[1] Next in order is Boeotia; and when I discuss this country and the tribes that are continuous with it, I must, for the sake of clearness, call to mind what I have said before. ¹ As I have said, the seaboard from Sunium to Thessaloniceia extends towards the north, slightly inclining towards the west and keeping the sea on the east; and that the parts above this seaboard lie towards the west—ribbon-like stretches of country extending parallel to one another through the whole country. The first of these parts is Attica together with Megaris—a ribbon-like stretch of country, having as its eastern side the seaboard from Sunium to Oropus and Boeotia, and as its western side the Isthmus and the Alcyonian Sea, which extends from Pagae to the boundaries of Boeotia near Creusa, and as its remaining two sides, the seaboard from Sunium to the Isthmus and the mountainous country approximately parallel thereto which separates Attica from Boeotia. The second of these parts is Boeotia, extending ribbon-like from the east towards the west, from the Euboean Sea to the sea at the Crisaean Gulf; and it is about equal in length to Attica or perhaps less; in the fertility of its soil, however, it is far superior.

[2] Ephorus declares that Boeotia is superior to the countries of the bordering tribes, not only in fertility of soil, but also because it alone has three seas and has a greater number of good harbors; in the Crisaean and Corinthian Gulfs it receives the products of Italy and Sicily and Libya, while in the part which faces Euboea, since its seaboard branches off on either side of the Euripus, on one side towards Aulis and the territory of Tanagra and on the other towards Salganeus and Anthedon, the sea stretches unbroken ² in the one direction towards Egypt and Cyprus and the islands, and in the other direction towards Macedonia and the regions of the Propontis and the Hellespont. And he adds that Euboea has, in a way, been made a part of Boeotia by the Euripus, since the Euripus is so narrow and is spanned by a bridge to Euripus only two plethra ³ long. Now he praises the country on account of these things; and he says that it is naturally well suited to hegemony, but that those who were from time to time its leaders neglected careful training and education, and therefore, although they at times achieved success, they maintained it only for a short time, as is shown in the case of Epameinondas; for after he died the Thebans immediately lost the hegemony, having had only a taste of it; and that the cause of this was the fact that they belittled the value of learning and of intercourse with mankind, and cared for the military virtues alone. Ephorus should have added that these things are particularly useful in dealing with Greeks, although force is stronger than reason in dealing with the barbarians. And the Romans too, in ancient times, when carrying on war with savage tribes, needed no training of this kind, but from the time that they began to have dealings with more civilized tribes and races, they applied themselves to this training also, and so established themselves as lords of all.

[3] Be that as it may, Boeotia in earlier times was inhabited by barbarians, the Aones and the Temmices, who wandered thither from Sunium, and by the Leleges and the Hyantes. Then the Phoenicians occupied it, I mean the Phoenicians with Cadmus, the man who fortified the Cadmeia ⁴ and left the dominion to his descendants. Those Phoenicians founded Thebes in addition to the Cadmeia, and preserved their dominion, commanding most of the Boeotians until the expedition of the Epigoni. On this occasion they left Thebes for a short time, but came back again. And, in the same way, when they were ejected by the Thracians and the Pelasgians, they established their government in Thessaly along with the Arnaei for a long time, so that they were all called Boeotians. Then they returned to the homeland, at the time when the Aeolian fleet, near Aulis in Boeotia, was now ready to set sail, I mean the fleet which the sons of Orestes were despatching to Asia. After adding the Orchomenian country to Boeotia (for in earlier times the Orchomenians were not a part of the Boeotian community, nor did Homer enumerate them with the Boeotians, but as a separate people, for he called them Minyae ⁵ ), they, with the Orchomenians, drove out the Pelasgians to Athens (it was after these that a part of the city was named “Pelasgicon,” though they took up their abode below Hymettus), and the Thracians to Parnassus; and the Hyantes founded a city Hyas in Phocis.

[4] Ephorus says that the Thracians, after making a treaty with the Boeotians, attacked them by night when they, thinking that peace had been made, were encamping rather carelessly; and when the Boeotians frustrated the Thracians, at the same time making the charge that they were breaking the treaty, the Thracians asserted that they had not broken it, for the treaty said “by day,” whereas they had made the attack by night; whence arose the proverb, “Thracian pretense”; and the Pelasgians, when the war was still going on, went to consult the oracle, as did also the Boeotians. Now Ephorus is unable, he says, to tell the oracular response that was given to the Pelasgians, but the prophetess replied to the Boeotians that they would prosper if they committed sacrilege; and the messengers who were sent to consult the oracle, suspecting that the prophetess responded thus out of favor to the Pelasgians, because of her kinship with them (indeed, the temple also was from the beginning Pelasgian), seized the woman and threw her upon a burning pile, for they considered that, whether she had acted falsely or had not, they were right in either case, since, if she uttered a false oracle, she had her punishment, whereas, if she did not act falsely, they had only obeyed the order of the oracle. Now those in charge of the temple, he says, did not approve of putting to death without trial—and that too in the temple—the men who did this, and therefore they brought them to trial, and summoned them before the priestesses, who were also the prophetesses, being the two survivors of the three; but when the Boeotians said that it was nowhere lawful for women to act as judges, they chose an equal number of men in addition to the women. Now the men, he says, voted for acquittal, but the women for conviction, and since the votes cast were equal, those for acquittal prevailed; and in consequence of this prophecies are uttered at Dodona by men to Boeotians only; the prophetesses, however, explain the oracle to mean that the god ordered the Boeotians to steal the tripods ⁶ and take one of them to Dodona every year; and they actually do this, for they always ⁷ take down one of the dedicated tripods by night and cover it up with garments, and secretly, as it were, carry it to Dodona.

[5] After this the Boeotians cooperated with Penthilus ⁸ and his followers in forming the Aeolian colony, sending with him most of their own people, so that it was also called a Boeotian colony. A long time afterwards the country was thoroughly devastated by the Persian war that took place near Plataeae. Then they recovered themselves to such an extent that the Thebans, having conquered the Lacedaemonians in two battles, laid claim to supremacy over the Greeks. But Epameinondas fell in the battle, and consequently they were disappointed in this hope; but still they went to war on behalf of the Greeks against the Phocians, who had robbed their common temple. And after suffering loss from this war, as also from the Macedonians when these attacked the Greeks, ⁹ they lost their city, ¹⁰ which was razed to the ground by these same people, and then received it back from them when rebuilt. ¹¹ From that time on the Thebans have fared worse and worse down to our own time, and Thebes today does not preserve the character even of a respectable village; and the like is true of other Boeotian cities, except Tanagra and Thespiae, which, as compared with Thebes, have held out fairly well.

[6] Next in order I must make a circuit of the country, beginning at that part of the coastline opposite Euboea which joins Attica. The beginning is Oropus, and the Sacred Harbor, which is called Delphinium, opposite which is the ancient Eretria in Euboea, the distance across being sixty stadia. After Delphinium, at a distance of twenty stadia, is Oropus; and opposite Oropus is the present Eretria, and to it the passage across the strait is forty stadia.

[7] Then one comes to Delium, the sanctuary of Apollo, which is a reproduction of that in Delos. It is a small town of the Tanagraeans, thirty stadia distant from Aulis. It was to this place that the Athenians, after their defeat in battle, made their headlong flight; and in the flight Socrates the philosopher, who was serving on foot, since his horse had got away from him, saw Xenophon the son of Gryllus lying on the ground, having fallen from his horse, and took him up on his shoulders and carried him in safety for many stadia, until the flight ceased.

[8] Then one comes to a large harbor, which is called Bathys Limen; ¹² then to Aulis, a rocky place and a village of the Tanagraeans. Its harbor is large enough for only fifty boats; and therefore it is reasonable to suppose that the naval station of the Greeks was in the large harbor. And near by, also, is the Euripus at Chalcis, to which the distance from Sunium is six hundred and seventy stadia; and over it is a bridge two plethra long, ¹³ as I have said; ¹⁴ and a tower stands on each side, one on the side of Chalcis, and the other on the side of Boeotia; and tube-like passages have been constructed into the towers. ¹⁵ Concerning the refluent currents of the Euripus it is enough to say only thus much, that they are said to change seven times each day and night; ¹⁶ but the cause of the changes must be investigated elsewhere.

[9] Near the Euripus, upon a height, is situated a place called Salganeus. It is named after Salganeus, a Boeotian, who was buried there—the man who guided the Persians when they sailed into this channel from the Maliac Gulf. It is said that he was put to death before they reached the Euripus by Megabates, the commander of the fleet, because he was considered a villain, on the ground that he had deceitfully rushed the fleet into a blind alley of the sea, but that the barbarian, when he perceived that he himself was mistaken, not only repented, but deemed worthy of burial the man who had been put to death without cause.

[10] Near Oropus is a place called Graea, and also the temple of Amphiaraüs, and the monument of Narcissus the Eretrian, which is called “Sigelus’s,” ¹⁷ because people pass it in silence. ¹⁸ Some say that Graea is the same as Tanagra. The Poemandrian territory is the same as the Tanagraean; ¹⁹ and the Tanagraeans are also called Gephyraeans. The temple of Amphiaraüs was transferred hither in accordance with an oracle from the Theban Cnopia.

