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CHAPTER IV.

[1] WHAT remains [to be described] of Iberia, is the seacoast of the Mediterranean from the Pillars to the Pyrenees, and the whole of the inland country which lies above. The breadth of this is irregular, its length a little above 4000 stadia. It has been remarked that the sea-coast¹ is above 2000 stadia, and they say that from Mount Calpe,² which is near the Pillars, to New Carthage,³ there are 2200 stadia. This coast is inhabited by the Bastetani, also called the Bastuli, and in part by the Oretani. Thence⁴ to the Ebro the distance is nearly as great. This [region] is inhabited by the Edetani. On this side the Ebro to the Pyrenees and the Trophies of Pompey there are 1600 stadia. It is peopled by a small portion of the Edetani, and the rest by a people named the Indicetes, divided into four cantons.

[2] Commencing our particular description from Calpe, there is [first] the mountain-chain of Bastetania and the Oretani. This is covered with thick woods and gigantic trees, and separates the sea-coast from the interior. In many places it also contains gold and other mines. The first city along the coast is Malaca,⁵ which is about as far distant from Calpe as Calpe is from Gades.⁶ It is a market for the nomade tribes from the opposite coast, and there are great stores of salt-fish there. Some suppose it to be the same as Maenaca, which tradition reports to be the farthest west of the cities of the Phocaei; but this is not the case, for Maenaca, which was situated at a greater distance from Calpe, is in ruins, and preserves traces of having been a Grecian city, whereas Malaca is nearer, and Phoenician in its configuration. Next in order is the city of the Exitani,⁷ from which the salted fish⁸ bearing that name takes its appellation.

[3] After these comes Abdera,⁹ founded likewise by the Phoenicians. Above these places, in the mountains, the city of Ulyssea¹⁰ is shown, containing a temple to Minerva, according to the testimony of Posidonius, Artemidorus, and Asclepiades the Myrlean,¹¹ a man who taught literature in Turdetania, and published a description of the nations dwelling there. He says that in the temple of Minerva were hung up spears and prows of vessels, monuments of the wanderings of Ulysses. That some of those who followed Teucer in his expedition settled among the Gallicians;¹² and that two cities were there, the one called Hellenes,¹³ the other Amphilochi; but Amphilochus¹⁴ having died, his followers wandered into the interior. He adds, that it is said, that some of the followers of Hercules, and certain also of the inhabitants of Messene, settled in Iberia. Both he and others assert that a portion of Cantabria was occupied by Laconians. Here is the city named Opsicella,¹⁵ founded by Ocela,¹⁶ who passed into Italy with Antenor and his children. Some believe the account of the merchants of Gades, asserted by Artemidorus, that in Libya there are people living above Maurusia, near to the Western Ethiopians, named Lotophagi, because they feed on the leaves and root of the lotus¹⁷ without wanting to drink; for they possess [no drink], being without water. These people they say extend as far as the regions above Cyrene. There are others also called Lotophagi, who inhabit Meninx,¹⁸ one of the islands situated opposite the Lesser Syrtes.¹⁹

[4] No one should be surprised that the poet, in his fiction descriptive of the wanderings of Ulysses, should have located the majority of the scenes which he narrates without the Pillars, in the Atlantic. For historical events of a similar character did actually occur near to the places, so that the other circumstances which he feigned did not make his fiction incredible; nor [should any one be surprised] if certain persons, putting faith in the historical accuracy and extensive knowledge of the poet, should have attempted to explain the poem of Homer on scientific principles; a proceeding undertaken by Crates of Mallos,²⁰ and some others. On the other hand, there have been those who have treated the undertaking of Homer so contemptuously, as not only to deny any such knowledge to the poet, as though he were a ditcher or reaper, but have stigmatized as fools those who commented on his writings. And not one either of the grammarians, or of those skilled in the mathematics, has dared to undertake their defence, or to set right any mistakes in what they have advanced, or any thing else; although it seems to me possible both to prove correct much that they have said, and also to set right other points, especially where they have been misled by putting faith in Pytheas, who was ignorant of the countries situated along the ocean, both to the west and north. But we must let these matters pass, as they require a particular and lengthened discussion.

[5] The settlement of the Grecians amongst these barbarous nations may be regarded as the result of the division of these latter into small tribes and sovereignties, having on account of their moroseness no union amongst themselves, and therefore powerless against attacks from without. This moroseness is remarkably prevalent amongst the Iberians, who are besides crafty in their manner, devoid of sincerity, insidious, and predatory in their mode of life; they are bold in little adventures, but never undertake any thing of magnitude, inasmuch as they have never formed any extended power or confederacy. If they had had but the will to assist each other, neither could the Carthaginians by making an incursion have so easily deprived them of the greater part of their country, nor before them the Tyrians, then the Kelts, now called the Keltiberians and Berones, nor after these the brigand Viriathus, and Sertorius,²¹ nor any others who desired power. On this account the Romans, having carried the war into Iberia, lost much time by reason of the number of different sovereignties, having to conquer first one, then another; in fact, it occupied nearly two centuries, or even longer, before they had subdued the whole.—I return to my description.

[6] After Abdera²² is New Carthage,²³ founded by Asdrubal, who succeeded Bareas, the father of Hannibal. It is by far the most powerful city of this country, being impregnable, and furnished with a noble wall, harbours, and a lake, besides the silver mines already mentioned. The places in the vicinity have an abundance of salted fish, and it is besides the great emporium of the sea merchandise for the interior, and likewise for the merchandise from the interior for exportation. About midway along the coast between this city and the Ebro, we meet with the outlet of the river 4ucar,²⁴ and a city bearing the same name.²⁵ It rises in a mountain belonging to the chain which overlooks Malaca,²⁶ and the regions around Carthage, and may be forded on foot; it is nearly parallel to the Ebro, but not quite so far distant from Carthage as from the Ebro. Between the 4ucar and Carthage are three small towns of the people of Marseilles, not far from the river. Of these the best known is Hemeroscopium.²⁷ On the promontory there is a temple to Diana of Ephesus, held in great veneration. Sertorius used it as an arsenal, convenient to the sea, both on account of its being fortified and fitted for piratical uses, and because it is visible from a great distance to vessels approaching. It is called Dianium,²⁸ from Diana. Near to it are some fine iron-works, and two small islands, Planesia²⁹ and Plumbaria,³⁰ with a sea-water lake lying above, of 400 stadia in circumference. Next is the island of Hercules, near to Carthage, and called Scombraria,³¹ on account of the mackerel taken there, from which the finest garum³² is made. It is distant 24 stadia from Carthage. On the other side of the 4ucar, going towards the outlet of the Ebro, is Saguntum, founded by the Zacynthians. The destruction of this city by Hannibal, contrary to his treaties with the Romans, kindled the second Punic war. Near to it are the cities of Cherronesus,³³ Oleastrum, and Cartalia, and the colony of Dertossa,³⁴ on the very passage of the Ebro. The Ebro takes its source amongst the Cantabrians; it flows through an extended plain towards the south, running parallel with the Pyrenees.

[7] The first city between the windings of the Ebro and the extremities of the Pyrenees, near to where the Trophies of Pompey are erected, is Tarraco;³⁵ it has no harbour, but is situated on a bay, and possessed of many other advantages. At the present day it is as well peopled as Carthage;³⁶ for it is admirably suited for the stay of the prefects,³⁷ and is as it were the metropolis, not only of [the country lying] on this side the Ebro, but also of a great part of what lies beyond. The near vicinity of the Gymnesian Islands,³⁸ and Ebusus,³⁹ which are all of considerable importance, are sufficient to inform one of the felicitous position of the city. Eratosthenes tells us that it has a road-stead, but Artemidorus contradicts this, and affirms that it scarcely possesses an anchorage.

[8] The whole coast from the Pillars up to this place wants harbours, but all the way from here to Emporium,⁴⁰ the countries of the Leëtani, the Lartolaeetae, and others, are both furnished with excellent harbours and fertile. Emporium was founded by the people of Marseilles, and is about 4000⁴¹ stadia distant from the Pyrenees, and the confines of Iberia and Keltica. This is a very fine region, and possesses good ports. Here also is Rhodope,⁴² a small town of the Emporitae, but some say it was founded by the Rhodians. Both here and in Emporium they reverence the Ephesian Diana. The cause of this we will explain when we come to speak of Massalia.⁴³ in former times the Emporitae dwelt on a small island opposite, now called the old city, but at the present day they inhabit the mainland. The city is double, being divided by a wall, for in past times some of the Indiceti dwelt close by, who, although they had a separate polity to themselves, desired, for the sake of safety, to be shut in by a common enclosure with the Grecians; but at the same time that this enclosure should be two-fold, being divided through its middle by a wall. In time, however, they came to have but one government, a mixture of Barbarian and Grecian laws; a result which has taken place in many other [states].

[9] A river⁴⁴ flows near to it, which has its sources in the Pyrenees; its outlet forms a port for the Emporitae, who are skilful workers in flax. Of the interior of their country some parts are fertile, others covered with spartum, a rush which flourishes in marshes, and is entirely useless: they call this the June Plain. There are some who inhabit the Pyrenean mountains as far as the Trophies of Pompey, on the route which leads from Italy into Ulterior Iberia,⁴⁵ and particularly into Baetica. This road runs sometimes close to the sea, sometimes at a distance therefrom, particularly in the western parts. From the Trophies of Pompey it leads to Tarraco,⁴⁶ through the June Plain, the Betteres,⁴⁷ and the plain called in the Latin tongue [the plain] of Marathon, on account of the quantity of fennel growing there. From Tarraco [the road runs] towards the passage of the Ebro at the city of Dertossa;⁴⁸ from thence having traversed the city of Saguntum,⁴⁹ and Setabis,⁵⁰ it follows a course more and more distant from the sea, till it approaches the Plain of Spartarium, which signifies the Plain of Rushes. This is a vast arid plain, producing the species of rush from which cords are made, and which are exported to all parts, but particularly to Italy.⁵¹ Formerly the road passed on through the midst of the plain, and [the city of] Egelastae,⁵² which was both difficult and long, but they have now constructed a new road close to the sea, which merely touches upon the Plain of Rushes, and leads to the same places as the former, [viz.] Castlon,⁵³ and Obulco,⁵⁴ through which runs the road to Corduba and Gades,⁵⁵ the two greatest emporia [of Iberia]. Obulco is distant about 300 stadia from Corduba. Historians report that Caesar came from Rome to Obulco, and to his army there, within the space of twenty-seven days, when about to fight the battle of Munda.⁵⁶

[10] Such is the whole sea-coast from the Pillars to the confines of the Iberians and Kelts. The interior of the country lying above, and included between the mountains of the Pyrenees and the northern side [of Iberia], as far as the Astures, is principally divided by two mountain chains; the one of these is parallel to the Pyrenees, and takes its commencement from the country of the Cantabri, terminating at the Mediterranean. This is called the Idubeda.⁵⁷ The second, springing from the middle [of this first], runs towards the west, inclining however to the south and the sea-coast towards the Pillars. At the commencement it consists of bare hills, but after traversing the Plain of Spartarium, falls in with the forest lying above Carthage,⁵⁸ and the regions round Malaca.⁵⁹ It is named Orospeda.⁶⁰ The river Ebro flows between the Pyrenees and Idubeda, and parallel to both these mountains. It is fed by the rivers and other waters carried down from [the mountains]. Situated on the Ebro is the city of Caesar Augusta,⁶¹ and the colony of Celsa,⁶² where there is a stone bridge across the river. This country is inhabited by many nations, the best known being that of the Jaccetani.⁶³ Commencing at the foot of the Pyrenees, it widens out into the plains, and reaches to the districts around Ilerda⁶⁴ and Osca,⁶⁵ [cities] of the Ilergetes not far distant from the Ebro. It was in these cities, and in Calaguris,⁶⁶ a city of the Gascons, as well as those of Tarraco⁶⁷ and Hemeroscopium,⁶⁸ situated on the coast, that Sertorius sustained the last efforts of the war, after being ejected from the country of the Keltiberians. He died at Osca, and it was near to Ilerda that Afranius and Petreius, Pompey’s generals, were afterwards defeated by divus⁶⁹ Caesar. Ilerda is distant 160 stadia from the Ebro, which is on its west, about 460 from Tarraco, which is on the south, and 540 from Osca, which lies to the north.⁷⁰ Passing through these places from Tarraco to the extremities of the Vascons who dwell by the ocean, near Pompelon⁷¹ and the city of Oeaso⁷² situated on the ocean, the route extends 2400 stadia, to the very frontiers of Aquitaine and Iberia. It was in the country of the Jaccetani that Sertorius fought against Pompey, and here afterwards Sextus, Pompey’s son, fought against the generals of Caesar. The nation of the Vascons, in which is Pompelon, or Pompey’s city, lies north of Jaccetania.

