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CHAPTER I.

[1] ASSYRIA is contiguous to Persia and Susiana. This name is given to Babylonia, and to a large tract of country around; this tract contains Aturia,¹ in which is Nineveh, the Apolloniatis, the Elymaei, the Paraetacae, and the Chalonitis about Mount Zagrum,²—the plains about Nineveh, namely, Dolomene, Calachene, Chazene, and Adiabene,—the nations of Mesopotamia, bordering upon the Gordyaei;³ the Mygdones about Nisibis, extending to the Zeugma⁴ of the Euphrates, and to the great range of country on the other side that river, occupied by Arabians, and by those people who are properly called Syrians in the present age. This last people extend as far as the Cilicians, Phoenicians, and Jews, to the sea opposite the Sea of Egypt, and to the Bay of Issus.

[2] The name of Syrians seems to extend from Babylonia as far as the Bay of Issus, and, anciently, from this bay to the Euxine.

Both tribes of the Cappadocians, those near the Taurus and those near the Pontus, are called to this time Leuco-Syrians (or White Syrians),⁵ as though there existed a nation of Black Syrians. These are the people situated beyond the Taurus, and I extend the name of Taurus as far as the Amanus.⁶

When the historians of the Syrian empire say that the Medes were overthrown by the Persians, and the Syrians by the Medes, they mean no other Syrians than those who built the royal palaces at Babylon and Nineveh; and Ninus, who built Nineveh in Aturia, was one of these Syrians. His wife, who succeeded her husband, and founded Babylon, was Semiramis. These sovereigns were masters of Asia. Many other works of Semiramis, besides those at Babylon, are extant in almost every part of this continent, as, for example, artificial mounds, which are called mounds of Semiramis, and walls⁷ and fortresses, with subterraneous passages; cisterns for water; roads⁸ to facilitate the ascent of mountains; canals communicating with rivers and lakes; roads and bridges.

The empire they left continued with their successors to the time of [the contest between] Sardanapalus and Arbaces.⁹ It was afterwards transferred to the Medes.

[3] The city Nineveh was destroyed immediately upon the overthrow of the Syrians.¹⁰ It was much larger than Babylon, and situated in the plain of Aturia. Aturia borders upon the places about Arbela; between these is the river Lycus.¹¹ Arbela and the parts about it¹² belong to Babylonia. In the country on the other side of the Lycus are the plains of Aturia, which surround Nineveh.¹³

In Aturia is situated Gaugamela, a village where Darius was defeated and lost his kingdom. This place is remarkable for its name, which, when interpreted, signifies the Camel’s House. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, gave it this name, and assigned (the revenues of) the place for the maintenance of a camel, which had undergone the greatest possible labour and fatigue in the journey through the deserts of Scythia, when carrying baggage and provision for the king. The Macedonians, observing that this was a mean village, but Arbela a considerable settlement (founded, as it is said, by Arbelus, son of Athmoneus), reported that the battle was fought and the victory obtained near Arbela, which account was transmitted to historians.

[4] After Arbela and the mountain Nicatorium¹⁴ (a name which Alexander, after the victory at Arbela, superadded), is the river Caprus,¹⁵ situated at the same distance from Arbela as the Lycus. The country is called Artacene.¹⁶ Near Arbela is the city Demetrias; next is the spring of naphtha, the fires, the temple of the goddess Anaea,¹⁷ Sadracae, the palace of Darius, son of Hystaspes, the Cyparisson, or plantation of Cypresses, and the passage across the Caprus, which is close to Seleucia and Babylon.

[5] Babylon itself also is situated in a plain. The wall is 385¹⁸ stadia in circumference, and 32 feet in thickness. The height of the space between the towers is 50, and of the towers 60 cubits. The roadway upon the walls will allow chariots with four horses when they meet to pass each other with ease. Whence, among the seven wonders of the world, are reckoned this wall and the hanging garden: the shape of the garden is a square, and each side of it measures four plethra. It consists of vaulted terraces, raised one above another, and resting upon cube-shaped pillars. These are hollow and filled with earth to allow trees of the largest size to be planted. The pillars, the vaults, and the terraces are constructed of baked brick and asphalt.