[11] Also Mycalessus, a village, is in the Tanagraean territory. It is situated on the road that leads from Thebes to Chalcis; and in the Boeotian dialect it is called Mycalettus. And Harma is likewise in the Tanagraean territory; it is a deserted village near Mycalettus, and received its name from the chariot of Amphiaraüs, and is a different place from the Harma in Attica, which is near Phylë, a deme of Attica bordering on Tanagra. ²⁰ Here originated the proverb, “when the lightning flashes through Harma”; for those who are called the Pythaistae look in the general direction of Harma, in accordance with an oracle, and note any flash of lightning in that direction, and then, when they see the lightning flash, take the offering to Delphi. ²¹ They would keep watch for three months, for three days and nights each month, from the altar of Zeus Astrapaeus; ²² this altar is within the walls ²³ between the Pythium and the Olympium. ²⁴ In regard to the Harma in Boeotia, some say that Amphiaraus fell in the battle out of his chariot ²⁵ near the place where his temple now is, and that the chariot was drawn empty to the place which bears the same name; others say that the chariot of Adrastus, when he was in flight, was smashed to pieces there, but that Adrastus safely escaped on Areion. ²⁶ But Philochorus ²⁷ says that Adrastus was saved by the inhabitants of the village, and that on this account they obtained equal rights of citizenship from the Argives.

[12] To anyone returning from Thebes to Argos, ²⁸ Tanagra is on the left; and ²⁹ . . . is situated on the right. And Hyria, ³⁰ also, belongs to the Tanagraean territory now, though in earlier times it belonged to the Theban territory. Hyria is the scene of the myth of Hyrieus, and of the birth of Orion, of which Pindar speaks in his dithyrambs; ³¹ it is situated near Aulis. Some say that Hysiae is called Hyria, belonging to the Parasopian country ³² below Cithaeron, near Erythrae, in the interior, and that it is a colony of the Hyrieans and was founded by Nycteus, the father of Antiope. There is also a Hysiae in the Argive territory, a village; and its inhabitants are called Hysiatae. The Erythrae in Ionia is a colony of this Erythrae. And Heleon, also, is a village belonging to Tanagra, having been so named from the “hele.” ³³

[13] After Salganeus one comes to Anthedon, a city with a harbor; and it is the last city on that part of the Boeotian seaboard which is opposite to Euboea, as the poet says, “Anthedon at the extremity.” ³⁴ As one proceeds a little farther, however, there are still two small towns belonging to the Boeotians: Larymna, near which the Cephissus empties, and, still farther on, Halae, which bears the same name as the Attic demes. ³⁵ Opposite this seaboard is situated, it is said, the Aegae ³⁶ in Euboea, in which is the temple of the Aegaean Poseidon, which I have mentioned before. ³⁷ The distance across the strait from Anthedon to Aegae is one hundred and twenty stadia, but from the other places it is much less. The temple is situated on a high mountain, where there was once a city. And Orobiae ³⁸ also is near Aegae. In the Anthedonian territory is Mount Messapius, ³⁹ named after Messapus, who, when he came into Iapygia, called the country Messapia. ⁴⁰ Here, too, is the scene of the myth of Glaucus, the Anthedonian, who is said to have changed into a sea-monster. ⁴¹

[14] Near Anthedon, and belonging to Boeotia, is a place that is esteemed sacred, and contains traces of a city, Isus, as it is called, with the first syllable pronounced short. Some, however, think that the verse should be written, “sacred Isus and Anthedon at the extremity,” ⁴² lengthening the first syllable by poetic licence on account of the meter, ⁴³ instead of “sacred Nisa,” ⁴⁴ for Nisa is nowhere to be seen in Boeotia, as Apollodorus says in his work On Ships; ⁴⁵ so that Nisa could not be the correct reading, unless by “Nisa” the poet means “Isus”; for there was a city Nisa bearing the same name in the territory of Megara, whose inhabitants emigrated to the foothills of Cithaeron, but it has now disappeared. Some, however, think that we should write “sacred Creusa,” taking the poet to mean the Creusa of today, the naval station of the Thespians, which is situated in the Crisaean Gulf; but others think that we should read “sacred Pharae.” Pharae is one of the “Four United Villages” in the neighborhood of Tanagra, which are: Heleon, Harma, Mycalessus, and Pharae. And still others write as follows: “sacred Nysa.” And Nysa is a village in Helicon. ⁴⁶ Such, then, is the seaboard facing Euboea.

[15] The plains in the interior, which come next in order, are hollows, and are surrounded everywhere on the remaining sides ⁴⁷ by mountains; by the mountains of Attica on the south, and on the north by the mountains of Phocis; and, on the west, Cithaeron inclines, obliquely, a little above the Crisaean Sea; it begins contiguous with the mountains of Megara and Attica, and then bends into the plains, terminating in the neighborhood of Thebes.

[16] Some of these plains are marshy, since rivers spread out over them, though other rivers fall into them and later find a way out; other plains are dried up, and on account of their fertility are tilled in all kinds of ways. But since the depths of the earth are full of caverns and holes, ⁴⁸ it has often happened that violent earthquakes have blocked up some of the passages, and also opened up others, some up to the surface of the earth and others through underground channels. The result for the waters, therefore, is that some of the streams flow through underground channels, whereas others flow on the surface of the earth, thus forming lakes and rivers. And when the channels in the depths of the earth are stopped up, it comes to pass that the lakes expand as far as the inhabited places, so that they swallow up both cities and districts, and that when the same channels, or others, are opened up, these cities and districts are uncovered; and that the same regions at one time are traversed in boats and at another on foot, and the same cities at one time are situated on the lake ⁴⁹ and at another far away from it.

[17] One of two things has taken place: either the cities have remained unremoved, when the increase in the waters has been insufficient to overflow the dwellings because of their elevation, or else they have been abandoned and rebuilt elsewhere, when, being oftentimes endangered by their nearness to the lake, they have relieved themselves from fear by changing to districts farther away or higher up. And it follows that the cities thus rebuilt which have kept the same name, though at first called by names truly applying to them, derived from local circumstances, have names which no longer truly apply to them; for instance, it is probable that “Plataeae” was so called from the “blade” ⁵⁰ of the oars, and “Plataeans” were those who made their living from rowing; but now, since they live far away from the lake, the name can no longer truly apply to them. Helos and Heleon and Heilesium were so called because they were situated near marshes; ⁵¹ but now the case is different with these places, since they have been rebuilt elsewhere, or else the lake has been greatly reduced because of outflows that later took place; for this is possible.

[18] This is best shown by the Cephissus, which fills lake Copais; for when the lake had increased so much that Copae ⁵² was in danger of being swallowed up (Copae is named by the poet, ⁵³ and from it the lake took its name), a rent in the earth, which was formed by the lake near Copae, opened up a subterranean channel ⁵⁴ about thirty stadia in length and admitted the river; and then the river burst forth to the surface near Larymna in Locris; I mean the Upper Larymna, for there is another Larymna, which I have already mentioned, ⁵⁵ the Boeotian Larymna ⁵⁶ on the sea, to which the Romans annexed the Upper Larymna. ⁵⁷ The place is called Anchoe; ⁵⁸ and there is also a lake of the same name. And when it leaves this lake the Cephissus at last flows out to the sea. Now at that time, when the flooding of the lake ceased, there was also a cessation of danger to those who lived near it, except in the case of the cities which had already been swallowed up. And though the subterranean channels filled up again, Crates the mining engineer of Chalcis ceased clearing away the obstructions ⁵⁹ because of party strife among the Boeotians, although, as he himself says in the letter to Alexander, many places had already been drained. Among these places, some writers suppose, was the ancient site of Orchomenus, and others, those of Eleusis and Athens on the Triton River. ⁶⁰ These cities, it is said, were founded by Cecrops, when he ruled over Boeotia, then called Ogygia, but were later wiped out by inundations. And it is said that a fissure in the earth opened up near Orchomenus, also, and that it admitted the Melas River, which flowed through the territory of Hiliartus ⁶¹ and formed there the marsh which produces the reed that is used for flutes. ⁶² But this river has completely disappeared, either because it is dispersed by the fissure into invisible channels or because it is used up beforehand by the marshes and lakes in the neighborhood of Haliartus, from which the poet calls the place “grassy,” when he says, “and grassy Haliartus.” ⁶³

[19] Now these rivers flow down from the Phocian mountains, and among them the Cephissus, which takes its beginning at Lilaea, a Phocian city, as Homer says: “And those who held Lilaea, at the sources of Cephissus.” ⁶⁴ And flowing through Elateia, the largest of the cities of Phocis, and through Parapotamii and Phanoteus, ⁶⁵ which are likewise Phocian towns, it goes on into Chaeroneia in Boeotia, and then through the territories of Orchomenus and Coroneia, and discharges into Lake Copais. And also the Permessus and the Olmeius, flowing from Helicon, meet one another and fall into the same Lake Copais near Haliartus; and also other streams empty into it. Now it is a large lake, having a circuit of three hundred and eighty stadia, but its outlets are nowhere to be seen, except for the fissure which admits the Cephissus, and for the marshes.