[11] The side of the Pyrenees next Iberia is covered with forests containing numerous kinds of trees and evergreens, whilst the side next Keltica is bare: in the midst [the mountains] enclose valleys admirably fitted for the habitation of man. These are mainly possessed by the Kerretani, a people of the Iberians. The hams they cure are excellent, fully equal to those of the Cantabrians,⁷³ and they realize no inconsiderable profit to the inhabitants.

[12] Immediately after passing Idubeda, you enter on Keltiberia, a large and irregular country. It is for the most part rugged, and watered by rivers, being traversed by the Guadiana,⁷⁴ the Tagus, and many other of the rivers which flow into the western sea, but have their sources in Keltiberia. Of their number is the Douro, which flows by Numantia⁷⁵ and Serguntia. The Guadalquiver⁷⁶ rises in Orospeda, and after passing through Oretania, enters Baetica. The Berones inhabit the districts north of the Keltiberians, and are neighbours of the Conish Cantabrians. They likewise had their origin in the Keltic expedition. Their city is Varia,⁷⁷ situated near to the passage of the Ebro. They are adjacent to the Bardyitae, now called the Bardyli.⁷⁸ To the west [of the Keltiberians] are certain of the Astures, Gallicians, and Vaccaei, besides Vettones and Carpetani. On the south are the Oretani, and the other inhabitants of Orospeda, both Bastetani and Edetani,⁷⁹ and to the east is Idubeda.

[13] Of the four divisions into which the Keltiberians are separated, the most powerful are the Aruaci, situated to the east and south, near to the Carpetani and the sources of the Tagus. Their most renowned city is Numantia. They showed their valour in the war of twenty years, waged by the Keltiberians against the Romans; for many armies of the Romans, together with their generals, were destroyed; and in the end the Numantians, besieged within their city, endured the famine with constancy, till, reduced to a very small number, they were compelled to surrender the place. The Lusones are also situated to the east, and likewise border on the sources of the Tagus. Segeda and Pallantia⁸⁰ are cities of the Aruaci. Numantia is distant from Caesar Augusta,⁸¹ situated as we have said upon the Ebro, about 800 stadia. Near to Segobriga and Bilbilis,⁸² likewise cities of the Keltiberians, was fought the battle between Metellus and Sertorius. Polybius, describing the people and countries of the Vaccaei and Keltiberians, enumerates Segesama⁸³ and Intercatia amongst their other cities. Posidonius tells us that Marcus Marcellus exacted of Keltiberia a tribute of 600 talents, which proves that the Keltiberians were a numerous and wealthy people, notwithstanding the little fertility of their country. Polybius narrates that Tiberius Gracchus destroyed 300 cities of the Keltiberians. This Posidonius ridicules, and asserts that to flatter Gracchus, Polybius described as cities the towers such as are exhibited in the triumphal processions.⁸⁴ This is not incredible; for both generals and historians easily fall into this species of deception, by exaggerating their doings. Those who assert that Iberia contained more than a thousand cities, seem to me to have been carried away in a similar manner, and to have denominated as cities what were merely large villages; since, from its very nature, this country is incapable of maintaining so many cities, on account of its sterility, wildness, and its out-of-the-way position. Nor, with the exception of those who dwell along the shores of the Mediterranean, is any such statement confirmed by the mode of life or actions of the inhabitants. The inhabitants of the villages, who constitute the majority of the Iberians, are quite uncivilized. Even the cities cannot very easily refine the manners [of their inhabitants], as the neighbouring woods are full of robbers, waiting only an opportunity to inflict injury on the citizens.

[14] Beyond the Keltiberians to the south are the inhabitants of Orospeda and the country about the 4ucar,⁸⁵ the Sidetani,⁸⁶ [who extend] as far as Carthage,⁸⁷ and the Bastetani and Oretani, [who extend] almost as far as Malaca.⁸⁸

[15] All the Iberians, so to speak, were peltastae, furnished with light arms for the purposes of robbery, and, as we described the Lusitanians, using the javelin, the sling, and the sword. They have some cavalry interspersed amongst the foot-soldiers, the horses are trained to traverse the mountains, and to sink down on their knees at the word of command, in case of necessity. Iberia produces abundance of antelopes and wild horses. In many places the lakes are stocked. They have fowl, swans, and birds of similar kind, and vast numbers of bustards. Beavers are found in the rivers, but the castor does not possess the same virtue as that from the Euxine,⁸⁹ the drug from that place having peculiar properties of its own, as is the case in many other instances. Thus Posidonius tells us that the Cyprian copper alone produces the cadmian stone, copperas-water, and oxide of copper. He likewise informs us of the singular fact, that in Iberia the crows are not black; and that the horses of Keltiberia which are spotted, lose that colour when they pass into Ulterior Iberia. He compares them to the Parthian horses, for indeed they are superior to all other breeds, both in fleetness and their ease in speedy travelling.

[16] Iberia produces a large quantity of roots used in dyeing. In olives, vines, figs, and every kind of similar fruit-trees, the Iberian coast next the Mediterranean abounds, they are likewise plentiful beyond. Of the coasts next the ocean, that towards the north is destitute of them, on account of the cold, and the remaining portion generally on account of the apathy of the men, and because they do not lead a civilized life, but pass their days in poverty, only acting on the animal impulse, and living most corruptly. They do not attend to ease or luxury, unless any one considers it can add to the happiness of their lives to wash themselves and their wives in stale urine kept in tanks, and to rinse their teeth with it, which they say is the custom both with the Cantabrians and their neighbours.⁹⁰ This practice, as well as that of sleeping on the ground, is common both among the Iberians and Kelts. Some say that the Gallicians are atheists, but that the Keltiberians, and their neighbours to the north, [sacrifice] to a nameless god, every full moon, at night, before their doors, the whole family passing the night in dancing and festival. The Vettones, the first time they came to a Roman camp, and saw certain of the officers walking up and down the roads for the mere pleasure of walking, supposed that they were mad, and offered to show them the way to their tents. For they thought, when not fighting, one should remain quietly seated at ease.⁹¹

[17] What Artemidorus relates concerning the adornment of certain of their women, must likewise be attributed to their barbarous customs. He says that they wear iron collars having crows fixed to them which bend over the head, and fall forward considerably over the forehead. When they wish they draw their veil over these crows, so as to shade the whole face: this they consider an ornament. Others wear a tympanium⁹² surrounding the occiput, and fitting tight to the head as far as the ears, turning over [and increasing] little by little in height and breadth. Others again make bald the front of the head, in order to display the forehead to greater advantage. Some twist their flowing hair round a small style, a foot high, and afterwards cover it with a black veil. Of singularities like these many have been observed and recorded as to all the Iberian nations in common, but particularly those towards the north not only concerning their bravery, but likewise their cruelty and brutal madness. For in the war against the Cantabrians, mothers have slain their children sooner than suffer them to be captured; and a young boy, having obtained a sword, slew, at the command of his father, both his parents and brothers, who had been made prisoners and were bound, and a woman those who had been taken together with her. A man being invited by a party of drunken [soldiers] to their feast, threw himself into a fire. These feelings are common both to the Keltic, Thracian, and Scythian nations, as well as the valour not only of their men, but likewise of their women. These till the ground,⁹³ and after parturition, having put their husbands instead of themselves to bed, they wait upon them. Frequently in their employment they wash and swathe their infants, sitting down by some stream. Posidonius tells us that in Liguria, his host Charmoleon, a man who came from Marseilles, related to him, that having hired some men and women to dig his land, one of the women was seized with the pains of labour, and going to a little distance from where they were at work, she brought forth, and returned immediately to her work, for fear she might lose her pay. He observed that she was evidently working in considerable pain, but was not aware of the cause till towards evening, when he ascertained it, and sent her away, having given her her wages. She then carried her infant to a small spring, and having washed it, wrapped it up in as good swaddling clothes as she could get, and made the best of her way home.

[18] Another practice, not restricted to the Iberians alone, is for two to mount on one horse, so that in the event of a conflict, one may be there to fight on foot. Neither are they the only sufferers in being tormented with vast swarms of mice, from which pestilential diseases have frequently ensued. This occurred to the Romans in Cantabria, so that they caused it to be proclaimed, that whoever would catch the mice should receive rewards according to the number taken, and [even with this] they were scarcely preserved, as they were suffering besides from want of corn and other necessaries, it being difficult to get supplies of corn from Aquitaine on account of the rugged nature of the country. It is a proof of the ferocity of the Cantabrians, that a number of them having been taken prisoners and fixed to the cross, they chanted songs of triumph. Instances such as these are proofs of the ferocity of their manners. There are others which, although not showing them to be polished, are certainly not brutish. For example, amongst the Cantabrians, the men give dowries to their wives, and the daughters are left heirs, but they procure wives for their brothers. These things indicate a degree of power in the woman, although they are no proof of advanced civilization.⁹⁴ It is also a custom with the Iberians to furnish themselves with a poison, which kills without pain, and which they procure from a herb resembling parsley. This they hold in readiness in case of misfortune, and to devote themselves for those whose cause they have joined, thus dying for their sake.⁹⁵

[19] Some, as I have said, state that this country is separated into four divisions; others, into five. It is not easy to state any thing precisely on these points, both on account of the changes which the places have undergone, and by reason of their obscurity. In well-known and notable countries both the migrations are known, and the divisions of the land, and the changes of their names, and every thing else of the same kind. Such matters being the common topics with everybody, and especially with the Greeks, who are more talkative than any other people. But in barbarous and out-of-the-way countries, and such as are cut up into small divisions, and lie scattered, the remembrance of such occurrences is not nearly so certain, nor yet so full. If these countries are far removed from the Greeks [our] ignorance is increased. For although the Roman historians imitate the Greeks, they fall far short of them. What they relate is taken from the Greeks, very little being the result of their own ardour in acquiring information. So that whenever any thing has been omitted by the former there is not much supplied by the latter. Add to this, that the names most celebrated are generally Grecian. Formerly the name of Iberia was given to the whole country between the Rhone and the isthmus formed by the two Galatic gulfs; whereas now they make the Pyrenees its boundary, and call it indifferently Iberia or Hispania; others have restricted Iberia to the country on this side the Ebro.⁹⁶ Still earlier it bore the name of the Igletes,⁹⁷ who inhabited but a small district, according to Asclepiades the Myrlean. The Romans call the whole indifferently Iberia and Hispania, but designate one portion of it Ulterior, and the other Citerior. However, at different periods they have divided it differently, according to its political aspect at various times.