The ascent to the highest story is by stairs, and at their side are water engines, by means of which persons, appointed expressly for the purpose, are continually employed in raising water from the Euphrates into the garden. For the river, which is a stadium in breadth, flows through the middle of the city, and the garden is on the side of the river. The tomb also of Belus is there. At present it is in ruins, having been demolished, as it is said, by Xerxes. It was a quadrangular pyramid of baked brick, a stadium in height, and each of the sides a stadium in length. Alexander intended to repair it. It was a great undertaking, and required a long time for its completion (for ten thousand men were occupied two months in clearing away the mound of earth), so that he was not able to execute what he had attempted, before disease hurried him rapidly to his end. None of the persons who succeeded him attended to this undertaking; other works also were neglected, and the city was dilapidated, partly by the Persians, partly by time, and, through the indifference of the Macedonians to things of this kind, particularly after Seleucus Nicator had fortified Seleucia on the Tigris near Babylon, at the distance of about 300 stadia.

Both this prince and all his successors directed their care to that city, and transferred to it the seat of empire. At present it is larger than Babylon; the other is in great part deserted, so that no one would hesitate to apply to it what one of the comic writers said of Megalopolitae in Arcadia,

The great city is a great desert.

On account of the scarcity of timber, the beams and pillars of the houses were made of palm wood. They wind ropes of twisted reed round the pillars, paint them over with colours, and draw designs upon them; they cover the doors with a coat of asphaltus. These are lofty, and all the houses are vaulted on account of the want of timber. For the country is bare, a great part of it is covered with shrubs, and produces nothing but the palm. This tree grows in the greatest abundance in Babylonia. It is found in Susiana also in great quantity, on the Persian coast, and in Carmania.

They do not use tiles for their houses, because there are no great rains. The case is the same in Susiana and in Sitacene.

[6] In Babylon a residence was set apart for the native philosophers called Chaldaeans, who are chiefly devoted to the study of astronomy. Some, who are not approved of by the rest, profess to understand genethlialogy, or the casting of nativities. There is also a tribe of Chaldaeans, who inhabit a district of Babylonia, in the neighbourhood of the Arabians, and of the sea called the Persian Sea.¹⁹ There are several classes of the Chaldaean astronomers. Some have the name of Orcheni, some Borsippeni, and many others, as if divided into sects, who disseminate different tenets on the same subjects. The mathematicians make mention of some individuals among them, as Cidenas, Naburianus, and Sudinus. Seleucus also of Seleuceia is a Chaldaean, and many other remarkable men.

[7] Borsippa is a city sacred to Diana and Apollo. Here is a large linen manufactory. Bats of much larger size than those in other parts abound in it. They are caught and salted for food.

[8] The country of the Babylonians is surrounded on the east by the Susans, Elymaei, and Paraetaceni; on the south by the Persian Gulf, and the Chaldaeans as far as the Arabian Meseni; on the west by the Arabian Scenitae as far as Adiabene and Gordyaea; on the north by the Armenians and Medes as far as the Zagrus, and the nations about that river.

[9] The country is intersected by many rivers, the largest of which are the Euphrates and the Tigris: next to the Indian rivers, the rivers in the southern parts of Asia are said to hold the second place. The Tigris is navigable upwards from its mouth to Opis,²⁰ and to the present Seleuceia. Opis is a village and a mart for the surrounding places. The Euphrates also is navigable up to Babylon, a distance of more than 3000 stadia. The Persians, through fear of incursions from without, and for the purpose of preventing vessels from ascending these rivers, constructed artificial cataracts. Alexander, on arriving there, destroyed as many of them as he could, those particularly [on the Tigris from the sea] to Opis. But he bestowed great care upon the canals; for the Euphrates, at the commencement of summer, overflows; It begins to fill in the spring, when the snow in Armenia melts: the ploughed land, therefore, would be covered with water and be submerged, unless the overflow of the superabundant water were diverted by trenches and canals, as in Egypt the water of the Nile is diverted. Hence the origin of canals. Great labour is requisite for their maintenance, for the soil is deep, soft, and yielding, so that it would easily be swept away by the stream; the fields would be laid bare, the canals filled, and the accumulation of mud would soon obstruct their mouths. Then, again, the excess of water discharging itself into the plains near the sea forms lakes, and marshes, and reed-grounds, supplying the reeds with which all kinds of platted vessels are woven; some of these vessels are capable of holding water, when covered over with asphaltus; others are used with the material in its natural state. Sails are also made of reeds; these resemble mats or hurdles.