[20] Among the neighboring lakes are Lake Trephia ⁶⁶ and the Cephissian Lake, which is also mentioned by the poet: “Who dwelt in Hyle, strongly intent upon wealth, on the shore of the Cephissian Lake.” ⁶⁷ For he does not mean Lake Copais, as some think, but lake Hylice (accented on the last syllable like lyricé), which is named after the village near by that is called Hyle (accented like lyra and thyra), not Hyde, as some write, “who dwelt in Hyde.” For Hyde is in Lydia, “below snowy Tmolus in the fertile land of Hyde,” ⁶⁸ whereas Hyle is in Boeotia; at any rate, the poet appends to the words, “on the shore of the Cephissian lake,” the words, “and near him dwelt the rest of the Boeotians.” For Lake Copais is large, and not in the territory of Thebes; whereas the other is small, and is filled from lake Copais through subterranean channels; and it is situated between Thebes and Anthedon. Homer, however, uses the word in the singular number, at one time making the first syllable long, as in the Catalogue, “and Hyle and Peteön, ⁶⁹ by poetic licence, and at another making it short, “who dwelt in Hyle,” and “Tychius . . . , by far the best of leatherworkers, who had his home in Hyle.” ⁷⁰ And certain critics are not correct in writing Hyde here, either; for Aias was not sending to fetch his shield from Lydia.

[21] These lakes suggest the order of the places that come next after them, so that nominally their positions are clearly determined, because the poet observes no order in naming the places, whether those that are worthy of mention or those that are not. But it is difficult, in naming so many places, most of them insignificant and situated in the interior, to avoid error in every case in the matter of their order. The seaboard, however, has a certain advantage with regard to this: the places there are better known; and, too, the sea more readily suggests the order of places. Therefore I, too, shall try to take my beginnings from the seaboard, although at present I shall disregard this intention, and following the poet shall make my enumeration of the places, adding everything taken from other writers, but omitted by him, that may be useful to us. He begins at Hyria and Aulis, concerning which I have already spoken. ⁷¹

[22] Schoenus ⁷² is a district of the Theban territory on the road that leads from Thebes to Anthedon, and is about fifty stadia distant from Thebes; and there is also a river Schoenus which flows through it.

[23] Scolus is a village in the Parasopian ⁷³ country at the foot of Mount Cithaeron, a place that is rugged and hardly habitable; whence the proverb, “neither go to Scolus thyself nor follow another thither.” And this is also said to be the place from which Pentheus was brought when he was torn to pieces. ⁷⁴ And there was another Scolus among the cities in the neighborhood of Olynthus bearing the same name as this village. And, as I have already said, ⁷⁵ there is also in the Trachinian Heracleia a village called Parasopii, past which flows a River Asopus; and in Sicyonia there is another Asopus River, and also the country Asopia, through which that Asopus flows; and there are also other rivers which bear this name.

[24] The name “Eteonus” ⁷⁶ was changed to “Scarphe,” and Scarphe too is in Parasopia; for the Asopus and the Ismenus flow through the plain which is in front of Thebes. And there is the spring called Dirce; and also Potniae, where is the scene of the myth of Glaucus of Potniae, who was torn to pieces by the Potnian mares near the city. Cithaeron, also, ends not far from Thebes. The Asopus flows past it, washing its foothills and causing the division of the Parasopii into several settlements; and all the settlements are subject to Thebes, though another set of writers say that Scolus, Eteonus, and Erythrae are in the territory of the Plataeans, for the river flows past Plataea, also, and empties near Tanagra. And in the territory of Thebes are also Therapnae and Teumessus, which latter Antimachus has adorned with praise in many verses, ⁷⁷ although he enumerates goodly attributes which do not belong to it, as, for instance, “there is a windy little hill”; but the verses are well known.

[25] The “Thespiae” of today is by Antimachus spelled “Thespeia”; for there are many names of places which are used in both ways, both in the singular and in the plural, just as there are many which are used both in the masculine and in the feminine, whereas there are others which are used in either one or the other number only. Thespiae is a city near Mt. Helicon, lying somewhat to the south of it; and both it and Helicon are situated on the Crisaean Gulf. It has a seaport Creusa, also called Creusis. In the Thespian territory, in the part lying towards Helicon, is Ascre, the native city of Hesiod; it is situated on the right of Helicon, ⁷⁸ on a high and rugged place, and is about forty stadia distant from Thespiae. This city Hesiod himself has satirized in verses which allude to his father, because at an earlier time his father changed his abode to this place from the Aeolian Cyme, saying: “And he settled near Helicon in a wretched village, Ascre, which is bad in winter, oppressive in summer, and pleasant at no time.” ⁷⁹ Helicon is contiguous to Phocis in its northerly parts, and to a slight extent also in its westerly parts, in the region of the last harbor belonging to Phocis, the harbor which, from the fact in the case, is called Mychus; ⁸⁰ for, speaking generally, it is above this harbor of the Crisaean Gulf that Helicon and Ascre, and also Thespiae and its seaport Creusa, are situated. This is also considered the deepest recess of the Crisaean Gulf, and in general of the Corinthian Gulf. The length of the coastline from the harbor Mychus to Creusa is ninety stadia; and the length from Creusa as far as the promontory called Holmiae is one hundred and twenty; and hence Pagae and Oenoe, of which I have already spoken, ⁸¹ are situated in the deepest recess of the gulf. Now Helicon, not far distant from Parnassus, rivals it both in height and in circuit; for both are rocky and covered with snow, and their circuit comprises no large extent of territory. ⁸² Here are the temple of the Muses and Hippu-crene ⁸³ and the cave of the nymphs called the Leibethrides; and from this fact one might infer that those who consecrated Helicon to the Muses were Thracians, the same who dedicated Pieris and Leibethrum and Pimpleia to the same goddesses. ⁸⁴ The Thracians used to be called Pieres, but, now that they have disappeared, the Macedonians hold these places. It has been said ⁸⁵ that Thracians once settled in this part of Boeotia, having overpowered the Boeotians, as did also Pelasgians and other barbarians. Now in earlier times Thespiae was well known because of the Eros of Praxiteles, which was sculptured by him and dedicated by Glycera the courtesan (she had received it as a gift from the artist) to the Thespians, since she was a native of the place. Now in earlier times travellers would go up to Thespeia, a city otherwise not worth seeing, to see the Eros; and at present it and Tanagra are the only Boeotian cities that still endure; but of all the rest only ruins and names are left.

[26] After Thespiae Homer names Graea and Mycalessus, concerning which I have already spoken. ⁸⁶ He likewise says concerning the rest: ⁸⁷ “And those who lived about Harma and Heilesium and Erythrae, and those who held Eleon and Hyle and Peteon.” ⁸⁸ Peteon is a village in the Theban territory near the road to Anthedon. Ocalee is midway between Haliartus and Alalcomenium, thirty stadia distant from each; and a river bearing the same name flows past it. The Phocian Medeon is on the Crisaean Gulf, at a distance of one hundred and sixty stadia from Boeotia, whereas the Boeotian Medeon, which was named after it, is near Onchestus at the base of the mountain Phoenicius; and from this fact its name has been changed to Phoenicis. This mountain is also called a part of the Theban territory; but by some both Medeon and Ocalea are called a part of the territory of Haliartus.

[27] Homer then goes on to say: “Copae, and Eutresis, and Thisbe abounding in doves.” ⁸⁹ Concerning Copae I have already spoken. ⁹⁰ It lies towards the north on Lake Copais; and the others around the lake are these: Acraephiae, Phoenicis, Onchestus, Haliartus, Ocalea, Alalcomenae, Tilphusium, Coroneia. In early times, at least, the lake had no common name, but was called by different names corresponding to the several settlements lying on it, as, for instance, Copais from Copae, Haliartis from Haliartus, and so in the case of the rest of the settlements; but later the whole lake was called Copais, this name prevailing over all others; for the region of Copae forms the deepest recess of the lake. Pindar calls this lake Cephissis; ⁹¹ at any rate, he places near it the spring Tilphossa, which flows at the foot of Mount Tilphossius near Haliartus and Alalcomenae, near which latter is the tomb of Teiresias; and here, too, is the temple of the Tilphossian Apollo.

[28] Next in order after Copae Homer names Eutresis, a small village of the Thespians, where Zethus and Amphion are said to have lived before they reigned over Thebes. Thisbe is now called Thisbae; the place is inhabited and is situated slightly above the sea, bordering on the territory of the Thespians and on that of Coroneia; and it, too, lies at the foot of Helicon on the south; and it has a seaport situated on a rocky place, which abounds in doves, in reference to which the poet says, “Thisbe abounding in doves.” From here to Sicyon is a voyage of one hundred and sixty stadia.