[20] At the present time some of the provinces having been assigned to the people and senate of the Romans, and the others to the emperor, Baetica appertains to the people, and a praetor has been sent into the country, having under him a quaestor and a lieutenant. Its eastern boundary has been fixed near to Castlon.⁹⁸ The remainder belongs to the emperor, who deputes two lieutenants, a praetor, and a consul. The praetor with a lieutenant administers justice amongst the Lusitanians, who are situated next Baetica, and extend as far as the outlets of the river Douro, for at the present time this district is called Lusitania by the inhabitants. Here is [the city of] Augusta Emerita.⁹⁹ What remains, which is [indeed] the greater part of Iberia, is governed by the consul, who has under him a respectable force, consisting of about three legions, with three lieutenants, one of whom with two legions guards the whole country north of the Douro, the inhabitants of which formerly were styled Lusitanians, but are now called Gallicians. The northern mountains, together with the Asturian and Cantabrian, border on these. The river Melsus¹⁰⁰ flows through the country of the Asturians, and at a little distance is the city of Nougat,¹⁰¹ close to an estuary formed by the ocean, which separates the Asturians from the Cantabrians. The second lieutenant with the remaining legion governs the adjoining district as far as the Pyrenees. The third oversees the midland district, and governs the cities inhabited by the togati, whom we have before alluded to as inclined to peace, and who have adopted the refined manners and mode of life of the Italians, together with the toga. These are the Keltiberians, and those who dwell on either side of the Ebro, as far as the sea-coast. The consul passes the winter in the maritime districts, mostly administering justice either in [the city of] Carthage,¹⁰² or Tarraco.¹⁰³ During the summer he travels through the country, observing whatever may need reform. There are also the procurators of the emperor, men of the equestrian rank, who distribute the pay to the soldiers for their maintenance.

Geography. Strabo. Hans Claude Hamilton (Translator), William Falconer (Translator). London. 1854-1857.

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Current edition Perseus

Geography (English) (Strabo. The Geography of Strabo, Vols. 1-3. Hamilton, Hans Claude, translator; Falconer, William, translator. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1854-1857.)

Editions (1)

Γεωγραφικά Perseus (Strabo. Strabonis Geographica, Vols. 1-3. Meineke, August, editor. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877.) — 3.4 focus

[1] λοιπὴ δʼ ἐστὶ τῆς Ἰβηρίας ἥ τε ἀπὸ τῶν στηλῶν μέχρι τῆς Πυρήνης καθʼ ἡμᾶς παραλία καὶ ἡ ταύτης ὑπερκειμένη μεσόγαια πᾶσα, τὸ μὲν πλάτος ἀνώμαλος τὸ δὲ μῆκος μικρῷ πλειόνων ἢ τετρακισχιλίων σταδίων· τὸ δὲ τῆς παραλίας ἔτι πλεῖον καὶ δισχιλίοις σταδίοις εἴρηται. φασὶ δὲ ἀπὸ μὲν Κάλπης τοῦ κατὰ στήλας ὄρους ἐπὶ Καρχηδόνα νέαν δισχιλίους καὶ διακοσίους σταδίους· οἰκεῖσθαι δὲ τὴν ᾐόνα ταύτην ὑπὸ Βαστητανῶν οὓς καὶ Βαστούλους καλοῦσιν, ἐκ μέρους δὲ καὶ ὑπὸ Ὠρητανῶν. ἐντεῦθεν δʼ ἐπὶ τὸν Ἴβηρα ἄλλους τοσούτους σχεδόν τι (ταύτην δʼ ἔχειν Ἐδητανούς), ἐντὸς δὲ τοῦ Ἴβηρος μέχρι Πυρήνης καὶ τῶν Πομπηίου ἀναθημάτων χιλίους καὶ ἑξακοσίους· οἰκεῖν δὲ Ἐδητανῶν τε ὀλίγους καὶ λοιπὸν τοὺς προσαγορευομένους Ἰνδικήτας μεμερισμένους τέτραχα.

[2] κατὰ μέρος δὲ ἀπὸ Κάλπης ἀρξαμένοις ῥάχις ἐστὶν ὀρεινὴ τῆς Βαστητανίας καὶ τῶν Ὠρητανῶν δασεῖαν ὕλην ἔχουσα καὶ μεγαλόδενδρον, διορίζουσα τὴν παραλίαν ἀπὸ τῆς μεσογαίας. πολλαχοῦ δὲ κἀνταῦθά ἐστι χρυσεῖα καὶ ἄλλα μέταλλα. πόλις δʼ ἐστὶν ἐν τῇ παραλίᾳ ταύτῃ πρώτη Μάλακα, ἴσον διέχουσα τῆς Κάλπης ὅσον καὶ τὰ Γάδειρα· ἐμπόριον δʼ ἐστὶν τοῖς ἐν τῇ περαίᾳ νομάσι, καὶ ταριχείας δὲ ἔχει μεγάλας. ταύτην τινὲς τῇ Μαινάκῃ τὴν αὐτὴν νομίζουσιν, ἣν ὑστάτην τῶν Φωκαϊκῶν πόλεων πρὸς δύσει κειμένην παρειλήφαμεν, οὐκ ἔστι δέ· ἀλλʼ ἐκείνη μὲν ἀπωτέρω τῆς Κάλπης ἐστί, κατεσκαμμένη, τὰ δʼ ἴχνη σώζουσα Ἑλληνικῆς πόλεως, ἡ δὲ Μάλακα πλησίον μᾶλλον, Φοινικικὴ τῷ σχήματι. ἐφεξῆς δʼ ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν Ἐξιτανῶν πόλις, ἐξ ἧς καὶ τὰ ταρίχη ἐπωνύμως λέγεται.

[3] μετὰ ταύτην Ἄβδηρα Φοινίκων κτίσμα καὶ αὐτή. ὑπὲρ δὲ τῶν τόπων ἐν τῇ ὀρεινῇ δείκνυται Ὀδύσσεια καὶ τὸ ἱερὸν τῆς Ἀθηνᾶς ἐν αὐτῇ, ὡς Ποσειδώνιός τε εἴρηκε καὶ Ἀρτεμίδωρος καὶ Ἀσκληπιάδης ὁ Μυρλεανός, ἀνὴρ ἐν τῇ Τουρδητανίᾳ παιδεύσας τὰ γραμματικὰ καὶ περιήγησίν τινα τῶν ἐθνῶν ἐκδεδωκὼς τῶν ταύτῃ. οὗτος δέ φησιν ὑπομνήματα τῆς πλάνης τῆς Ὀδυσσέως ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ τῆς Ἀθηνᾶς ἀσπίδας προσπεπατταλεῦσθαι καὶ ἀκροστόλια. ἐν Καλλαϊκοῖς δὲ τῶν μετὰ Τεύκρου στρατευσάντων τινὰς οἰκῆσαι, καὶ ὑπάρξαι πόλεις αὐτόθι, τὴν μὲν καλουμένην Ἕλληνες τὴν δὲ Ἀμφίλοχοι, ὡς καὶ τοῦ Ἀμφιλόχου τελευτήσαντος δεῦρο καὶ τῶν συνόντων πλανηθέντων μέχρι τῆς μεσογαίας. καὶ τῶν μεθʼ Ἡρακλέους δέ τινας καὶ τῶν ἀπὸ Μεσσήνης ἱστορῆσθαί φησιν ἐποικῆσαι τὴν Ἰβηρίαν, τῆς δὲ Κανταβρίας μέρος τι κατασχεῖν Λάκωνας καὶ οὗτός φησι καὶ ἄλλοι. ἐνταῦθα δὲ καὶ Ὠκέλλαν πόλιν Ὠκέλλα κτίσμα λέγουσι τοῦ μετὰ Ἀντήνορος καὶ τῶν παίδων αὐτοῦ διαβάντος εἰς τὴν Ἰταλίαν. καὶ ἐν τῇ Λιβύῃ δὲ πεπιστεύκασί τινες τοῖς τῶν Γαδειριτῶν ἐμπόροις προσέχοντες, ὡς καὶ Ἀρτεμίδωρος εἴρηκεν, ὅτι οἱ ὑπὲρ τῆς Μαυρουσίας οἰκοῦντες πρὸς τοῖς ἑσπερίοις Αἰθίοψι Λωτοφάγοι καλοῦνται, σιτούμενοι λωτόν, πόαν τινὰ καὶ ῥίζαν, οὐ δεόμενοι δὲ ποτοῦ, οὐδὲ ἔχοντες διὰ τὴν ἀνυδρίαν, διατείνοντες καὶ μέχρι τῶν ὑπὲρ τῆς Κυρήνης τόπων. ἄλλοι τε πάλιν καλοῦνται Λωτοφάγοι τὴν ἑτέραν οἰκοῦντες τῶν πρὸ τῆς μικρᾶς Σύρτεως νήσων, τὴν Μήνιγγα.

[4] οὐ δὴ θαυμάζοι τις ἂν οὔτε τοῦ ποιητοῦ τὰ περὶ τὴν Ὀδυσσέως πλάνην μυθογραφήσαντος τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον, ὥστʼ ἔξω στηλῶν ἐν τῷ Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει τὰ πολλὰ διαθέσθαι τῶν λεγομένων περὶ αὐτοῦ (τὰ γὰρ ἱστορούμενα ἐγγὺς ἦν καὶ τοῖς τόποις καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις τῶν ὑπʼ ἐκείνου πεπλασμένων, ὥστε οὐκ ἀπίθανον ἐποίει τὸ πλάσμα), οὔτʼ εἴ τινες αὐταῖς τε ταύταις ταῖς ἱστορίαις πιστεύσαντες καὶ τῇ πολυμαθείᾳ τοῦ ποιητοῦ καὶ πρὸς ἐπιστημονικὰς ὑποθέσεις ἔτρεψαν τὴν Ὁμήρου ποίησιν, καθάπερ Κράτης τε ὁ Μαλλώτης ἐποίησε καὶ ἄλλοι τινές. οἱ δʼ οὕτως ἀγροίκως ἐδέξαντο τὴν ἐπιχείρησιν τὴν τοιαύτην ὥστε οὐ μόνον τὸν ποιητὴν σκαπανέως ἢ θεριστοῦ δίκην ἐκ πάσης τῆς τοιαύτης ἐπιστήμης ἐξέβαλον, ἀλλὰ καὶ τοὺς ἁψαμένους τῆς τοιαύτης πραγματείας μαινομένους ὑπέλαβον· συνηγορίαν δὲ ἢ ἐπανόρθωσιν ἤ τι τοιοῦτον ἕτερον εἰς τὰ λεχθέντα ὑπʼ ἐκείνων εἰσενεγκεῖν οὐκ ἐθάρρησεν οὔτε τῶν γραμματικῶν οὔτε τῶν περὶ τὰ μαθήματα δεινῶν οὐδείς. καίτοι ἔμοιγε δοκεῖ δυνατὸν εἶναι καὶ συνηγορῆσαι πολλοῖς τῶν λεχθέντων καὶ εἰς ἐπανόρθωσιν ἄγειν καὶ μάλιστα ταῦτα ὅσα Πυθέας παρεκρούσατο τοὺς πιστεύσαντας αὐτῷ κατὰ ἄγνοιαν τῶν τε ἑσπερίων τόπων καὶ τῶν προσβόρρων τῶν παρὰ τὸν ὠκεανόν. ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν ἐάσθω λόγον ἔχοντα ἴδιον καὶ μακρόν.

