); lac. after quaedam, Eyssen.

45. a Romanis visi, tr. by BG; vii Romanis, V.

46. Chatracharta, Gardt.; chatra et charte, V.

47. lac. indicated by Val. who added hinc S. agunt.

48. lac. ind. by Clark; qui added by G, per by BG.

49. solum, Clark; soli, Gardt.; solos, V.

50. varii, Her.; a uespera( ura), Löfstedt; aura, V.

51. ipso, Kellerbauer; proprio, Bent., Novák; suopte, Kell., Madvig; post, V.

52. nivosae, G; vastae, E; pruinosae, Her.; vosae, V.

53. Ibidem, Mannert; idem, V.

54. Nazavicium, V; Auzacium, Gardt. from Ptolemy.

55. Opurocarra, V; Oporocorra, Gardt.

56. e, G; V omits.

57. Anthropophagi, Haupt; Alitrophagi, EG, Her.; alitro fagi, V.

58. Athagorae, V; Athagurae, Gardt. from Ptol.

59. Aspacarae, N 2; Asparata, V; Aspacara, Gardt., cf. Ptol.

60. est otium, V; tr. by BG.

61. nobilium antehac, transposui, c.c.

62. Gordomaris, Her. (deleting orto as a corr. of Orthospana); ortogordomaris, V.

63. Orthospana, V.

64. quos flumen alluit, added by Val.; coherentes Arabium, V.

65. quam, added by Clark.

66. inclutae, Günther; inter civitates, G; incivitate (third i del. V 3, V.

67. sed Ratira, Schneider; Sedratyra, BG, V.

68. Persidos, Clark; Persidis, EBG; persidus, V.

69. ut, BG; ne, V; lac. after ne indic. Pet.

70. et mores, BG; primores, Gardt.; ut priores, Momm.; et priores, V.

71. praestratis, Her. (cf. Virg., Aen. vii. 88); praestrictis, Haupt; prostrati, BG; prostratis, V.

72. formavimus, V; firmavimus, B; formidavimus, Gardt.

73. dispari, EBG; nec simili nec suppari, Her.; suppari, V, dispari, V 3

Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae 23.6

John C. Rolfe (Translator)

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Describuntur maiores privinciae xviii regni Persarum, una cum suis quaeque viribus, moresque nationum.

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