[29] Next Homer names Coroneia, Haliartus, Plataeae, and Glissas. Now Coroneia is situated on a height near Helicon. The Boeotians took possession of it on their return from the Thessalian Arne after the Trojan War, at which time they also occupied Orchomenus. And when they got the mastery of Coroneia, they built in the plain before the city the temple of the Itonian Athena, bearing the same name as the Thessalian temple; and they called the river which flowed past it Cuarius, giving it the same name as the Thessalian river. But Alcaeus calls it Coralius, when he says, “Athena, warrior queen, who dost keep watch o’er the cornfields of Coroneia before thy temple on the banks of the Coralius River.” Here, too, the Pamboeotian Festival used to be celebrated. And for some mystic reason, as they say, a statue of Hades ⁹² was dedicated along with that of Athena. Now the people in Coroneia are called Coronii, whereas those in the Messenian Coroneia are called Coronaeis.

[30] Haliartus is no longer in existence, having been razed to the ground in the war against Perseus; and the country is held by the Athenians, a gift from the Romans. It was situated in a narrow place, between the mountain situated above it and Lake Copais, near the Permessus and Olmeius Rivers and the marsh that produces the flute reed.

[31] Plataeae, which Homer ⁹³ speaks of in the singular number, is at the foot of Cithaeron, between it and Thebes, along the road that leads to Athens and Megara, on the confines of Attica and Megaris; for Eleutherae is near by, which some say belongs to Attica, others to Boeotia. I have already said ⁹⁴ that the Asopus flows past Plataeae. Here it was that the forces of the Greeks completely wiped out Mardonius and his three hundred thousand Persians; and they built a temple of Zeus Eleutherius, and instituted the athletic games in which the victor received a crown, calling them the Eleutheria. And tombs of those who died in the battle, erected at public expense, are still to be seen. In Sicyonia, also, there is a deme called Plataeae, the home of Mnasalces the poet: ^{95 96} Homer speaks of Glissas, a settlement in the mountain Hypatus, which is in the Theban country near Teumessus and Cadmeia. The hillocks below which lies the Aonian Plain, as it is called, which extends from the Hypatus mountain to Thebes, are called “Dria.” ⁹⁷

[32] In these words of the poet, “and those who held Hypothebes,” ⁹⁸ some take him to mean some little city called Hypothebes, others Potniae; for Thebes, the latter say, was deserted because of the expedition of the Epigoni and had no part in the Trojan War. The former, however, say that the Thebans indeed had a part in the war, but that they were living in the level districts below Cadmeia ⁹⁹ at that time, since they were unable to rebuild Cadmeia; and since Cadmeia was called Thebes, they add, the poet called the Thebans of that time “Hypothebans” instead of “people who live below Cadmeia.”

[33] Onchestus is where the Amphictyonic Council used to convene, in the territory of Haliartus near Lake Copais and the Teneric Plain; it is situated on a height, is bare of trees, and has a sacred Precinct of Poseidon, which is also bare of trees. But the poets embellish things, calling all sacred precincts “sacred groves,” even if they are bare of trees. Such, also, is the saying of Pindar concerning Apollo: ^{100 101} But Alcaeus is wrong, for just as he perverted the name of the River Cuarius, so he falsified the position of Onchestus, placing it near the extremities of Helicon, although it is at quite a distance from this mountain.

[34] The Teneric Plain is named after Tenerus. In myth he was the son of Apollo by Melia, and was a prophet of the oracle on the Ptoüs Mountain, which the same poet calls three-peaked: ¹⁰² And he calls Tenerus ¹⁰³ The Ptoüs lies above the Teneric Plain and Lake Copais near Acraephium. Both the oracle and the mountain belonged to the Thebans. And Acraephium itself also lies on a height. They say that this is called Arne by the poet, the same name as the Thessalian city.

[35] Some say that Arne too was swallowed up by the lake, as well as Mideia. ¹⁰⁴ Zenodotus, who writes ¹⁰⁶ seems not to have read the statements of Hesiod concerning his native land, nor those of Eudoxus, who says much worse things concerning Ascre. For how could anyone believe that such a place was called “rich in vineyards” by the poet? Wrong, also, are those who write “Tarne” instead of “Arne”; for not a single place named Tarne is pointed out among the Boeotians, though there is one among the Lydians, and this the poet mentions: ¹⁰⁷ The remaining Boeotian cities concerning which it is worthwhile to make mention are: of those situated round the lake, Alalcomenae and Tilphossium, and, of the rest, Chaeroneia, Lebadeia, and Leuctra.

[36] Now as for Alalcomenae, the poet mentions it, but not in the Catalogue: ¹⁰⁸ It has an ancient temple of Athena which is held in great honor; and they say, at least, that the goddess was born there, just as Hera was born in Argos, and that it was because of this that the poet named them both in this way, as natives of these places. And it was because of this, perhaps, that he did not mention in the Catalogue the men of Alalcomenae, since, being sacred, they were excused from the expedition. And in fact the city always continued unravaged, although it was neither large nor situated in a secure position, but in a plain. But all peoples, since they revered the goddess, held aloof from any violence towards the inhabitants, so that when the Thebans, at the time of the expedition of the Epigonoi, left their city, they are said to have fled for refuge to Alalcomenae, and to Tilphossius, the mountain, a natural stronghold that lies above it; and at the base of this mountain is a spring called Tilphossa, and the monument of Teiresias, who died there at the time of the flight.

[37] Chaeroneia is near Orchomenus. It was here that Philip the son of Amyntas conquered the Athenians, Boeotians, and Corinthians in a great battle, ¹⁰⁹ and set himself up as lord of Greece. And here, too, are to be seen tombs of those who fell in the battle, tombs erected at public expense. And it was in the same region that the Romans so completely defeated the forces of Mithridates, many tens of thousands in number, that only a few escaped in safety to the sea and fled in their ships, whereas the rest either perished or were taken captive.

[38] At Lebadeia is situated an oracle of Trophonian Zeus. The oracle has a descent into the earth consisting of an underground chasm; and the person who consults the oracle descends into it himself. It is situated between Mt. Helicon and Chaeroneia, near Coroneia.

[39] Leuctra is the place where Epameinondas defeated the Lacedaemonians in a great battle and found a beginning of his overthrow of them; for after that time they were never again able to regain the hegemony of the Greeks which they formerly held, and especially because they also fared badly in the second clash near Mantineia. However, although they had suffered such reverses, they continued to avoid being subject to others until the Roman conquest. And among the Romans, also, they have continued to be held in honor because of the excellence of their government. This place is to be seen on the road that leads from Plataeae to Thespiae.

[40] Next the poet gives the catalogue of the Orchomenians, whom he separates from the Boeotian tribe. He calls Orchomenus “Minyeian,” after the tribe of the Minyae. They say that some of the Minyae emigrated from there to Iolcus, and that from this fact the Argonauts were called Minyae. Clearly it was in early times both a rich and very powerful city. Now to its wealth Homer also is a witness, for when enumerating the places that abounded in wealth he says: ¹¹¹ And of its power there is this proof, that the Thebans were wont to pay tribute to the Orchomenians and to Erginus their tyrant, who is said to have been put to death by Heracles. Eteocles, one of those who reigned as king at Orchomenus, who founded a temple of the Graces, was the first to display both wealth and power; for he honored these goddesses either because he was successful in receiving graces, ¹¹² or in giving them, or both. For necessarily, when he had become naturally inclined to kindly deeds, he began doing honor to these goddesses; and therefore he already possessed this power; but in addition he also had to have money, for neither could anyone give much if he did not have much, nor could anyone have much if he did not receive much. But if he has both together, he has the reciprocal giving and receiving; for the vessel that is at the same time being emptied and filled is always full for use; but he who gives and does not receive could not succeed in either, for he will stop giving because his treasury fails; also the givers will stop giving to him who receives only and grants no favours; and therefore he could not succeed in either way. And like things might be said concerning power. Apart from the common saying, “money is the most valuable thing to men, and it has the most power of all things among men,” we should look into the subject in detail. We say that kings have the greatest power; and on this account we call them potentates. They are potent in leading the multitudes whither they wish, through persuasion or force. Generally they persuade through kindness, for persuasion through words is not kingly; indeed, this belongs to the orator, whereas we call it kingly persuasion when kings win and attract men whither they wish by kindly deeds. They persuade men, it is true, through kindly deeds, but they force them by means of arms. Both these things may be bought with money; for he has the largest army who is able to support the largest, and he who possesses the most means is also able to show the most kindness.

They say that the place now occupied by Lake Copais was formerly dry ground, and that it was tilled in all kinds of ways when it was subject to the Orchomenians, who lived near it. And this fact, accordingly, is adduced as an evidence of their wealth.

[41] Aspledon was by some called Spledon, without the first syllable. Then the name, both of it and of the country, was changed to Eudeielos, perhaps because, from its “evening” inclination, ¹¹³ it offered a special advantage peculiar to its inhabitants, especially the mildness of its winters; for the two ends of the day are coldest; and of these the evening is colder than the morning, for as night approaches the cold is more intense, and as night retires it abates. But the sun is a means of mitigating the cold. The place, therefore, that is warmed most by the sun at the coldest time is mildest in winter. Eudeielos is twenty stadia distant from Orchomenus. And the River Melas is between them.