[5] τῆς δὲ τῶν Ἑλλήνων πλάνης τῆς εἰς τὰ βάρβαρα ἔθνη νομίζοι τις ἂν αἴτιον τὸ διεσπάσθαι κατὰ μέρη μικρὰ καὶ δυναστείας ἐπιπλοκὴν οὐκ ἐχούσας πρὸς ἀλλήλους κατʼ αὐθάδειαν, ὥστε ἐκ τούτου πρὸς τοὺς ἐπιόντας ἔξωθεν ἀσθενεῖς εἶναι. τοῦτο δὲ τὸ αὔθαδες ἐν δὴ τοῖς Ἴβηρσι μάλιστα ἐπέτεινε προσλαβοῦσι καὶ τὸ πανοῦργον φύσει καὶ τὸ μὴ ἁπλοῦν· ἐπιθετικοὶ γὰρ καὶ λῃστρικοὶ τοῖς βίοις ἐγένοντο τὰ μικρὰ τολμῶντες, μεγάλοις δʼ οὐκ ἐπιβαλλόμενοι διὰ τὸ μεγάλας μὴ κατασκευάζεσθαι δυνάμεις καὶ κοινωνίας. εἰ γὰρ δὴ συνασπίζειν ἐβούλοντο ἀλλήλοις, οὔτε Καρχηδονίοις ὑπῆρξεν ἂν καταστρέψασθαι ἐπελθοῦσι τὴν πλείστην αὐτῶν ἐκ περιουσίας, καὶ ἔτι πρότερον Τυρίοις, εἶτα Κελτοῖς οἳ νῦν Κελτίβηρες καὶ Βήρωνες καλοῦνται, οὔτε τῷ λῃστῇ Οὐριάθῳ καὶ Σερτωρίῳ μετὰ ταῦτα καὶ εἴ τινες ἕτεροι δυναστείας ἐπεθύμησαν μείζονος. Ῥωμαῖοί τε τῷ κατὰ μέρη πρὸς τοὺς Ἴβηρας πολεμεῖν καθʼ ἑκάστην διὰ ταύτην τὴν δυναστείαν πολύν τινα διετέλεσαν χρόνον, ἄλλοτʼ ἄλλους καταστρεφόμενοι τέως ἕως ἅπαντας ὑποχειρίους ἔλαβον διακοσιοστῷ σχεδόν τι ἔτει ἢ μακρότερον. ἐπάνειμι δὲ ἐπὶ τὴν περιήγησιν.

[6] μετὰ τοίνυν Ἄβδηρα ἔστι Καρχηδὼν ἡ νέα, κτίσμα Ἀσδρούβα τοῦ διαδεξαμένου Βάρκαν τὸν Ἀννίβα πατέρα, κρατίστη πολὺ τῶν ταύτῃ πόλεων· καὶ γὰρ ἐρυμνή τʼ ἐστὶ καὶ τείχει κατεσκευασμένῳ καλῶς καὶ λιμέσι καὶ λίμνῃ κεκόσμηται καὶ τοῖς τῶν ἀργυρίων μετάλλοις, περὶ ὧν εἰρήκαμεν· κἀνταῦθα δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς πλησίον τόποις πολλὴ ἡ ταριχεία· καὶ ἔστι τοῦτο μέγιστον ἐμπόριον τῶν μὲν ἐκ θαλάττης τοῖς ἐν τῇ μεσογαίᾳ, τῶν δʼ ἐκεῖθεν τοῖς ἔξω πᾶσιν. ἡ δʼ ἐνθένδε μέχρι τοῦ Ἴβηρος παραλία κατὰ μέσον πως τὸ διάστημα ἔχει τὸν Σούκρωνα ποταμὸν καὶ τὴν ἐκβολὴν αὐτοῦ καὶ πόλιν ὁμώνυμον· ῥεῖ δὲ ἐκ τοῦ συνεχοῦς ὄρους τῇ ὑπερκειμένῃ ῥάχει τῆς τε Μαλάκας καὶ τῶν περὶ Καρχηδόνα¹ τόπων, περατὸς πεζῇ, παράλληλος δέ πως τῷ Ἴβηρι, μικρὸν δὲ ἔλαττον διέχει τῆς Καρχηδόνος ἢ τοῦ Ἴβηρος. μεταξὺ μὲν οὖν τοῦ Σούκρωνος καὶ τῆς Καρχηδόνος τρία πολίχνια Μασσαλιωτῶν ἔστιν οὐ πολὺ ἄπωθεν τοῦ ποταμοῦ· τούτων δʼ ἐστὶ γνωριμώτατον τὸ Ἡμεροσκοπεῖον ἔχον ἐπὶ τῇ ἄκρᾳ τῆς Ἐφεσίας Ἀρτέμιδος ἱερὸν σφόδρα τιμώμενον, ᾧ ἐχρήσατο Σερτώριος ὁρμητηρίῳ κατὰ θάλατταν· ἐρυμνὸν γάρ ἐστι καὶ λῃστρικόν, κάτοπτον δὲ ἐκ πολλοῦ τοῖς προσπλέουσι, καλεῖται δὲ καὶ Διάνιον, οἷον Ἀρτεμίσιον, ἔχον σιδηρεῖα εὐφυῆ πλησίον καὶ νησίδια Πλανησίαν καὶ Πλουμβαρίαν καὶ λιμνοθάλατταν ὑπερκειμένην, ἔχουσαν ἐν κύκλῳ σταδίους τετρακοσίους. εἶθʼ ἡ τοῦ Ἡρακλέους νῆσος ἤδη πρὸς Καρχηδόνι, ἣν καλοῦσι Σκομβραρίαν ἀπὸ τῶν ἁλισκομένων σκόμβρων, ἐξ ὧν τὸ ἄριστον σκευάζεται γάρον· εἴκοσι δὲ διέχει σταδίους καὶ τέτταρας τῆς Καρχηδόνος. πάλιν δʼ ἐπὶ θάτερα τοῦ Σούκρωνος ἰόντι ἐπὶ τὴν ἐκβολὴν τοῦ Ἴβηρος Σάγουντον κτίσμα Ζακυνθίων, ἣν Ἀννίβας κατασκάψας παρὰ τὰ συγκείμενα πρὸς Ῥωμαίους τὸν δεύτερον αὐτοῖς ἐξῆψε πόλεμον πρὸς Καρχηδονίους. πλησίον δὲ πόλεις εἰσὶ Χερρόνησός τε καὶ Ὀλέαστρον καὶ Καρταλίας· ἐπʼ αὐτῇ δὲ τῇ διαβάσει τοῦ Ἴβηρος Δέρτωσσα κατοικία. ῥεῖ δὲ ὁ Ἴβηρ ἀπὸ Καντάβρων ἔχων τὰς ἀρχὰς ἐπὶ μεσημβρίαν διὰ πολλοῦ πεδίου παράλληλος τοῖς Πυρηναίοις ὄρεσι.

[7] μεταξὺ δὲ τῶν τοῦ Ἴβηρος ἐκτροπῶν καὶ τῶν ἄκρων τῆς Πυρήνης, ἐφʼ ὧν ἵδρυται τὰ ἀναθήματα τοῦ Πομπηίου, πρώτη Ταρράκων ἐστὶ πόλις, ἀλίμενος μὲν ἐν κόλπῳ δὲ ἱδρυμένη καὶ κατεσκευασμένη τοῖς ἄλλοις ἱκανῶς καὶ οὐχ ἧττον εὐανδροῦσα νυνὶ τῆς Καρχηδόνος. πρὸς γὰρ τὰς τῶν ἡγεμόνων ἐπιδημίας εὐφυῶς ἔχει, καὶ ἔστιν ὥσπερ μητρόπολις οὐ τῆς ἐντὸς Ἴβηρος μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ τῆς ἐκτὸς τῆς πολλῆς. αἵ τε Γυμνήσιαι νῆσοι προκείμεναι πλησίον καὶ ἡ Ἔβυσος, ἀξιόλογοι νῆσοι, τὴν θέσιν εὔκαιρον τῆς πόλεως ὑπαγορεύουσιν. Ἐρατοσθένης δὲ καὶ ναύσταθμον ἔχειν φησὶν αὐτήν, οὐδὲ ἀγκυροβολίοις σφόδρα εὐτυχοῦσαν, ὡς ἀντιλέγων εἴρηκεν Ἀρτεμίδωρος.

[8] καὶ ἡ σύμπασα δʼ ἀπὸ στηλῶν σπανίζεται λιμέσι μέχρι δεῦρο, ἐντεῦθεν δʼ ἤδη τὰ ἑξῆς εὐλίμενα καὶ χώρα ἀγαθὴ τῶν τε Λεητανῶν καὶ Λαρτολαιητῶν καὶ ἄλλων τοιούτων μέχρι Ἐμπορίου. αὐτὸ δʼ ἐστὶ Μασσαλιωτῶν κτίσμα, ὅσον τετταράκοντα διέχον τῆς Πυρήνης σταδίους καὶ τῶν μεθορίων τῆς Ἰβηρίας πρὸς τὴν Κελτικήν· καὶ αὕτη δʼ ἐστὶ πᾶσα ἀγαθὴ καὶ εὐλίμενος. ἐνταῦθα δʼ ἔστι καὶ ἡ Ῥόδη πολίχνιον, Ἐμποριτῶν κτίσμα, τινὲς δὲ Ῥοδίων φασί· κἀνταῦθα δὲ καὶ ἐν τῷ Ἐμπορίῳ τὴν Ἄρτεμιν τὴν Ἐφεσίαν τιμῶσιν· ἐροῦμεν δὲ τὴν αἰτίαν ἐν τοῖς περὶ Μασσαλίαν. ᾤκουν δʼ οἱ Ἐμπορῖται πρότερον νησίον τι προκείμενον, ὃ νῦν καλεῖται παλαιὰ πόλις, νῦν δʼ οἰκοῦσιν ἐν τῇ ἠπείρῳ. δίπολις δʼ ἐστὶ τείχει διωρισμένη, πρότερον τῶν Ἰνδικητῶν τινας προσοίκους ἔχουσα, οἳ καίπερ ἰδίᾳ πολιτευόμενοι κοινὸν ὅμως περίβολον ἔχειν ἐβούλοντο πρὸς τοὺς Ἕλληνας ἀσφαλείας χάριν², τῷ χρόνῳ δʼ εἰς ταὐτὸ πολίτευμα συνῆλθον μικτόν τι ἔκ τε βαρβάρων καὶ Ἑλληνικῶν νομίμων, ὅπερ καὶ ἐπʼ ἄλλων πολλῶν συνέβη.