[10] It is not, perhaps, possible to prevent inundations of this kind altogether, but it is the duty of good princes to afford all possible assistance. The assistance required is to prevent excessive overflow by the construction of dams, and to obviate the filling of rivers, produced by the accumulation of mud, by cleansing the canals, and removing stoppages at their mouths. The cleansing of the canals is easily performed, but the construction of dams requires the labour of numerous workmen. For the earth being soft and yielding, does not support the superincumbent mass, which sinks, and is itself carried away, and thus a difficulty arises in making dams at the mouth. Expedition is necessary in closing the canals to prevent all the water flowing out. When the canals dry up in the summer time, they cause the river to dry up also; and if the river is low (before the canals are closed), it cannot supply the canals in time with water, of which the country, burnt up and scorched, requires a very large quantity; for there is no difference, whether the crops are flooded by an excess or perish by drought and a failure of water. The navigation up the rivers (a source of many advantages) is continually obstructed by both the above-mentioned causes, and it is not possible to remedy this unless the mouths of the canals were quickly opened and quickly closed, and the canals were made to contain and preserve a mean between excess and deficiency of water.

[11] Aristobulus relates that Alexander himself, when he was sailing up the river, and directing the course of the boat, inspected the canals, and ordered them to be cleared by his multitude of followers; he likewise stopped up some of the mouths, and opened others. He observed that one of these canals, which took a direction more immediately to the marshes, and to the lakes in front of Arabia, had a mouth very difficult to be dealt with, and which could not be easily closed on account of the soft and yielding nature of the soil; he (therefore) opened a new mouth at the distance of 30 stadia, selecting a place with a rocky bottom, and to this the current was diverted. But in doing this he was taking precautions that Arabia should not become entirely inaccessible in consequence of the lakes and marshes, as it was already almost an island from the quantity of water (which surrounded it). For he contemplated making himself master of this country; and he had already provided a fleet and places of rendezvous; and had built vessels in Phoenicia and at Cyprus, some of which were in separate pieces, others were in parts, fastened together by bolts. These, after being conveyed to Thapsacus in seven distances of a day’s march, were then to be transported down the river to Babylon. He constructed other boats in Babylonia, from cypress trees in the groves and parks, for there is a scarcity of timber in Babylonia. Among the Cossaei, and some other tribes, the supply of timber is not great,

The pretext for the war, says Aristobulus, was that the Arabians were the only people who did not send their ambassadors to Alexander; but the true reason was his ambition to be lord of all.

When he was informed that they worshipped two deities only, Jupiter and Bacchus, who supply what is most requisite for the subsistence of mankind, he supposed that, after his conquests, they would worship him as a third, if he permitted them to enjoy their former national independence. Thus was Alexander employed in clearing the canals, and in examining minutely the sepulchres of the kings, most of which are situated among the lakes.

[12] Eratosthenes, when he is speaking of the lakes near Arabia, says, that the water, when it cannot find an outlet, opens passages underground, and is conveyed through these as far as the Coele-Syrians,²¹ it is also compressed and forced into the parts near Rhinocolura²² and Mount Casius,²³ and there forms lakes and deep pits.²⁴ But I know not whether this is probable. For the overflowings of the water of the Euphrates, which form the lakes and marshes near Arabia, are near the Persian Sea. But the isthmus which separates them is neither large nor rocky, so that it was more probable that the water forced its way in this direction into the sea, either under the ground, or across the surface, than that it traversed so dry and parched a soil for more than 6000 stadia; particularly, when we observe, situated mid-way in this course, Libanus, Antilibanus, and Mount Casius.²⁵

Such, then, are the accounts of Eratosthenes and Aristobulus.

[13] But Polycleitus says, that the Euphrates does not overflow its banks, because its course is through large plains; that of the mountains (from which it is supplied), some are distant 2000, and the Cossaean mountains scarcely 1000 stadia, that they are not very high, nor covered with snow to a great depth, and therefore do not occasion the snow to melt in great masses, for the most elevated mountains are in the northern parts above Ecbatana; towards the south they are divided, spread out, and are much lower; the Tigris also receives the greater part of the water [which comes down from them], and thus overflows its banks.²⁶

The last assertion is evidently absurd, because the Tigris descends into the same plains (as the Euphrates); and the above-mentioned mountains are not of the same height, the northern being more elevated, the southern extending in breadth, but are of a lower altitude. The quantity of snow is not, however, to be estimated by altitude only, but by aspect. The same mountain has more snow on the northern than on the southern side, and the snow continues longer on the former than on the latter. As the Tigris therefore receives from the most southern parts of Armenia, which are near Babylon, the water of the melted snow, of which there is no great quantity, since it comes from the southern side, it should overflow in a less degree than the Euphrates, which receives the water from both parts (northern and southern); and not from a single mountain only, but from many, as I have mentioned in the description of Armenia. To this we must add the length of the river, the large tract of country which it traverses in the Greater and in the Lesser Armenia, the large space it takes in its course in passing out of the Lesser Armenia and Cappadocia, after issuing out of the Taurus in its way to Thapsacus (forming the boundary between Syria below and Mesopotamia), and the large remaining portion of country as far as Babylon and to its mouth, a course in all of 36,000 stadia.