[42] Above the Orchomenian territory lies Panopeus, a Phocian city, and also Hyampolis. And bordering on these is Opus, the metropolis of the Epicnemidian Locrians. Now in earlier times Orchomenus was situated on a plain, they say, but when the waters overflowed, the inhabitants migrated up to the mountain Acontius, which extends for a distance of sixty stadia to Parapotamii in Phocis. And they relate that the Achaeans in Pontus, as they are called, are a colony of Orchomenians who wandered there with Ialmenus after the capture of Troy. There was also an Orchomenus in the neighborhood of Carystus. Those who have written concerning the Ships ¹¹⁴ have supplied us well with such materials, and are the writers we follow when they say things appropriate to the purpose of our work.

[1] NEXT in order is Boeotia. When I speak of this country, and of the contiguous nations, I must, for the sake of perspicuity, repeat what I have said before.

We have said, that the sea-coast stretches from Sunium to the north as far as Thessalonica, inclining a little toward the west, and having the sea on the east, that parts situated above this shore towards the west extend like belts ¹ parallel to one another through the whole country. The first of these belts is Attica with Megaris, the eastern side of which extends from Sunium to Oropus, and Boeotia; on the western side is the isthmus, and the Alcyonian sea commencing at Pagae and extending as far as the boundaries of Boeotia near Creusa, the remaining two sides are formed by the sea-shore from Sunium to the Isthmus, and the mountain tract nearly parallel with this, which separates Attica from Boeotia.

The second belt is Boeotia, stretching from east to west from the Euboean sea to the Crisaean Gulf, nearly of equal length with Attica, or perhaps somewhat less; in quality of soil however it greatly surpasses Attica.

[2] Ephorus declares the superiority of Boeotia over the bordering nations not only in this respect, but also because it alone has three seas adjoining it, and a great number of harbours. At the Criss$ean and Corinthian Gulfs it received the commodities of Italy, Sicily, and Africa. Towards Euboea the sea-coast branches off on each side of the Euripus; in one direction towards Aulis and Tanagrica, in the other, to Salganeus and Anthedon; on one side there is an open sea to Egypt, and Cyprus, and the islands; on the other to Macedonia, the Propontis, and the Hellespont. He adds also that Euboea is almost a part of Boeotia, because the Euripus is very narrow, and the opposite shores are brought into communication by a bridge of two plethra in length. ²

For these reasons he praises the country, and says, that it has natural advantages for obtaining supreme command, but that from want of careful education and learning, even those who were from time to time at the head of affairs did not long maintain the ascendency they had acquired, as appears from the example of Epaminondas; at his death the Thebans immediately lost the supremacy they had just acquired. This is to be attributed, says Ephorus, to their neglect of learning, and of intercourse with mankind, and to their exclusive cultivation of military virtues. It must be added also, that learning and knowledge are peculiarly useful in dealing with Greeks, but in the case of Barbarians, force is preferable to reason. In fact the Romans in early times, when carrying on war with savage nations, did not require such accomplishments, but from the time that they began to be concerned in transactions with more civilized people, they applied themselves to learning, and so established universal dominion.

[3] Boeotia was first occupied by Barbarians, Aones, and Temmices, a wandering people from Sunium, by Leleges, and Hyantes. Then the Phoenicians, who accompanied Cadmus, possessed it. He fortified the Cadmeian land, and transmitted the government to his descendants. The Phoenicians founded Thebes, and added it to the Cadmeian territory. They preserved their dominion, and exercised it over the greatest part of the Boeotians till the time of the expedition of the Epigoni. At this period they abandoned Thebes for a short time, but returned again. In the same manner when they were ejected by Thracians and Pelasgi, they established their rule in Thessaly together with the Arnoei for a long period, so that all the inhabitants obtained the name of Boeotians. They returned afterwards to their own country, at the time the Aeolian expedition was preparing at Aulis in Boeotia which the descendants of Orestes were equipping for Asia. After having united the Orchomenian tract to Boeotia (for formerly they did not form one community, nor has Homer enumerated these people with the Boeotians, but by themselves, calling them Minyae) with the assistance of the Orchomenians they drove out the Pelasgi, who went to Athens, a part of which city is called from this people Pelasgic. The Pelasgi however settled below Hymettus. The Thracians retreated to Parnassus. The Hyantes founded Hyampolis in Phocis.

[4] Ephorus relates that the Thracians, after making treaty with the Boeotians, attacked them by night, when encamped in a careless manner during a time of peace. The Thracians when reproached, and accused of breaking the treaty, replied, that they had not broken it, for the conditions were by day, whereas they had made the attack by night, whence the common proverb, a Thracian shuffle.

The Pelasgi and the Boeotians also went during the war to consult the oracle. He cannot tell, he says, what answer was given to the Pelasgi, but the prophetess replied to the Boeotians that they would prosper by committing some act of impiety. The messengers sent to consult the oracle suspecting the prophetess of favouring the Pelasgi on account of their relationship, (for the temple had originally belonged to the Pelasgi,) seized the woman, and threw her upon a burning pile, considering, that whether her conduct bad been right or wrong, in either case they were right; for if she had uttered a deceitful answer she was duly punished; but if not, they had only complied with the command of the oracle. Those in charge of the temple did not like to put to death, particularly in the temple, the perpetrators of this act without a formal judgment, and therefore subjected them to a trial. They were summoned before the priestesses, who were also the prophetesses, being the two survivors out of the three. The Boeotians alleged that there was no law permitting women to act as judges; an equal number of men were therefore chosen. The men acquitted; the women condemned. As the votes were equal, those for acquittal prevailed. Hence at Dodona it is to the Boeotians only that men deliver oracles. The prophetesses however give a different meaning to the answer of the oracle, and say, that the god enjoins the Boeotians to steal the tripods used at home, and to send them annually to Dodona. This they did, for they were in the habit of carrying away by night some of the dedicated tripods, which they concealed in their clothes, in order to convey them clandestinely as offerings to Dodona.

[5] After this they assisted Penthilus in sending out the Aeolian colony, and despatched a large body of their own people with him, so that it was called the Boeotian colony.

A long time afterwards the country was devastated during the war with the Persians at Plataeae. They afterwards so far recovered their power, that the Thebans, having vanquished the Lacedaemonians in two battles, ³ disputed the sovereignty of Greece. Epaminondas, however, was killed, and they were disappointed in their hope of obtaining this supremacy. They, nevertheless, fought in defence of the Greeks against the Phocaeans, who had plundered their common temple. Reduced by this war, and by the Macedonians, at the time they invaded Greece, they lost their city, which was afterwards restored to them, and rebuilt by the Macedonians themselves, who had razed it. ⁴ From that period to our own times their affairs have continued to decline, nor do they retain the appearance even of a considerable village. Other cities (of Boeotia) have experienced a similar fate, with the exception of Tanagra and Thespiae, which in comparison with Thebes are in a tolerable condition.

[6] We are next to make a circuit of the country, beginning at the sea-coast, opposite Euboea, which is continuous with that of Attica.

We begin this circuit from Oropus, and the Sacred Harbour, ⁵ which is called Delphinium, opposite to which is the ancient Eretria in Euboea, having a passage across of 60 stadia. After Delphinium, at the distance of 20 stadia, is Oropus, and opposite to this is the present Eretria. ⁶ There is a passage over to it of 40 stadia.

[7] Next is Delium, ⁷ a place sacred to Apollo, in imitation of that at Delos. It is a small town of the Tanagraeans, at the distance of 30 stadia from Aulis.

To this place the Athenians, after their defeat in battle, fled in disorder. ⁸ In the flight, Socrates the philosopher (who having lost his horse, was serving on foot) observed Xenophon, the son of Gryllus, upon the ground, fallen from his horse; he raised him upon his shoulders and carried him away in safety, a distance of many stadia, until the rout was at an end.

[8] Then follows a great harbour, which is called Bathys (or deep harbour): then Aulis, ⁹ a rocky spot, and a village of the Tanagraeans, with a harbour capable of containing 50 small vessels. So that probably the naval station of the Greeks was in the Great Harbour. Near it is the Chalcidic Euripus, to which, from Suniurn, are 70 stadia. On the Euripus, as I have already said, there is a bridge of two plethra in length; ¹⁰ at each end is a tower, one on the side of Chalcis, the other on the side of Boeotia; and a passage (for the water) is constructed between them. ¹¹ With regard to the tide of the Euripus, it is sufficient to say thus much, that according to report, it changes seven times each day and night; the cause must be investigated elsewhere.

[9] Salganeus is a place situated near the Euripus, upon a height. It has its name from Salganeus, a Boeotian, who was buried there. He was guide to the Persians, when they sailed into this passage from the Maliac Gulf. It is said, that he was put to death before they reached the Euripus, by the commander of the fleet, Megabates, as a traitor, for conducting the fleet deceitfully into a narrow opening of the sea, having no outlet. The Barbarian, however, perceived his mistake, and regretting what he had done, thought him worthy of burial, because he had been unjustly put to death.