[9] ̔ρεῖ δὲ καὶ ποταμὸς πλησίον, ἐκ τῆς Πυρήνης ἔχων τὰς ἀρχάς, ἡ δὲ ἐκβολὴ λιμήν ἐστι τοῖς Ἐμπορίταις. λινουργοὶ δὲ ἱκανῶς οἱ Ἐμπορῖται· χώραν δὲ τὴν μεσόγαιαν ἔχουσι τὴν μὲν ἀγαθὴν τὴν δὲ σπαρτοφόρον τῆς ἀχρηστοτέρας καὶ ἑλείας σχοίνου, καλοῦσι δὲ Ἰουγκάριον πεδίον· τινὲς δὲ καὶ τῶν τῆς Πυρήνης ἄκρων νέμονται τὰ μέχρι τῶν ἀναθημάτων τοῦ Πομπηίου, διʼ ὧν βαδίζουσιν εἰς τὴν ἔξω καλουμένην Ἰβηρίαν ἐκ τῆς Ἰταλίας καὶ μάλιστα τὴν Βαιτικήν. αὕτη δʼ ἡ ὁδὸς ποτὲ μὲν πλησιάζει τῇ θαλάττῃ ποτὲ δʼ ἀφέστηκε, καὶ μάλιστα ἐν τοῖς πρὸς ἑσπέραν μέρεσι. φέρεται δὲ ἐπὶ Ταρράκωνα, ἀπὸ τῶν ἀναθημάτων τοῦ Πομπηίου διὰ τοῦ Ἰουγκαρίου πεδίου καὶ Βετέρων καὶ τοῦ Μαραθῶνος καλουμένου πεδίου τῇ Λατίνῃ γλώττῃ, φύοντος πολὺ τὸ μάραθον· ἐκ δὲ τοῦ Ταρράκωνος ἐπὶ τὸν πόρον τοῦ Ἴβηρος κατὰ Δέρτωσσαν πόλιν· ἐντεῦθεν διὰ Σαγούντου καὶ Σαιτάβιος πόλεως ἐνεχθεῖσα κατὰ μικρὸν ἀφίσταται τῆς θαλάττης καὶ συνάπτει τῷ Σπαρταρίῳ ὡς ἂν Σχοινοῦντι καλουμένῳ πεδίῳ· τοῦτο δʼ ἐστὶ μέγα καὶ ἄνυδρον, τὴν σχοινοπλοκικὴν φύον σπάρτον ἐξαγωγὴν ἔχουσαν εἰς πάντα τόπον καὶ μάλιστα εἰς τὴν Ἰταλίαν. πρότερον μὲν οὖν διὰ μέσου τοῦ πεδίου καὶ Ἐγελάστας συνέβαινεν εἶναι τὴν ὁδὸν χαλεπὴν καὶ πολλήν, νυνὶ δὲ ἐπὶ τὰ πρὸς θαλάττῃ μέρη πεποιήκασιν αὐτήν, ἐπιψαύουσαν μόνον τοῦ Σχοινοῦντος, εἰς ταὐτὸ δὲ τείνουσαν τῇ προτέρᾳ, τὰ περὶ Καστλῶνα καὶ Ὀβούλκωνα, διʼ ὧν εἴς τε Κορδύβην καὶ εἰς Γάδειρα ἡ ὁδός, τὰ μέγιστα τῶν ἐμπορίων. διέχει δὲ τῆς Κορδύβης ἡ Ὀβούλκων περὶ τριακοσίους σταδίους. φασὶ δʼ οἱ συγγραφεῖς ἐλθεῖν Καίσαρα ἐκ Ῥώμης ἑπτὰ καὶ εἴκοσιν ἡμέραις εἰς τὴν Ὀβούλκωνα καὶ τὸ στρατόπεδον τὸ ἐνταῦθα, ἡνίκα ἔμελλε συνάπτειν τὸν περὶ τὴν Μοῦνδαν πόλεμον.

[10] ̔η μὲν δὴ παραλία πᾶσα ἡ ἀπὸ στηλῶν μέχρι τῆς μεθορίας τῆς Ἰβήρων καὶ Κελτῶν τοιαύτη. ἡ δʼ ὑπερκειμένη μεσόγαια (λέγω δὲ τὴν ἐντὸς τῶν τε Πυρηναίων ὀρῶν καὶ τῆς προσαρκτίου πλευρᾶς μέχρι Ἀστύρων) δυεῖν μάλιστα ὄρεσι διορίζεται. τούτων δὲ τὸ μὲν παράλληλόν ἐστι τῇ Πυρήνῃ, τὴν ἀρχὴν ἀπὸ τῶν Καντάβρων ἔχον, τελευτὴν δʼ ἐπὶ τὴν καθʼ ἡμᾶς θάλατταν· καλοῦσι δὲ τοῦτο Ἰδουβέδαν· ἕτερον δʼ ἀπὸ τοῦ μέσου διῆκον ἐπὶ τὴν δύσιν, ἐκκλῖνον δὲ πρὸς νότον καὶ τὴν ἀπὸ στηλῶν παραλίαν· ὃ κατʼ ἀρχὰς μὲν γεώλοφόν ἐστι καὶ ψιλόν, διέξεισι δὲ τὸ καλούμενον Σπαρτάριον πεδίον, εἶτα συνάπτει τῷ δρυμῷ τῷ ὑπερκειμένῳ τῆς τε Καρχηδονίας καὶ τῶν περὶ τὴν Μάλακαν τόπων· καλεῖται δὲ Ὀροσπέδα. μεταξὺ μὲν δὴ τῆς Πυρήνης καὶ τῆς Ἰδουβέδας ὁ Ἴβηρ ῥεῖ ποταμός, παράλληλος τοῖς ὄρεσιν ἀμφοτέροις, πληρούμενος ἐκ τῶν ἐντεῦθεν καταφερομένων ποταμῶν καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὑδάτων. ἐπὶ δὲ τῷ Ἴβηρι πόλις ἐστὶ Καισαραυγοῦστα καλουμένη καὶ Κέλσα κατοικία τις ἔχουσα γεφύρας λιθίνης διάβασιν. συνοικεῖται δὲ ὑπὸ πλειόνων ἐθνῶν ἡ χώρα, γνωριμωτάτου δὲ τοῦ τῶν Ἰακκητανῶν λεγομένου. τοῦτο δʼ ἀρξάμενον ἀπὸ τῆς παρωρείας τῆς κατὰ τὴν Πυρήνην εἰς τὰ πεδία πλατύνεται καὶ συνάπτει τοῖς περὶ Ἰλέρδαν καὶ Ὄσκαν χωρίοις, τοῖς τῶν Ἰλεργετῶν οὐ πολὺ ἄπωθεν τοῦ Ἴβηρος. ἐν δὲ ταῖς πόλεσι ταύταις ἐπολέμει τὸ τελευταῖον Σερτώριος καὶ ἐν Καλαγούρι Ὀυασκώνων πόλει καὶ τῆς παραλίας ἐν Ταρράκωνι καὶ ἐν τῷ Ἡμεροσκοπείῳ μετὰ τὴν ἐκ Κελτιβήρων ἔκπτωσιν, ἐτελεύτα δʼ ἐν Ὄσκᾳ. κἀν Ἰλέρδᾳ ὕστερον Ἀφράνιος καὶ Πετρήιος οἱ τοῦ Πομπηίου στρατηγοὶ κατεπολεμήθησαν ὑπὸ Καίσαρος τοῦ θεοῦ. διέχει δὲ ἡ Ἰλέρδα τοῦ μὲν Ἴβηρος ὡς ἐπὶ δύσιν ἰόντι σταδίους ἑκατὸν ἑξήκοντα, Ταρράκωνος δὲ πρὸς νότον περὶ τετρακοσίους ἑξήκοντα, πρὸς ἄρκτον δὲ Ὄσκας πεντακοσίους τετταράκοντα. διὰ τούτων δὲ τῶν μερῶν ἡ ἐκ Ταρράκωνος ἐπὶ τοὺς ἐσχάτους ἐπὶ τῷ ὠκεανῷ Ὀυάσκωνας τοὺς κατὰ Πομπέλωνα καὶ τὴν ἐπʼ αὐτῷ τῷ ὠκεανῷ Οἰασῶνα πόλιν ὁδός ἐστι σταδίων δισχιλίων τετρακοσίων πρὸς αὐτὰ τὰ τῆς Ἀκυιτανίας ὅρια καὶ τῆς Ἰβηρίας. Ἰακκητανοὶ δʼ εἰσὶν ἐν οἷς τότε μὲν Σερτώριος ἐπολέμει πρὸς Πομπήιον, ὕστερον δʼ ὁ τοῦ Πομπηίου υἱὸς Σέξτος πρὸς τοὺς Καίσαρος στρατηγούς. ὑπέρκειται δὲ τῆς Ἰακκητανίας πρὸς ἄρκτον τὸ τῶν Ὀυασκώνων ἔθνος, ἐν ᾧ πόλις Πομπέλων ὡς ἂν Πομπηιόπολις.

[11] αὐτῆς δὲ τῆς Πυρήνης τὸ μὲν Ἰβηρικὸν πλευρὸν εὔδενδρόν ἐστι παντοδαπῆς ὕλης καὶ τῆς ἀειθαλοῦς, τὸ δὲ Κελτικὸν ψιλόν, τὰ δὲ μέσα περιέχει καλῶς οἰκεῖσθαι δυναμένους αὐλῶνας. ἔχουσι δʼ αὐτοὺς Κερρητανοὶ τὸ πλέον τοῦ Ἰβηρικοῦ φύλου, παρʼ οἷς πέρναι διάφοροι συντίθενται ταῖς Κανταβρικαῖς ἐνάμιλλοι, πρόσοδον οὐ μικρὰν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις παρέχουσαι.

[12] ̔υπερβαλόντι δὲ τὴν Ἰδουβέδαν ἡ Κελτιβηρία παραχρῆμα πολλὴ καὶ ἀνώμαλος, τὸ μέν τοι πλέον αὐτῆς ἐστὶ τραχὺ καὶ ποταμόκλυστον· διὰ γὰρ τούτων ὅ τε Ἄνας φέρεται καὶ ὁ Τάγος καὶ οἱ ἐφεξῆς ποταμοὶ οἱ πλείους οἱ ἐπὶ τὴν ἑσπερίαν θάλατταν καταφερόμενοι, τὴν ἀρχὴν ἔχοντες ἐκ τῆς Κελτιβηρίας· ὧν ὁ Δούριος φέρεται παρὰ τὴν Νομαντίαν καὶ τὴν Σεργουντίαν, ὁ δὲ Βαῖτις ἐκ τῆς Ὀροσπέδας τὰς ἀρχὰς ἔχων διὰ τῆς Ὠρητανίας εἰς τὴν Βαιτικὴν ῥεῖ. οἰκοῦσι δʼ ἐκ μὲν τῶν πρὸς ἄρκτον μερῶν τοῖς Κελτίβηρσι Βήρωνες Καντάβροις ὅμοροι τοῖς Κονίσκοις, καὶ αὐτοὶ τοῦ Κελτικοῦ στόλου γεγονότες, ὧν ἐστι πόλις Ὀυαρία κατὰ τὴν τοῦ Ἴβηρος διάβασιν κειμένη· συνεχεῖς δʼ εἰσὶ καὶ Βαρδυήταις, οὓς οἱ νῦν Βαρδούλους καλοῦσιν· ἐκ δὲ τοῦ ἑσπερίου τῶν τε Ἀστύρων τινὲς καὶ τῶν Καλλαϊκῶν καὶ Ὀυακκαίων, ἔτι δὲ Ὀυεττώνων καὶ Καρπητανῶν· ἐκ δὲ τῶν νοτίων Ὠρητανοί τε καὶ ὅσοι ἄλλοι τὴν Ὀροσπέδαν οἰκοῦσι Βαστητανῶν τε καὶ Ἐδητανῶν· πρὸς ἕω δὲ Ἰδουβέδα.