This, then, on the subject of the canals (of Babylonia).

[14] Babylonia produces barley in larger quantity than any other²⁷ country, for a produce of three hundred-fold is spoken of. The palm tree furnishes everything else, bread, wine, vinegar, and meal; all kinds of woven articles are also procured from it. Braziers use the stones of the fruit instead of charcoal. When softened by being soaked in water, they are food for fattening oxen and sheep.

It is said that there is a Persian song in which are reckoned up 360 useful properties of the palm.

They employ for the most part the oil of sesamum, a plant which is rare in other places.

[15] Asphaltus is found in great abundance in Babylonia. Eratosthenes describes it as follows.

The liquid asphaltus, which is called naphtha, is found in Susiana; the dry kind, which can be made solid, in Babylonia. There is a spring of it near the Euphrates. When this river overflows at the time of the melting of the snow, the spring also of asphaltus is filled, and overflows into the river, where large clods are consolidated, fit for buildings constructed of baked bricks. Others say that the liquid kind also is found in Babylonia. With respect to the solid kind, I have described its great utility in the construction of buildings. They say that boats (of reeds) are woven,²⁸ which, when besmeared with asphaltus, are firmly compacted. The liquid kind, called naphtha, is of a singular nature. When it is brought near the fire, the fire catches it; and if a body smeared over with it is brought near the fire, it burns with a flame, which it is impossible to extinguish, except with a large quantity of water; with a small quantity it burns more violently, but it may be smothered and extinguished by mud, vinegar, alum, and glue. It is said that Alexander, as an experiment, ordered naphtha to be poured over a boy in a bath, and a lamp to be brought near his body. The boy became enveloped in flames, and would have perished if the bystanders had not mastered the fire by pouring upon him a great quantity of water, and thus saved his life.

Poseidonius says that there are springs of naphtha in Babylonia, some of which produce white, others black, naphtha; the first of these, I mean the white naphtha, which attracts flame, is liquid sulphur; the second, or black naphtha, is liquid asphaltus, and is burnt in lamps instead of oil.

[16] In former times the capital of Assyria was Babylon; it is now called Seleuceia upon the Tigris. Near it is a large village called Ctesiphon. This the Parthian kings usually made their winter residence, with a view to spare the Seleucians the burden of furnishing quarters for the Scythian soldiery. In consequence of the power of Parthia, Ctesiphon²⁹ may be considered as a city rather than a village; from its size it is capable of lodging a great multitude of people; it has been adorned with public buildings by the Parthians, and has furnished merchandise, and given rise to arts profitable to its masters.

The kings usually passed the winter there, on account of the salubrity of the air, and the summer at Ecbatana and in Hyrcania,³⁰ induced by the ancient renown of these places.

As we call the country Babylonia, so we call the people Babylonians, not from the name of the city, but of the country; the case is not precisely the same, however, as regards even natives of Seleuceia, as, for instance, Diogenes, the stoic philosopher [who had the appellation of the Babylonian, and not the Seleucian].³¹

[17] At the distance of 500 stadia from Seleuceia is Artemita, a considerable city, situated nearly directly to the east, which is the position also of Sitacene.³² This extensive and fertile tract of country lies between Babylon and Susiana, so that the whole road in travelling from Babylon to Susa passes through Sitacene. The road from Susa³³ into the interior of Persis, through the territory of the Uxii,³⁴ and from Persis into the middle of Carmania,³⁵ leads also towards the east.

Persis, which is a large country, encompasses Carmania on the [west]³⁶ and north. Close to it adjoin Paraetacene,³⁷ and the Cossaean territory as far as the Caspian Gates, inhabited by mountainous and predatory tribes. Contiguous to Susiana is Elymaïs, a great part of which is rugged, and inhabited by robbers. To Elymaïs adjoin the country about the Zagrus³⁸ and Media.³⁹

[18] The Cossaei, like the neighbouring mountaineers, are for the most part archers, and are always out on foraging parties. For as they occupy a country of small extent, and barren, they are compelled by necessity to live at the expense of others. They are also necessarily powerful, for they are all fighting men. When the Elymaei were at war with the Babylonians and Susians, they supplied the Elymaei with thirteen thousand auxiliaries.