[10] Near Oropus ¹² is a place called Graia, the temple also of Amphiaraus, and the monument of Narcissus the Eretrian, surnamed Sigelus, (the Silent,) because passers-by keep silence. Some say that Graia and Tanagra ¹³ are the same. The territory of Poemandris, however, is the same as that of Tanagra. The Tanagraens are also called Gephyraeans. The temple of Amphiaraus was transferred by command of an oracle to this place from the Thebaic Cnopia.

[11] Mycalessus is a village in the Tanagrian district. It lies upon the road from Thebes to Chalcis. It is called in the Boeotian dialect Mycalettus. Harma, also, an uninhabited village in the Tanagrian territory, derives its name from the chariot ( ἅοͅμα) of Amphiaraus, and is a different place from Harma in Attica, near Phyle, ¹⁴ a demus of Attica bordering upon Tanagra. There the proverb originated, The Pythaïstae, as they are called, signify, by the order of an oracle, the occurrence of any lightning when they are looking in the direction of Harma, and despatch the sacrifice to Delphi whenever it is observed. They were to keep watch for three months, and for three days and nights in each month, at the altar of Jupiter Astrapius, or Dispenser of lightning. This altar is in the wall, between the Pythium and the Olympium. Respecting the Boeotian Harma, some say, that Amphiaraus fell in battle out of his chariot, [harma,] near the spot where his temple now stands, and that the chariot was drawn empty to the place, which bears the same name [Harma]. ¹⁵ Others say, that the chariot of Adrastus, in his flight, was there dashed in pieces, but that lie himself escaped on his horse Areion. According to Philochorus, his life was preserved by the inhabitants of the village; in consequence of which they obtained among the Argives the right of citizenship.

[12] On going from Thebes to Argos, ¹⁶ on the left hand is Tanagra; and [near the road] on the right lies Hyria. Hyria now belongs to the Tanagrian territory, but formerly to the Thebais. Here Hyrieus is fabled to have lived, and here is the scene of the birth of Orion, which Pindar mentions in the dithyrambics. It is situated near Aulis. Some persons say that Hysiae is called Hyria, which belongs to Parasopia, situated below Cithaeron, near Erythrae, in the inland parts; it is a colony of the Hyrienses, and was founded by Nycteus, the father of Antiope. There is also in the Argive territory a village, Hysiae, the inhabitants of which are called Hysiatae. Erythrae in Ionia is a colony of this Erythrae. Heleon, a Tanagrian village, has its name from (Hele) the marshes there.

[13] After Salganeus is Anthedon, a city with a harbour, the last on the Boeotian coast towards Euboea, as the poet says,

Anthedon at the extremity. ¹⁷

Il. ii. 508. As we proceed a little farther, there are besides two small towns, belonging to the Boeotians, Larymna, near which the Cephissus discharges its waters; and farther above, Halae, of the same name as the Attic demus. Opposite to this coast is situated, it is said, Aegae ¹⁸ in Euboea, where is the temple of the Aegaean Neptune, of which we have before spoken. There is a passage across from Anthedon to Aegae of 120 stadia, and from the other places much less than this. The temple is situated upon a lofty hill, where was once a city. Near Aegae was Orobiae. ¹⁹ In the Anthedonian territory is the mountain Messapius, ²⁰ which has its name from Messapus, who when he came into Iapygia called it Messapia. Here is laid the scene of the fable respecting the Anthedonian Glaucus, who, it is said, was transformed into a sea-monster. ²¹

[14] Near Anthedon is a place called Isus, and esteemed sacred, belonging to Boeotia; it contains remains of a city, and the first syllable of Isus is short. Some persons are of opinion, that the verse ought to be written, ̓͂ισόν τε ζαθέην?̓ανθηδόνα τ̓ ἐσχατόωσαν, lengthening the first syllable by poetical licence for the sake of the metre, instead of νῖσάν τε ζαθέην, for Nisa is not to be found anywhere in Boeotia, as Apollodorus says in his observations on the Catalogue of the Ships; so that Nisa could not stand in this passage, unless by Nisa Homer meant Isus, for there was a city Nisa, in Megaris, from whence Isus was colonized, situated at the base of Cithaeron, but it exists no longer. ²² Some however write κρεῦσιάν τε ζαθέην, meaning the present Creusa, the arsenal of the Thespieans, situated on the Crisaean Gulf. Others write the passage φαοͅάς τε ζαθέας, Pharae is one of the four villages, (or Tetracomiae,) near Tanagra, namely, Heleon, Harma, Mycalessus, Pharae. Others again write the passage thus, νῦσάν τρ ζαθέηα Nysa is a village of Helicon.

Such then is the description of the sea-coast opposite Euboea.

[15] The places next in order, in the inland parts, are hollow plains, surrounded everywhere on the east and west by mountains; on the south by the mountains of Attica, on the north by those of Phocis: on the west, Cithaeron inclines, obliquely, a little above the Crisaean Sea; it begins contiguous to the mountains of Megaris and Attica, and then makes a bend towards the plains, and terminates near the Theban territory.

[16] Some of these plains become lakes, by rivers spreading over or falling into them and then flowing off. Some are dried up, and being very fertile, are cultivated in every possible way. But as the ground underneath is full of caverns and fissures, it has frequently happened, that violent earthquakes have obstructed some passages, and formed others under-ground, or on the surface, the water being carried off, either by subterranean channels, or by the formation of lakes and rivers on the surface. If the deep subterranean passages are stopped up, the waters of the lakes increase, so as to inundate and cover cities and whole districts, which become uncovered, if the same or other passages are again opened. The same regions are thus traversed in boats or on foot, according to circumstances; and the same cities are, occasionally, on the borders of, or at a distance from, a lake.

[17] One of two things took place. The cities either retained their sites, when the rise of the water was insufficient to overflow the houses, or they were deserted and rebuilt in some other place, when the inhabitants, being frequently exposed to danger from their vicinity to the lake, released themselves from further apprehension, by changing to a more distant or higher situation. It followed that the cities thus rebuilt retained the same name. Formerly, they might have had a name derived from some accidental local circumstance, but now the site does not correspond with the derivation of the name. For example, it is probable that Plataeae was so called, from πλάτη, or the flat part of the oar, and Plataeans from gaining their livelihood by rowing; but at present, since they live at a distance from the lake, the name can no longer, with equal propriety, be derived from this local circumstance. Helos also, and Heleon, and Heilesium ²³ were so called from their situation close to ἕλη, (Hele,) or marshes; but at present the case is different with all these places; either they have been rebuilt, or the lake has been greatly reduced in height by a subsequent efflux of its waters; for this is possible.

[18] This is exemplified particularly in the Cephissus, ²⁴ which fills the lake Copais. ²⁵ When the increase of the water of that lake was so great, that Copae was in danger of being swallowed up, (the city is mentioned by the poet, and from it the lake had its name,) ²⁶ a fissure in the ground, which took place not far from the lake, and near Copae, opened a subterraneous channel, of about 30 stadia in length, and received the river, which reappeared on the surface, near Upper Larymna in Locris; for, as has been mentioned, there is another Larymna, in Boeotia, on the sea, surnamed the Upper by the Romans. The place where the river rises again is called Anchoë, as also the lake near it. It is from this point that the Cephissus begins its course ²⁷ to the sea. When the overflowing of the water ceased, there was also a cessation of danger to the inhabitants on the banks, but not before some cities had been already swallowed up. When the outlets were again obstructed, Crates the Miner, a man of Chalcis, began to clear away the obstructions, but desisted in consequence of the Boeotians being in a state of insurrection; although, as he himself says, in the letter to Alexander, many places had been already drained; among these, some writers supposed was the site of the ancient Orchomenus; others, that of Eleusis, and of Athens on the Triton. These cities are said to have been founded by Cecrops, when he ruled over Boeotia, then called Ogygia, but that they were afterwards destroyed by inundations. It is said, that there was a fissure in the earth near Orchomenus, that admitted the river Melas, ²⁸ which flows through the territory of Haliartus, and forms there a marsh, where the reed grows of which the musical pipe is made. ²⁹ But this river has entirely disappeared, being carried off by the subterraneous channels of the chasm, or absorbed by the lakes and marshes about Haliartus; whence the poet calls Haliartus grassy,

And the grassy Haliartus. ³⁰

Il. ii. 503.

[19] These rivers descend from the Phocian mountains, and among them the Cephissus, ³¹ having its source at Lilaea, a Phocian city, as Homer describes it;

And they who occupied Lilaea, at the sources of Cephissus. ³²

Il. ii. 523. It flows through Elateia, ³³ the largest of the cities among the Phocians, through the Parapotamii, and the Phanoteis, which are also Phocian towns; it then goes onwards to Chaeroneia in Boeotia; afterwards, it traverses the districts of Orchomenus and Coroneia, and discharges its waters into the lake Copais. The Permessus and the Olmeius ³⁴ descend from Helicon, and uniting their streams, fall into the lake Copais near Haliartus. The waters of other streams likewise discharge themselves into it. It is a large lake with a circuit of 380 stadia; ³⁵ the outlets are nowhere visible, if we except the chasm which receives the Cephissus, and the marshes.