[13] αὐτῶν τε τῶν Κελτιβήρων εἰς τέτταρα μέρη διῃρημένων οἱ κράτιστοι μάλιστα πρὸς ἕω εἰσὶ καὶ πρὸς νότον οἱ Ἀρουάκοι, συνάπτοντες Καρπητανοῖς καὶ ταῖς τοῦ Τάγου πηγαῖς· πόλις δʼ αὐτῶν ὀνομαστοτάτη Νομαντία. ἔδειξαν δὲ τὴν ἀρετὴν τῷ Κελτιβηρικῷ πολέμῳ τῷ πρὸς Ῥωμαίους εἰκοσαετεῖ γενομένῳ· πολλὰ γὰρ στρατεύματα σὺν ἡγεμόσιν ἐφθάρη, τὸ δὲ τελευταῖον οἱ Νομαντῖνοι πολιορκούμενοι ἀπεκαρτέρησαν πλὴν ὀλίγων τῶν ἐνδόντων τὸ τεῖχος. καὶ οἱ Λούσωνες δὲ ἑῷοί εἰσι, συνάπτοντες καὶ αὐτοὶ ταῖς τοῦ Τάγου πηγαῖς. τῶν δʼ Ἀρουάκων ἐστὶ καὶ Σεγήδα πόλις καὶ Παλλαντία. διέχει δὲ Νομαντία τῆς Καισαραυγούστας, ἣν ἔφαμεν ἐπὶ τῷ Ἴβηρι ἱδρῦσθαι, σταδίους ἐπὶ ὀκτακοσίους. καὶ Σεγοβρίγα δʼ ἐστὶ τῶν Κελτιβήρων πόλις καὶ Βίλβιλις, περὶ ἃς Μέτελλος καὶ Σερτώριος ἐπολέμησαν. Πολύβιος δὲ τὰ τῶν Ὀυακκαίων καὶ τῶν Κελτιβήρων ἔθνη καὶ χωρία διεξιὼν συλλέγει ταῖς ἄλλαις πόλεσι καὶ Σεγεσάμαν καὶ Ἰντερκατίαν. φησὶ δὲ Ποσειδώνιος Μάρκον Μάρκελλον πράξασθαι φόρον ἐκ τῆς Κελτιβηρίας τάλαντα ἑξακόσια, ἐξ οὗ τεκμαίρεσθαι πάρεστιν ὅτι καὶ πολλοὶ ἦσαν οἱ Κελτίβηρες καὶ χρημάτων εὐποροῦντες, καίπερ οἰκοῦντες χώραν παράλυπρον. Πολυβίου δʼ εἰπόντος τριακοσίας αὐτῶν καταλῦσαι πόλεις Τιβέριον Γράκχον, κωμῳδῶν φησι τοῦτο τῷ Γράκχῳ χαρίσασθαι τὸν ἄνδρα, τοὺς πύργους καλοῦντα πόλεις, ὥσπερ ἐν ταῖς θριαμβικαῖς πομπαῖς. καὶ ἴσως οὐκ ἄπιστον τοῦτο λέγει· καὶ γὰρ οἱ στρατηγοὶ καὶ οἱ συγγραφεῖς ῥᾳδίως ἐπὶ τοῦτο φέρονται τὸ ψεῦσμα καλλωπίζοντες τὰς πράξεις, ἐπεὶ καὶ οἱ φάσκοντες πλείους ἢ χιλίας τὰς τῶν Ἰβήρων ὑπάρξαι πόλεις ἐπὶ τοῦτο φέρεσθαί μοι δοκοῦσι, τὰς μεγάλας κώμας πόλεις ὀνομάζοντες. οὔτε γὰρ ἡ τῆς χώρας φύσις πόλεων ἐπιδεκτικὴ πολλῶν ἐστι διὰ τὴν λυπρότητα ἢ διὰ τὸν ἐκτοπισμὸν καὶ τὸ ἀνήμερον, οὔθʼ οἱ βίοι καὶ πράξεις αὐτῶν (ἔξω τῶν κατὰ τὴν παραλίαν τὴν καθʼ ἡμᾶς) ὑπαγορεύουσι τοιοῦτον οὐδέν· ἄγριοι γὰρ οἱ κατὰ κώμας οἰκοῦντες· τοιοῦτοι δʼ οἱ πολλοὶ τῶν Ἰβήρων· αἱ δὲ πόλεις ἡμεροῦσιν οὐδʼ αὗται ῥᾳδίως, ὅταν πλεονάζῃ τὸ τὰς ὕλας ἐπὶ κακῷ τῶν πλησίον οἰκοῦν.

[14] μετὰ δὲ τοὺς Κελτίβηρας πρὸς νότον εἰσὶν οἱ τὸ ὄρος οἰκοῦντες τὴν Ὀροσπέδαν καὶ τὴν περὶ τὸν Σούκρωνα χώραν Ἐδητανοί, μέχρι Καρχηδόνος, καὶ Βαστητανοὶ καὶ Ὠρητανοί, σχεδὸν δέ τι καὶ μέχρι Μαλάκας.

[15] πελτασταὶ δʼ ἅπαντες, ὡς εἰπεῖν, ὑπῆρξαν οἱ Ἴβηρες καὶ κοῦφοι κατὰ τὸν ὁπλισμὸν διὰ τὰς λῃστείας, οἵους ἔφαμεν τοὺς Λυσιτανούς, ἀκοντίῳ καὶ σφενδόνῃ καὶ μαχαίρα χρώμενοι· ταῖς δὲ πεζαῖς δυνάμεσι παρεμέμικτο καὶ ἱππεία, δεδιδαγμένων ἵππων ὀρειβατεῖν καὶ κατοκλάζεσθαι ῥᾳδίως ἀπὸ προστάγματος, ὅτε τούτου δέοι. φέρει δʼ ἡ Ἰβηρία δορκάδας πολλὰς καὶ ἵππους ἀγρίους. ἔστι δʼ ὅπου καὶ αἱ λίμναι πληθύουσιν ὀρνέοις. εἰσὶ δὲ κύκνοι καὶ τὰ παραπλήσια, πολλαὶ δὲ καὶ ὠτίδες· κάστορας φέρουσι μὲν οἱ ποταμοί, τὸ δὲ καστόριον οὐκ ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν τῷ Ποντικῷ· ἴδιον γὰρ τῷ Ποντικῷ πάρεστι τὸ φαρμακῶδες, καθάπερ ἄλλοις πολλοῖς. ἐπεί, φησὶν ὁ Ποσειδώνιος, καὶ ὁ Κύπριος χαλκὸς μόνος φέρει τὴν καδμείαν λίθον καὶ τὸ χαλκανθὲς καὶ τὸ σπόδιον. ἴδιον δʼ εἴρηκεν Ἰβηρίᾳ ὁ Ποσειδώνιος καὶ τὸ τὰς κορώνας μελαίνας εἶναι καὶ τὸ τοὺς ἵππους τῶν Κελτιβήρων ὑποψάρους ὄντας, ἐπειδὰν εἰς τὴν ἔξω μεταχθῶσιν Ἰβηρίαν, μεταβάλλειν τὴν χρόαν. ἐοικέναι δὲ τοῖς Παρθικοῖς· καὶ γὰρ ταχεῖς εἶναι καὶ εὐδρόμους μᾶλλον τῶν ἄλλων.

[16] καὶ τῶν ῥιζῶν τῶν εἰς βαφὴν χρησίμων πλῆθος. ἐλαίας δὲ πέρι καὶ ἀμπέλου καὶ συκῆς καὶ τῶν παραπλησίων φυτῶν ἡ καθʼ ἡμᾶς Ἰβηρικὴ παραλία πάντων εὐπορεῖ, συχνὴ δὲ καὶ τῶν ἐκτὸς ἡ μὲν παρωκεανῖτις ἡ πρόσβορρος ἀμοιρεῖ διὰ τὰ ψύχη, ἡ δʼ ἄλλη τὸ πλέον διὰ τὴν ὀλιγωρίαν τῶν ἀνθρώπων καὶ τὸ μὴ πρὸς διαγωγὴν ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον πρὸς ἀνάγκην καὶ ὁρμὴν θηριώδη μετὰ ἔθους φαύλου ζῆν· εἰ μή τις οἴεται πρὸς διαγωγὴν ζῆν τοὺς οὔρῳ λουομένους ἐν δεξαμεναῖς παλαιουμένῳ, καὶ τοὺς ὀδόντας σμηχομένους καὶ αὐτοὺς καὶ τὰς γυναῖκας αὐτῶν, καθάπερ τοὺς Καντάβρους φασὶ καὶ τοὺς ὁμόρους αὐτοῖς. καὶ τοῦτό τε καὶ τὸ χαμευνεῖν κοινόν ἐστι τοῖς Ἴβηρσι πρὸς τοὺς Κελτούς. ἔνιοι δὲ τοὺς Καλλαϊκοὺς ἀθέους φασί, τοὺς δὲ Κελτίβηρας καὶ τοὺς προσβόρρους τῶν ὁμόρων αὐτοῖς ἀνωνύμῳ τινὶ θεῷ θύειν ταῖς πανσελήνοις νύκτωρ πρὸ τῶν πυλῶν, πανοικίους τε χορεύειν καὶ παννυχίζειν. τοὺς δὲ Ὀυέττωνας, ὅτε πρῶτον εἰς τὸ τῶν Ῥωμαίων παρῆλθον στρατόπεδον, ἰδόντας τῶν ταξιαρχῶν τινας ἀνακάμπτοντας ἐν ταῖς ὁδοῖς περιπάτου χάριν, μανίαν ὑπολαβόντας ἡγεῖσθαι τὴν ὁδὸν αὐτοῖς ἐπὶ τὰς σκηνάς, ὡς δέον ἢ μένειν καθʼ ἡσυχίαν ἱδρυθέντας ἢ μάχεσθαι.

[17] τῆς δὲ βαρβαρικῆς ἰδέας καὶ τὸν τῶν γυναικῶν ἐνίων κόσμον θείη τις ἄν, ὃν εἴρηκεν Ἀρτεμίδωρος· ὅπου μὲν γὰρ περιτραχήλια σιδηρᾶ φορεῖν αὐτάς φησιν ἔχοντα κόρακας καμπτομένους ὑπὲρ κορυφῆς καὶ προπίπτοντας πρὸ τοῦ μετώπου πολύ, κατὰ τούτων δὲ τῶν κοράκων, ὅτε βούλονται, κατασπᾶν τὸ κάλυμμα ὥστε ἐμπετασθὲν σκιάδιον τῷ προσώπῳ παρέχειν, καὶ νομίζειν κόσμον· ὅπου δὲ τυμπάνιον περικεῖσθαι πρὸς μὲν τῷ ἰνίῳ περιφερὲς καὶ σφίγγον τὴν κεφαλὴν μέχρι τῶν παρωτίδων, εἰς ὕψος δὲ καὶ πλάτος ἐξυπτιασμένον κατʼ ὀλίγον· ἄλλας δὲ τὰ προκόμια ψιλοῦν ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον ὥστʼ ἀποστίλβειν τοῦ μετώπου μᾶλλον· τὰς δʼ ὅσον ποδιαῖον τὸ ὕψος ἐπιθεμένας στυλίσκον περιπλέκειν αὐτῷ τὴν χαίτην, εἶτα καλύπτρᾳ μελαίνῃ περιστέλλειν. πρὸς δὲ τῇ ἀηθείᾳ τῇ τοιαύτῃ πολλὰ καὶ ἑώραται καὶ μεμύθευται περὶ πάντων κοινῇ τῶν Ἰβηρικῶν ἐθνῶν, διαφερόντως δὲ τῶν προσβόρρων, οὐ μόνον τὰ πρὸς ἀνδρείαν ἀλλὰ καὶ τὰ πρὸς ὠμότητα καὶ ἀπόνοιαν θηριώδη. καὶ γὰρ τέκνα μητέρες ἔκτειναν πρὶν ἁλῶναι κατὰ τὸν πόλεμον τὸν ἐν Καντάβροις, καὶ παιδίον δὲ δεδεμένων αἰχμαλώτων τῶν γονέων καὶ ἀδελφῶν ἔκτεινε πάντας κελεύσαντος τοῦ πατρὸς σιδήρου κυριεῦσαν, γυνὴ δὲ τοὺς συναλόντας. κληθεὶς δέ τις εἰς μεθυσκομένους ἔβαλεν αὑτὸν εἰς πυράν. κοινὰ δὲ καὶ ταῦτα πρὸς τὰ Κελτικὰ ἔθνη καὶ τὰ Θρᾴκια καὶ Σκυθικά, κοινὰ δὲ καὶ τὰ πρὸς ἀνδρείαν τήν τε τῶν ἀνδρῶν καὶ τὴν τῶν γυναικῶν. γεωργοῦσιν αὗται τεκοῦσαί τε διακονοῦσι τοῖς ἀνδράσιν ἐκείνους ἀνθʼ ἑαυτῶν κατακλίνασαι· ἔν τε τοῖς ἔργοις πολλάκις αὐταὶ καὶ λούουσι καὶ σπαργανοῦσιν ἀποκλίνασαι πρός τι ῥεῖθρον. ἐν δὲ τῇ Λιγυστικῇ φησὶν ὁ Ποσειδώνιος διηγήσασθαι τὸν ξένον ἑαυτῷ Χαρμόλεων Μασσαλιώτην ἄνδρα, ὅτι μισθώσαιτο ἄνδρας ὁμοῦ καὶ γυναῖκας ἐπὶ σκαφητόν, ὠδίνασα δὲ μία τῶν γυναικῶν ἀπέλθοι ἀπὸ τοῦ ἔργου πλησίον, τεκοῦσα δʼ ἐπανέλθοι ἐπὶ τοὖργον αὐτίκα, ὅπως μὴ ἀπολέσειε τὸν μισθόν· αὐτὸς δὲ ἐπιπόνως ἰδὼν ἐργαζομένην, οὐκ εἰδὼς τὴν αἰτίαν πρότερον ὀψὲ μάθοι καὶ ἀφείη δοὺς τὸν μισθόν· ἡ δʼ ἐκκομίσασα τὸ νήπιον πρός τι κρηνίον, λούσασα καὶ σπαργανώσασα οἷς εἶχε διασώσειεν οἴκαδε.