The Paraetaceni attend to the cultivation of the ground more than the Cossaei, but even these people do not abstain from robbery.

The Elymaei occupy a country larger in extent, and more varied, than that of the Paraetaceni. The fertile part of it is inhabited by husbandmen. The mountainous tract is a nursery for soldiers, the greatest part of whom are archers. As it is of considerable extent, it can furnish a great military force; their king, who possesses great power, refuses to be subject, like others, to the king of Parthia. The country was similarly independent in the time of the Persians, and afterwards⁴⁰ in the time of the Macedonians, who governed Syria. When Antiochus the Great attempted to plunder the temple of Belus, the neighbouring barbarians, unassisted, attacked and put him to death. In after-times the king of Parthia⁴¹ heard that the temples in their country contained great wealth, but knowing that the people would not submit, and admonished by the fate of Antiochus, he invaded their country with a large army; he took the temple of Minerva, and that of Diana, called Azara, and carried away treasure to the amount of 10,000 talents. Seleuceia also, a large city on the river Hedyphon,⁴² was taken. It was formerly called Soloce.

There are three convenient entrances into this country; one from Media and the places about the Zagrus, through Massabatice; a second from Susis, through the district Gabiane. Both Gabiane and Massabatice are provinces of Elymaea. A third passage is that from Persis. Corbiane also is a province of Elymaïs.

Sagapeni and Silaceni, small principalities, border upon Elymaïs.

Such, then, is the number and the character of the nations situated above Babylonia towards the east.

We have said that Media and Armenia lie to the north, and Adiabene and Mesopotamia to the west of Babylonia.

[19] The greatest part of Adiabene consists of plains, and, although it is a portion of Babylon, has its own prince. In some places it is contiguous to Armenia.⁴³ For the Medes, Armenians, and Babylonians, the three greatest nations in these parts, were from the first in the practice, on convenient opportunities, of waging continual war with each other, and then making peace, which state of things continued till the establishment of the Parthian empire.

The Parthians subdued the Medes and Babylonians, but never at any time conquered the Armenians. They made frequent inroads into their country, but the people were not subdued, and Tigranes, as I have mentioned in the description of Armenia,⁴⁴ opposed them with great vigour and success.

Such is the nature of Adiabene. The Adiabeni are also called Saccopodes.⁴⁵

We shall describe Mesopotamia and the nations towards the south, after premising a short account of the customs of the Assyrians.

[20] Their other customs are like those of the Persians, but this is peculiar to themselves: three discreet persons, chiefs of each tribe, are appointed, who present publicly young women who are marriageable, and give notice by the crier, beginning with those most in estimation, of a sale of them to men intending to become husbands. In this manner marriages are contracted.

As often as the parties have sexual intercourse with one another, they rise, each apart from the other, to burn perfumes. In the morning they wash, before touching any household vessel. For as ablution is customary after touching a dead body, so is it practised after sexual intercourse.⁴⁶ There is a custom prescribed by an oracle for all the Babylonian women to have intercourse with strangers. The women repair to a temple of Venus, accompanied by numerous attendants and a crowd of people. Each woman has a cord round her head, The man approaches a woman, and places on her lap as much money as he thinks proper; he then leads her away to a distance from the sacred grove, and has intercourse with her. The money is considered as consecrated to Venus.

There are three tribunals, one consisting of persons who are past military service, another of nobles, and a third of old men, besides another appointed by the king. It is the business of the latter⁴⁷ to dispose of the virgins in marriage, and to determine causes respecting adultery; of another to decide those relative to theft; and of the third, those of assault and violence.

The sick are brought out of their houses into the highways, and inquiry is made of passengers whether any of them can give information of a remedy for the disease. There is no one so ill-disposed as not to accost the sick person, and acquaint him with anything that he considers may conduce to his recovery.

Their dress is a tunic reaching to the feet, an upper garment of wool, [and] a white cloak. The hair is long. They wear a shoe resembling a buskin. They wear also a seal, and carry a staff not plain, but with a figure upon the top of it, as an apple, a rose, a lily, or something of the kind. They anoint themselves with oil of sesamum. They bewail the dead, like the Egyptians and many other nations. They bury the body in honey, first besmearing it with wax.