[20] Among the neighbouring lakes are Trephea ³⁶ and Cephissis. Homer mentions it;

Who dwelt in Hyla, intent upon amassing wealth, close to the lake Cephissis; ³⁷

Il. v. 708. for he did not mean to specify the lake Copais, as some suppose, but that called Hylicus, ³⁸ from the neighbouring village, which is called Hylae: nor did he mean Hyda, as some write the passage, for there is a place of this name in Lydia,

at the foot of the snowy Tmolus, in the fruitful country of Hyda; ³⁹

Il. xx. 385. and another in Boeotia; he therefore adds to these words, For the Copais is of great extent, and not situated in the Theban district, but the other is small, and filled from the former by subterraneous channels; it is situated between Thebes ⁴⁰ and Anthedon. Homer however makes use of the word in the singular number, sometimes making the first syllable long by poetical licence, as in the Catalogue, ἠδʼ?̔́υλην καὶ πετεῶνα ⁴¹ and sometimes shortening it, as in this instance; ̔́ος ῤ̔ ἐν?̔͂υλῃ ναίεσκε; and again, Tychius σκυτοτόμων ὄχʼ ἄοͅιστος?̔́υλῃ ἔνι οἰκία ναίων ⁴² Nor do some persons correctly write in this passage, ̔͂υδῃ?̓́ενι, for Ajax was not to send for his shield from Lydia.

[21] ⁴³ The lakes themselves would indicate the order in which the places stand, and thence it would be easy to perceive that the poet, when naming them, whether they were places of importance or otherwise, has observed no order. Indeed it would be difficult in the enumeration of so many places, obscure for the most part, and situated in the interior, to preserve a regular order. The sea-coast affords more convenient means of doing this; the places there are better known, and the sea affords greater facilities for marking their position. We shall therefore endeavour to take our point of departure from the sea-coast, and without further discussion, shall follow the poet in his enumeration of places; at the same time, taking from other sources whatever may prove useful to us, but which has been omitted by him. He begins from Hyria and Aulis, of which we have already spoken.

[22] Schoenusis ⁴⁴ a district of the Theban territory on the road to Anthedon, distant from Thebes about 50 stadia. A river of the name of Schoenus flows through it.

[23] Scolus ⁴⁵ is a village belonging to the district of Parasopia situated at the foot of Cithaeron; it is a rugged place, and scarcely habitable, hence the proverbial saying, It is said that Pentheus was brought from thence, and torn in pieces. There was among the cities near Olynthus another of the name of Scolus. We have said that in the Heracleian Trachinia there was a village of the name of Parasopii, beside which runs a river Asopus, and that there is another river Asopus in Sicyonia, and that the country through which it flows is called Asopia. There are however other rivers of the same name.

[24] The name of Eteonus was changed to that of Scarphe, which belongs to Parasopia. [Parasopia belongs to the Thebais,] for the Asopus and the Ismenus flow through the plain in front of Thebes. There is the fountain Dirce, and also Potniae, where is laid the fable of Glaucus of Potniae, who was torn in pieces near the city by Potnian mares. The Cithaeron ⁴⁶ terminates not far from Thebes. The Asopus flows by it, and washes the foot of the mountain, and occasions the Parasopii to be distributed among several settlements, but all of these bodies of people are subject to the Thebans. (Other writers say, that Scolus, Eteonus, and Erythrae, are in the district of Plataeae, for the Asopus flows past Plataeae, and discharges its waters into the sea near Tanagra.) In the Theban territory are Therapnae and Teumessus, which Antimachus has extolled in a long poem, enumerating excellencies which it had not; but the lines are well known.

[25] He calls the present place Thespiae ⁴⁷ by the name of Thespia, for there are many names, of which some are used both in the singular and in the plural number, in the masculine and in the feminine gender, and some in either one or the other only. It is a city close to Helicon, lying more to the south. The city itself and Helicon are situated on the Crisaean Gulf. Thespiae has an arsenal Creusa, or, as it is also named, Creusia. In the Thespian territory, in the part lying towards Helicon, is Ascra, ⁴⁸ the birth-place of Hesiod. It is on the right of Helicon, situated upon a lofty and rocky spot, at the distance of about 40 stadia from Thespiae. Hesiod has satirized it in verses addressed to his father, for formerly emigrating (to this place) from Cume in Aetolia, as follows: Helicon is contiguous to Phocis on its northern, and partly on its western side, as far as the last harbour of Phocis, which is called from its characteristic situation, Mychus, or the Recess. Just above this part of the Crisaean Gulf, Helicon, Ascra, Thespiae, and its arsenal Creusa, are situated. This is considered as the part of the Crisaen and of the Corinthian Gulf which recedes most inland. The coast extends 90 stadia from the recess of the harbour to Creusa, and thence 120 as far as the promontory called Holmiae. In the most retired part of the Crisaean Gulf, Pagae and Oenoa, which I have already mentioned, are situated.

Helicon, not far distant from Parnassus, rivals it in height ⁵⁰ and circumference. Both mountains are covered with snow, and are rocky. They do not occupy a circuit of ground of great extent. There are, the fane of the Muses, the Horse-fountain Hippocrene, ⁵¹ and the grottoes of the nymphs, the Leibethrides. Hence it might be conjectured, that Helicon was consecrated to the Muses, by Thracians, who dedicated also Pieris, the Leibethrum, and Pimpleia to the same goddesses. The Thracians were called Pieres, and since their expulsion, the Macedonians possess these places.

It has been remarked, that the Thracians, (having expelled the Boeotians by force,) and the Pelasgi, and other barbarous people, settled in this part of Boeotia.

Thespiae was formerly celebrated for a statue of Cupid by Praxiteles. Glycera the courtesan, a native of Thespiae, received it as a present from the artist, and dedicated it as a public offering to her fellow-citizens.

Persons formerly used to repair thither to see the Cupid, where there was nothing else worth seeing. This city, and Tanagra, alone of the Boeotian cities exist at present, while of others there remain nothing but ruins and names.

[26] After Thespiae the poet enumerates Graia and Mycalessus, of which we have before spoken.

He proceeds as before,

They who lived near Harma, Eilesium, and Erythrae,

And they who occupied Eleon, Hyle, and Peteon. ⁵²

Il. ii. 499. Peteon is a village of the Thebais near the road to Anthedon. Ocalea is midway between Haliartus, ⁵³ and Alalcomene, ⁵⁴ it is distant from each 30 stadia. A small river of the same name flows by it. Medeon, belonging to Phocis, is on the Crisaean Gulf, distant from Boeotia 160 stadia. The Medeon of Boeotia has its name from that in Phocis. It is near Onchestus, under the mountain Phoenicium, ⁵⁵ whence it has the appellation of Phoenicis. This mountain is likewise assigned to the Theban district, but by others to the territories of Haliartus, as also Medeon and Ocalea.

[27] Homer afterwards names,

Copae, and Eutresis, and Thisbe, abounding with doves. ⁵⁶

Il. ii. 502. We have spoken of Copae. It lies towards the north on the lake Copais. The other cities around are, Acraephiae, Phoenicis, Onchestus, Haliartus, Ocalea, Alalcomenae, Tilphusium, Coroneia. Formerly, the lake had no one general name, but derived its appellation from every settlement on its banks, as Copais from Copae, ⁵⁷ Haliartis from Haliartus, and other names from other places, but latterly the whole has been called Copaïs, for the lake is remarkable for forming at Copae the deepest hollow. Pindar calls it Cephissis, and places near it, not far from Haliartus and Alalcomenae, the fountain Tilphossa, which flows at the foot of Mount Tilphossius. At the fountain is the monument of Teiresias, and in the same place the temple of the Tilphossian Apollo.

[28] After Copae, the poet mentions Eutresis, a small village of the Thespians. ⁵⁸ Here Zethus and Amphion lived before they became kings of Thebes.

Thisbē is now called Thisbē. The place is situated a little above the sea-coast on the confines of the Thespienses, and the territory of Coroneia; on the south it lies at the foot of Cithaeron. It has an arsenal in a rocky situation abounding with doves, whence the poet terms it Thence to Sicyon is a voyage of 160 stadia.

[29] He next recites the names of Coroneia, Haliartus, Plataeae, and Glissas.

Coroneia ⁵⁹ is situated upon an eminence, near Helicon. The Boeotians took possession of it on their return from the Thessalian Arne, after the Trojan war, when they also occupied Orchomenus. Having become masters of Coroneia, they built in the plain before the city the temple of the Itonian Minerva, of the same name as that in Thessaly, and called the river flowing by it, Cuarius, the name of the Thessalian river. Alcaeus, however, calls it Coralius in these words, The festival Pamboeotia was here celebrated. Hades is associated with Minerva, in the dedication of the temple, for some mystical reason. The inhabitants of the Boeotian Coroneia are called Coronii, those of the Messenian Coroneia, Coronenses.