[18] οὐκ ἴδιον δὲ τῶν Ἰβήρων οὐδὲ τοῦτο σύνδυο ἐφʼ ἵππων κομίζεσθαι, κατὰ δὲ τὰς μάχας τὸν ἕτερον πεζὸν ἀγωνίζεσθαι. οὐδὲ τὸ τῶν μυῶν πλῆθος ἴδιον, ἀφʼ οὗ καὶ λοιμικαὶ νόσοι πολλάκις ἠκολούθησαν. συνέβη δʼ ἐν τῇ Κανταβρίᾳ τοῦτο τοῖς Ῥωμαίοις, ὥστε καὶ μισθοὺς ἄρνυσθαι μυοθηροῦντας πρὸς μέτρον ἀποδειχθέν, καὶ διεσώζοντο μόλις· προσελάμβανε δὲ καὶ ἄλλων σπάνις καὶ σίτου· ἐπεσιτίζοντο δὲ ἐκ τῆς Ἀκυιτανίας χαλεπῶς διὰ τὰς δυσχωρίας. τῆς δʼ ἀπονοίας καὶ τοῦτο λέγεται τῆς Καντάβρων, ὅτι ἁλόντες τινὲς ἀναπεπηγότες ἐπὶ τῶν σταυρῶν ἐπαιάνιζον. τὰ μὲν οὖν τοιαῦτα τῶν ἠθῶν ἀγριότητός τινος παραδείγματʼ ἂν εἴη· τὰ δὲ τοιαῦτα ἧττον μὲν ἴσως πολιτικά, οὐ θηριώδη δέ, οἷον τὸ παρὰ τοῖς Καντάβροις τοὺς ἄνδρας διδόναι ταῖς γυναιξὶ προῖκα καὶ τὸ τὰς θυγατέρας κληρονόμους ἀπολείπεσθαι τούς τε ἀδελφοὺς ὑπὸ τούτων ἐκδίδοσθαι γυναιξίν· ἔχει γάρ τινα γυναικοκρατίαν· τοῦτο δʼ οὐ πάνυ πολιτικόν. Ἰβηρικὸν δὲ καὶ τὸ ἐν ἔθει εἶναι παρατίθεσθαι τοξικὸν ὃ συντιθέασιν ἐκ βοτάνης σελίνῳ προσομοίας ἄπονον, ὥστʼ ἔχειν ἐν ἑτοίμῳ πρὸς τὰ ἀβούλητα, καὶ τὸ κατασπένδειν αὑτοὺς οἷς ἂν προσθῶνται, ὥστε ἀποθνήσκειν αὐτοὺς ὑπὲρ αὐτῶν.

[19] τινὲς μὲν οὖν εἰς τέτταρα μέρη διῃρῆσθαί φασι τὴν χώραν ταύτην, καθάπερ εἴπομεν, ἄλλοι δὲ πενταμερῆ λέγουσιν. οὐκ ἔστι δὲ τἀκριβὲς ἐν τούτοις ἀποδιδόναι διὰ τὰς μεταβολὰς καὶ τὴν ἀδοξίαν τῶν τόπων. ἐν γὰρ τοῖς γνωρίμοις καὶ ἐνδόξοις αἵ τε μεταναστάσεις γνώριμοι καὶ οἱ μερισμοὶ τῆς χώρας καὶ αἱ μεταβολαὶ τῶν ὀνομάτων καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο παραπλήσιον· θρυλεῖται γὰρ ὑπὸ πολλῶν καὶ μάλιστα τῶν Ἑλλήνων³. ὅσα δὲ καὶ βάρβαρα καὶ ἐκτετοπισμένα καὶ μικρόχωρα καὶ διεσπασμένα, τούτων ὑπομνήματα οὔτʼ ἀσφαλῆ ἐστιν οὔτε πολλά· ὅσα δὲ δὴ πόρρω τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἐπιτείνει τὴν ἄγνοιαν. οἱ δὲ τῶν Ῥωμαίων συγγραφεῖς μιμοῦνται μὲν τοὺς Ἕλληνας, ἀλλʼ οὐκ ἐπὶ πολύ· καὶ γὰρ ἃ λέγουσι παρὰ τῶν Ἑλλήνων μεταφέρουσιν, ἐξ ἑαυτῶν δʼ οὐ πολὺ μὲν προσφέρονται τὸ φιλείδημον ὥσθʼ, ὁπόταν ἔλλειψις γένηται παρʼ ἐκείνων, οὐκ ἔστι πολὺ τὸ ἀναπληρούμενον ὑπὸ τῶν ἑτέρων, ἄλλως τε καὶ τῶν ὀνομάτων, ὅσα ἐνδοξότατα, τῶν πλείστων ὄντων Ἑλληνικῶν· ἐπεὶ καὶ Ἰβηρίαν ὑπὸ μὲν τῶν προτέρων καλεῖσθαι πᾶσαν τὴν ἔξω τοῦ Ῥοδανοῦ καὶ τοῦ ἰσθμοῦ τοῦ ὑπὸ τῶν Γαλατικῶν κόλπων σφιγγομένου, οἱ δὲ νῦν ὅριον αὐτῆς τίθενται τὴν Πυρήνην, συνωνύμως τε τὴν αὐτὴν Ἰβηρίαν λέγουσι καὶ Ἱσπανίαν· ἄλλοι δʼ Ἰβηρίαν μόνην ἐκάλουν τὴν ἐντὸς τοῦ Ἴβηρος· οἱ δʼ ἔτι πρότερον αὐτοὺς τούτους Ἰγλῆτας, οὐ πολλὴν χώραν νεμομένους, ὥς φησιν Ἀσκληπιάδης ὁ Μυρλεανός. Ῥωμαῖοι δὲ τὴν σύμπασαν καλέσαντες συνωνύμως Ἰβηρίαν τε καὶ Ἱσπανίαν τὸ μὲν αὐτῆς μέρος εἶπον τὴν ἐκτὸς τὸ δὲ ἕτερον τὴν ἐντός· ἄλλοτε δʼ ἄλλως διαιροῦσι πρὸς τοὺς καιροὺς πολιτευόμενοι.

[20] νυνὶ δὲ τῶν ἐπαρχιῶν τῶν μὲν ἀποδειχθεισῶν τῷ δήμῳ τε καὶ τῇ συγκλήτῳ τῶν δὲ τῷ ἡγεμόνι τῶν Ῥωμαίων, ἡ μὲν Βαιτικὴ πρόσκειται τῷ δήμῳ, καὶ πέμπεται στρατηγὸς ἐπʼ αὐτὴν ἔχων ταμίαν τε καὶ πρεσβευτήν· ὅριον δʼ αὐτῆς τεθείκασι πρὸς ἠῶ πλησίον Καστλῶνος. ἡ δὲ λοιπὴ Καίσαρός ἐστι· πέμπονται δʼ ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ δύο πρεσβευταί, στρατηγικός τε καὶ ὑπατικός, ὁ μὲν στρατηγικὸς ἔχων σὺν αὑτῷ πρεσβευτήν, δικαιοδοτήσων Λυσιτανοῖς τοῖς παρακειμένοις τῇ Βαιτικῇ καὶ διατείνουσι μέχρι τοῦ Δουρίου ποταμοῦ καὶ τῶν ἐκβολῶν αὐτοῦ· καλοῦσι γὰρ οὕτω τὴν χώραν ταύτην ἰδίως ἐν τῷ παρόντι. ἐνταῦθα δʼ ἔστι καὶ ἡ Αὐγοῦστα Ἠμερίτα. ἡ δὲ λοιπὴ (αὕτη δʼ ἐστὶν ἡ πλείστη τῆς Ἰβηρίας) ὑπὸ τῷ ὑπατικῷ ἡγεμόνι στρατιάν τε ἔχοντι ἀξιόλογον τριῶν που ταγμάτων καὶ πρεσβευτὰς τρεῖς, ὧν ὁ μὲν δύο ἔχων τάγματα παραφρουρεῖ τὴν πέραν τοῦ Δουρίου πᾶσαν ἐπὶ τὰς ἄρκτους, ἣν οἱ μὲν πρότερον Λυσιτανοὺς ἔλεγον οἱ δὲ νῦν Καλλαϊκοὺς καλοῦσι· συνάπτει δὲ τούτοις τὰ προσάρκτια μέρη μετὰ τῶν Ἀστύρων καὶ τῶν Καντάβρων. ῥεῖ δὲ διὰ τῶν Ἀστύρων Μέλσος ποταμός, καὶ μικρὸν ἀπωτέρω πόλις Νοῖγα, καὶ πλησίον ἐκ τοῦ ὠκεανοῦ ἀνάχυσις ὁρίζουσα τοὺς Ἄστυρας ἀπὸ τῶν Καντάβρων· τὴν δʼ ἑξῆς παρόρειον μέχρι Πυρήνης ὁ δεύτερος τῶν πρεσβευτῶν μετὰ τοῦ ἑτέρου τάγματος ἐπισκοπεῖ. ὁ δὲ τρίτος τὴν μεσόγαιαν, συνέχει δὲ τὰ τῶν τογάτων ἤδη λεγομένων ὡς ἂν εἰρηνικῶν καὶ εἰς τὸ ἥμερον καὶ τὸν Ἰταλικὸν τύπον μετακειμένων ἐν τῇ τηβεννικῇ ἐσθῆτι. οὗτοι δʼ εἰσὶν οἱ Κελτίβηρες καὶ οἱ τοῦ Ἴβηρος πλησίον ἑκατέρωθεν οἰκοῦντες μέχρι τῶν πρὸς θαλάττῃ μερῶν. αὐτὸς δὲ ὁ ἡγεμὼν διαχειμάζει μὲν ἐν τοῖς ἐπιθαλαττιαίοις μέρεσι καὶ μάλιστα τῇ Καρχηδόνι καὶ τῇ Ταρράκωνι δικαιοδοτῶν, θέρους δὲ περίεισιν ἐφορῶν ἀεί τινα τῶν δεομένων ἐπανορθώσεως. εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ ἐπίτροποι τοῦ Καίσαρος, ἱππικοὶ ἄνδρες, οἱ διανέμοντες τὰ χρήματα τοῖς στρατιώταις εἰς τὴν διοίκησιν τοῦ βίου.