[30] Haliartus ⁶⁰ is no longer in existence, it was razed in the war against Perseus. The territory is occupied by the Athenians, to whom it was given by the Romans. It was situated in a narrow spot between an overhanging mountain and the lake Copais, near the Permessus, the Olmeius, and the marsh that produces the flute-reed.

[31] Plataeae, which the poet uses in the singular number, lies at the foot of Cithaeron, between this mountain and Thebes, on the road to Athens and Megara; it is on the borders of Attica and Boeotia, for Eleutherae is near, which some say belongs to Attica, others to Boeotia. We have said that the Asopus flows beside Plateae. There the army of the Greeks entirely destroyed Mardonius and three hundred thousand Persians. They dedicated there a temple to Jupiter Eleutherius, and instituted gymnastic games, called Eleutheria, in which the victor was crowned. The tombs erected at the public expense, in honour of those who died in the battle, are to be seen there. In the Sicyonian district is a demus called Plataeae, where the poet Mnasalces was born: Glissas, ⁶¹ Homer says, is a village on Mount Hypatus, which is near Teumessus and Cadmeia, in the Theban territory. * * * * * * * beneath is what is called the Aonian plain, which extends from Mount Hypatus [to Cadmeia?]. ⁶²

[32] By these words of the poet,

those who occupied under Thebes, ⁶³

Il. ii. 505. some understand a small town, called Under-Thebes, others Potniae, for Thebes was abandoned after the expedition of the Epigoni, and took no part in the Trojan war. Others say that they did take part in it, but that they lived at that time under Cadmeia, in the plain country, after the incursion of the Epigoni, being unable to rebuild the Cadmeia. As Thebes was called Cadmeia, the poet says that the Thebans of that time lived under Thebes instead of under Cadmeia.

[33] The Amphictyonic council usually assembled at Onchestus, in the territory of Haliartus, near the lake Copais, and the Teneric plain. It is situated on a height, devoid of trees, where is a temple of Neptune also without trees. For the poets, for the sake of ornament, called all sacred places groves, although they were without trees. Such is the language of Pindar, when speaking of Apollo: As Alcaeus is mistaken in the altering the name of the river Cuarius, so he makes a great error in placing Onchestus at the extremities of Helicon, whereas it is situated very far from this mountain.

[34] The Teneric plain has its name from Tenerus. According to mythology, he was the son of Apollo and Melia, and declared the answers of the oracle at the mountain Ptoum, ⁶⁴ which, the same poet says, had three peaks: and he calls Tenerus “The Ptoum is situated above the Teneric plain, and the lake Copaïs, near Acraephium.

Both the oracle and the mountain belonged to the Thebans.

Acrsephium ⁶⁵ itself is situated upon a height. This, it is said, is the place called Arne by the poet, having the same name as the Thessalian Arnē.

[35] Some say that Arnē and Mideia were swallowed up by the lake. Zenodotus, however, when he writes the verse thus,

they who occupied Ascra abounding with vines, ⁶⁶

Il. ii. 507. does not seem to have read Hesiod’s description of his native country, and what has been said by Eudoxus, who relates things much more to the disparagement of Ascra. For how could any one believe that such a place could have been described by the poet as Neither are those persons in the right, who substitute in this passage Tarnē for Arnē, for there is not a place of the name of Tarne to be found in Boeotia, although there is in Lydia. Homer mentions it, Besides Alalcomenae and Tilphossium, which are near the lake, Chaeroneia, Lebadia, and Leuctra, are worthy of notice.

[36] The poet mentions Alalcomenae, ⁶⁸ but not in the Cata logue;.

the Argive Juno and Minerva of Alalcomenae. ⁶⁹

Il. iv. 8. It has an ancient temple of Minerva, which is held in great veneration. It is said that this was the place of her birth, as Argos was that of Juno, and that Homer gave to both these goddesses designations derived from their native places. Perhaps for this reason he has not mentioned, in the Catalogue, the inhabitants; for having a sacred character, they were exempted from military service. Indeed the city has never suffered devastation by an enemy, although it is inconsiderable in size, and its position is weak, for it is situated in a plain. All in reverence to the goddess abstained from every act of violence; wherefore the Thebans, at the time of the expedition of the Epigoni, abandoning their own city, are said to have taken refuge here, and on the strong mountain above it, the Tilphossium. ⁷⁰ Below Tilphossium is the fountain Tilphossa, and the monument of Teiresias, who died there on the retreat.

[37] Chaeroneia ⁷¹ is near Orchomenus, ⁷² where Philip, the son of Amyntas, after having overcome, in a great battle, ⁷³ the Athenians, Boeotians, and Corinthians, became the master of Greece. There are seen the sepulchres erected at the public charge of the persons who fell in that battle.

[38] At Lebadeia ⁷⁴ is the oracle of Jupiter Trophonius, having a descent through an opening, which leads underground. The person himself, who consults the oracle, descends into it. It is situated between Helicon and Chaeroneia, near Coroneia.

[39] Leuctra ⁷⁵ is the place where Epaminondas overcame the Lacedaemonians in a great battle, and first weakened their power; for after that time they were never able to regain the supremacy over the Greeks, which they before possessed, and particularly after they were defeated in a second battle at Mantinea. Even after these reverses they preserved their independence until the establishment of the Roman dominion, and were always respected by that people on account of the excellency of their form of government. The field of battle is shown on the road which leads from Plataeae to Thespiae.

[40] The poet next mentions the Orchomenians in the Catalogue, and distinguishes them from the Boeotian nation. He gives to Orchomenus the epithet Minyeian from the nation of the Minyae. They say that a colony of the Minyeians went hence to Iolcus, ⁷⁶ and from this circumstance the Argonauts were called Minyae. It appears that, anciently, it was a rich and very powerful city. Homer bears witness to its wealth, for in his enumeration of places of great opulence, he says, Not all that is brought to Orchomenus, or to Aegyptian Thebes. ⁷⁷ Of its power there is this proof, that the Thebans always paid tribute to the Orchomenians, and to Erginus their king, who it is said was put to death by Hercules. Eteocles, one of the kings that reigned at Orchomenus, first displayed both wealth and power. He built a temple dedicated to the Graces, who were thus honoured by him, either because he had been fortunate in receiving or conferring favours, or perhaps for both these reasons.

[For one who was inclined thus to honour these goddesses, must have been naturally disposed to be a benefactor, and he must have possessed the power. But for this purpose wealth is required. For he who has not much cannot give much, nor can he who does not receive much possess much; but when giving and receiving unite, then there is a just exchange. For a vessel which is simultaneously emptied and filled is always full; but he who gives and does not receive cannot succeed in either giving or receiving, for the giver must desist from giving from failure of means. Givers also will desist from giving to him who receives only, and confers no benefits, so that he must fail in receiving. The same may be said of power. For independently of the common saying,

That money is the thing most highly valued,

And has the greatest influence in human affairs, ⁷⁸

Euripides, Phoen. 422 we may examine the subject more in detail. We say, for example, that kings have the greatest power, ( μάλιστα δύνσθσι,) whence the name, dynasty. Their power is exerted by leading the multitude whither they like, by persuasion or by force. Their power of persuasion chiefly rests in doing acts of kindness; for persuasion by words is not princely, but belongs to the orator. By princely persuasion, I mean, when kings direct and lead men whither they please by acts of kindness. They persuade by acts of kindness, but compel by means of arms. Both power and possessions may be purchased by money. For he has the largest body of forces, who is able to maintain the largest; and he who has the largest possessions, can confer the greatest benefits. ⁷⁹ ] The spot which the present lake Copaïs occupies, was formerly, it is said, dry ground, and was cultivated in various ways by the Orchomenians, who lived near it; and this is alleged as a proof of wealth.

[41] Some persons use the word Aspledon ⁸⁰ without the first syllable, Spledon. The name both of the city and of the territory was changed to Eudeielos, ⁸¹ which expressed perhaps some peculiar advantage the inhabitants derived from their western position, and especially the mild winters. The extreme parts of the day are the coldest. Of these the evening is colder than the morning, for as night approaches the cold is more intense, and as night retires the cold abates. The severity of the cold is mitigated by the heat of the sun, and the part which during the coldest season has received most of the sun’s heat, is mildest in winter.

It is distant from Orchomenus ⁸² 20 stadia. The river Melas is between them.

[42] Panopeus, a Phocian city, and Hyampolis ⁸³ are situated above Orchomenus. Opus, the metropolis of the Locri Epicnemidii, borders upon these places. It is said, that Orchomenus was formerly situated on a plain, but, as the waters overflowed, the settlers removed to the mountain Acontium, which extends 60 stadia in length, as far as Parapotamii in Phocis. It is said, that those people, who are called Achaei in Pontus, are colonists from the Orchomenians, who, after the capture of Troy, wandered thither under the conduct of lalmenus. There was also an Orchomenus near Carystus.

The writers on the Catalogue of Ships [in Homer], have furnished us with these materials, and they have been followed, wherever they introduced anything adapted to the design of this work.