Notes on the current edition

Geography

1. From the Pillars to the Sacred Promontory, or Cape St. Vincent.

2. The rock of Gibraltar.

3. Carthagena.

4. Viz. from Carthagena.

5. Malaga.

6. Cadiz.

7. Pomponius Mela gives this city the name of Hexi, or Ex, according to another reading; Pliny names it Sexi, with the surname of Firmum Julium; and Ptolemy, Sex. This is merely a difference relative to the aspiration of the word, which was sometimes omitted, at other times expressed by the letters H or S indifferently.

8. Mentioned by Pliny, Athenaeus, Galen, and also by Martial, lib. vii. Epigramm. 78,

Cum Saxetani ponatur cauda lacerti;

Et bene si coenas, conchis inuncta tibi est;

Sumen, aprum, leporem, boletos, ostrea, mullos,

Mittis; habes nec cor, Papile, nec genium.

9. Adra.

10. Lisbon.

11. Asclepiades of Myrlea, a city of Bithynia, was a grammarian, and disciple of the celebrated grammarian, Apollonius. According to Suidas he taught literature at Rome, under Pompey the Great. And it is probable that it was with Pompey he afterwards passed into Spain.

12. Teucer, the son of Telamon, king of the island of Salamis, being driven out of the country by his father, founded in Cyprus the city of Salamis. Justin adds, that after the death of his father he returned to the island of Salamis; but being prevented by the son of Ajax, his brother, from debarking, he went into Iberia, and took up his abode on the spot where Carthagena was afterwards built: that subsequently he removed into the country of the Gallicians, and settled amongst them.

13. The Hellenes derived their name from Hellen the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. This name, which at first designated only a small people of Thessaly, became afterwards the general appellation of the inhabitants of the whole of Greece.

14. Amphilochus, on his return from Troy, founded with Mopsus the city of Mallos in Cilicia. He afterwards retired to Argos, but not being contented there he rejoined Mopsus, who however would no longer divide with him the government of their common colony. This dispute resulted in a remarkable combat, which cost the life of both. (Compare Strabo, 1. xiv. c. 4.) Sophocles and other tragic poets have taken advantage of this tradition. Herodotus likewise speaks of the voyages of Amphilochus into Cilicia, and of the city of Posideium which he founded there, but he tells us nothing of his death. Thucydides merely says that Amphilochus on his return home after the Trojan war, being discontented with his compatriots, founded in the Gulf of Ambracia a city which he named after his fatherland, Argos. None of these traditions mention a voyage to Iberia.

15. Siebenkees suspects that this name should be read Ocella. The Ocelenses in Lusitania are commended by Pliny.

16. Some MSS. read Opsicella.

17. Strabo, or rather Artemidorus, seems to have confused the two kinds of lotus mentioned by the ancients. That whereof they ate the roots and the grain is the lotus of the Nile, and a plant of the species nymphtoea. The lotus alluded to in this instance is a shrub, (the rhamnus lotus of Linnaecus,) named seedra by the inhabitants of Barbary, with whom the fruit is an article of food. Herodotus mentions both kinds, (lib. ii. c. 92, and iv. c. 177,) and Polybius describes the second, as an eye-witness.

18. The Island of Zerbi.

19. The Gulf of Cabes.

20. A celebrated stoic philosopher and grammarian contemporary with Aristarchus. He was of Mallos, a city of Cilicia, and surnamed the Critic and the Homeric, on account of the corrections, explanations, and remarks which he composed in nine books on the poems of Homer.

21. Sertorius, on the return of Sylla to Rome, took refuge in Spain. where he put himself at the head of the Romans who had revolted against the republic; he was assassinated by one of his officers.

22. Adra.

23. Carthagena.

24. Sucro.

25. That is, the ancient name, Sucro.

26. Malaga.

27. Denia or Artemus.

28. Denia.

29. Isola Plana.

30. S. Pola.

31. Islote.

32. A sauce so named from the garus, a small fish, from which originally it was prepared. Afterwards it was made with mackerel and other fish. Vide Pliny 1. xxxi. c. 7, 8.

33. Peniscola.

34. Tortosa.

35. Tarragona.

36. New Carthage, or Carthagena, is intended.

37. Sent from Rome.

38. Majorca and Minorca.

39. Iviça.

40. Ampurias.

41. The text is here manifestly corrupt. Various other numbers, from 4 to 400, have been conjectured as the true reading. Gosselin and Groskurd are in favour of 200.

42. Sic text. Siebenkees and Coray propose to read ̔πόδος, and Casaubon also ̔πόδη, now Rosas.

43. Marseilles.

44. Probably the river Fluvia, the Alba of the ancients.

45. Iberia, or Spain, was anciently divided into two grand divisions, to which the Romans gave the names of Citerior and Ulterior Iberia. Augustus subdivided this latter into the two provinces of Baetica and Lusitania, giving the name of Tarraco to Citerior Iberia. Nevertheless the ancient names of Citerior and Ulterior continued in use long after this division.

46. Tarragona.

47. We are not exactly acquainted with this place, it is probably Vidreras; though others suppose it to be Colonia Sagerra.

48. Tortosa.

49. Murviedro.

50. 4ativa.

51. The cordage of the famous vessel built by Hiero of Syracuse was formed from the spartum of Iberia. Vid. Athenaeus, lib. v. p. 206.

52. Yniesta.

53. Caslona.

54. Porcuna.

55. Cordova and Cadiz.

56. Fought against Pompey.

57. The mountains of Burgos and Cuença, the Sierras of Oca, Lorenzo and Moncayo.

58. Carthagena.

59. Malaga.

60. The Sierra de Toledo.

61. Saragossa.

62. 4elsa.

63. They occupied the northern half of Catalonia.

64. Lerida.

65. Huesca.

66. Calahorra.

67. Tarragona.

68. Denia.

69. ὑπὸ καίσαοͅος τοῦ θεοῦ, by the deified Caesar. We have adopted the Latin divus as the most suitable epithet for the emperor in an English version.

70. Gosselin here labours to reconcile these distances with the actual topography of those parts, but it is useless to attempt to make all the loose statements furnished by Strabo tally with the exact distances of the places he mentions by supposing the stadia to be so continually varied.

71. Pampeluna.

72. Gosselin is of opinion that this Oeaso, is not Ojarço near Fontarabia, but trunks it probable that Ea near Cape Machicaco is the site where it stood.

73. People of Biscay.

74. The ancient Anas.

75. The ruins of Numantia are seen a little to the north of Soria.

76. Baetis.

77. Probably the small village of Varea, about half a league from Logrono; D’Anville supposes it to be Logrono itself.

78. Aliter Bardyali.

79. Kramer has altered the text into ̓εδητανῶν, all MSS. having διττνῶν. There is little doubt they are the same people mentioned in section 14 as Sidetani.

80. Palencia.

81. Saragossa.

82. Baubola.

83. Sasamo, west of Briviesca.

84. Allusion is here made to the custom of the Roman generals, who caused to be carried at their triumphs, representations in painting or sculpture, not only of the kings or generals of the enemy, who had been slain, but likewise of the forts, cities, mountains, lakes, rivers, and even seas, conquered from the enemy. This usage explains the words of Cicero, portari in triumpho Massiliam vidimus. Appian, on occasion of the triumph of Scipio, says, πυργοι τε παοͅαφεοͅνται μιμὴατα τῶν εἰλημμένων πὀλεων.

85. Sucro, now 4ucar.

86. The same people as the Edetani, mentioned in section 12.

87. Carthagena.

88. Malaga.

89. At the present day the best castor comes from Russia, but the greater part of that found in shops is the produce of Canada. It is denominated a stimulant and antispasmodic. Formerly it was much used in spasmodic diseases, as hysteria and epilepsy. It is now considered almost inert, and is seldom employed. After this description, it is scarcely necessary to warn the reader against the vulgar error of confusing castor with castor oil, which is extracted from the seeds of the Ricinus communis or castor oil plant, a shrub growing in the West Indies.

90. Apuleius, Catullus, and Diodorus Siculus all speak of this singular custom.

91. A note in the French edition says, This surprise of the Vettones is nothing extraordinary. Amongst all barbarous nations, savages especially, the promenade is an unknown exercise. When roused by necessity or passion, they will even kill themselves with fatigue; at other times they remain in the most perfect inaction. The first thing which strikes a Turk on coming to any of the polished nations of Europe, is to see men promenading without any other aim but that of pleasure or health.

92. Head-dress shaped like a drum.

93. At the present day in Bilboa, the capital of Biscay, the women work far more than the men; they load and unload vessels, and carry on their heads burdens which require two men to place there.

94. We must remark that so far from the dowry given by men to their wives being an evidence of civilization, it is a custom common amongst barbarous people, and indicative of nothing so much as the despotic power of the man over the wife. These dowries were generally a sum of money from the husband to the father of his intended, on the payment of which he acquired the same power over her as over a slave. Aristotle, speaking of the ancient Greeks, tells us expressly that they bought their wives, (Polit. ii. c. 8,) and observing that amongst barbarous nations women were always regarded in the same light as slaves, he cites the example of the Cyclopes, who exercised, according to Homer, sovereign authority over their families (Odyss. 1. ix. 114). This custom was so well established amongst the Greeks at the time of the poet, that he does not hesitate to introduce it amongst the gods (Odyss. viii. 318). It was not unknown among the Jews, and Strabo, in his fifteenth book, tells us that the Indians bought their wives.

95. Caesar and Athenaeus attribute this custom to the Gauls, and Valerius Maximus to the Keltiberians. Those men who attached themselves to the interests of any prince or famous personage, and who espoused all his quarrels, even devoting themselves to death on his account, are named by Athenaeus σιλοδοῦοͅοι, and by Caesar soldurii. Speaking of 600 soldiers devoted in this manner to a Gaulish prince, named Adcantuannus, Caesar (1. iii. c. 22) says, Sibi mortem consciscant; neque adhuc hominum memoriâ repertus est quisquam, qui, eo interfecto cujus se amicitiae devovisset, mori recusaret. Plutarch tells us that Sertorius had in his suite many thousand Iberians devoted to him. The following epitaph of these men, who, after the death of Sertorius, sacrificed themselves, being unwilling to survive him, was extracted by Swinburne from the Annals of Catalonia.

Hic multae quae se manibus

Q. Sertorii turmae, et terrae

Mortalium omnium parenti

Devovere, dum, eo sublato,

Superesse taederet, et fortiter

Pugnando invicem cecidere,

Morte ad presens optata jacent.

Valete posteri.

For the appalling means they adopted to hold out the city of Calaguris to the last, see Valerius Maximus, lib. vii. cap. vi.

96. The country between the Ebro and the Pyrenees.

97. These Igletes are the same which Stephen of Byzantium names Gletes, and by an error of the copyist Tletes. Herodotus places them between the Cynetae, and the Tartessians, and Theopompus in the neighbourhood of the Tartessians. The position between the Ebro and the Pyrenees, which Asclepiades the Myrlean thus gives them, supports the opinion of those who reckon that Rosas was founded by the Rhodians, and that the people of Marseilles did not settle there till afterwards; it is more than probable that the Igletes were nothing more than Ignetes or Gnetes of the Isle of Rhodes.

98. Caslona.

99. Merida.

100. Casaubon supposes that this is the river Ptolemy names Merus. Lopez, Geograf. de Estrabon, lib. iii. p. 232, thinks it the Narcea.

101. Pomponius Mela and Pliny coincide with Strabo in making this city belong to the Asturians; Ptolemy however describes it under the name of Neoga Cassia as pertaining to the Cantabrians. Some say it corresponds to the present Navix, others to Praia. Groskurd reckons it Gabon, or Navix, or Scamander.

102. Carthagena.

103. Tarragona.

Strabo Geography 3.4

Hans Claude Hamilton (Translator), William Falconer (Translator)

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