There are three communities which have no corn. They live in the marshes, and subsist on fish. Their mode of life is like that of the inhabitants of Gedrosia.⁴⁸

[21] Mesopotamia has its name from an accidental circumstance. We have said that it is situated between the Euphrates and the Tigris, that the Tigris washes its eastern side only, and the Euphrates its western and southern sides. To the north is the Taurus, which separates Armenia from Mesopotamia. The greatest distance by which they are separated from each other is that towards the mountains. This distance may be the same which Eratosthenes mentions, and is reckoned from Thapsacus,⁴⁹ where there was the (Zeugma) old bridge of the Euphrates, to the (Zeugma) passage over the Tigris, where Alexander crossed it, a distance, that is, of 2400 stadia. The least distance between them is somewhere about Seleuceia and Babylon, and is a little more than 200 stadia.

The Tigris flows through the middle of the lake called Thopitis⁵⁰ in the direction of its breadth, and after traversing it to the opposite bank, sinks under ground with a loud noise and rushing of air. Its course is for a long space invisible, but it rises again to the surface not far from Gordyaea. According to Eratosthenes, it traverses the lake with such rapidity, that although the lake is saline and without fish,⁵¹ yet in this part it is fresh, has a current, and abounds with fish.

[22] The contracted shape of Mesopotamia extends far in length, and somewhat resembles a ship. The Euphrates forms the larger part of its boundary. The distance from Thapsacus to Babylon, according to Eratosthenes, is 4800 stadia, and from the (Zeugma⁵² bridge in Commagene, where Mesopotamia begins, to Thapsacus, is not less than 2000 stadia.

[23] The country lying at the foot of the mountains is very fertile. The people, called by the Macedonians Mygdones, occupy the parts towards the Euphrates, and both Zeugmata, that is, the Zeugma in Commagene, and the ancient Zeugma at Thapsacus. In their territory is Nisibis,⁵³ which they called also Antioch in Mygdonia, situated below Mount Masius,⁵⁴ and Tigranocerta,⁵⁵ and the places about Carrhae, Nicephorium,⁵⁶ Chordiraza,⁵⁷ and Sinnaca, where Crassus was taken prisoner by stratagem, and put to death by Surena, the Parthian general.⁵⁸

[24] Near the Tigris are the places belonging to the Gordyaei,⁵⁹ whom the ancients called Carduchi; their cities are Sareisa, Satalca, and Pinaca, a very strong fortress with three citadels, each enclosed by its own wall, so that it is as it were a triple city. It was, however, subject to the king of Armenia; the Romans also took it by storm, although the Gordyaei had the reputation of excelling in the art of building, and to be skilful in the construction of siege engines. It was for this reason Tigranes took them into his service. The rest of Mesopotamia (Gordyaea?) was subject to the Romans. Pompey assigned to Tigranes the largest and best portion of the country; for it has fine pastures, is rich in plants, and produces ever-greens and an aromatic, the amomum. It breeds lions also. It furnishes naphtha, and the stone called Gangitis,⁶⁰ which drives away reptiles.

[25] Gordys, the son of Triptolemus, is related to have colonized Gordyene. The Eretrians⁶¹ afterwards, who were carried away by force by the Persians, settled here. We shall soon speak of Triptolemus in our description of Syria.

[26] The parts of Mesopotamia inclining to the south, and at a distance from the mountains, are an arid and barren district, occupied by the Arabian Scenitae, a tribe of robbers and shepherds, who readily move from place to place, whenever pasture or booty begin to be exhausted. The country lying at the foot of the mountains is harassed both by these people and by the Armenians. They are situated above, and keep them in subjection by force. It is at last subject for the most part to these people, or to the Parthians, who are situated at their side, and possess both Media and Babylonia.

[27] Between the Tigris and the Euphrates flows a river, called Basileios (or the Royal river), and about Anthemusia another called the Aborrhas.⁶² The road for merchants going from Syria to Seleuceia and Babylon lies through the country of the (Arabian) Scenitae, [now called Malii,]⁶³ and through the desert belonging to their territory. The Euphrates is crossed in the latitude of Anthemusia, a place in Mesopotamia.⁶⁴ Above the river, at the distance of four schoeni, is Bambyce, which is called by the names of Edessa and Hierapolis,⁶⁵ where the Syrian goddess Atargatis is worshipped. After crossing the river, the road lies through a desert country on the borders of Babylonia to Scenae, a considerable city, situated on the banks of a canal. From the passage across the river to Scenae is a journey of five and twenty days. There are (on the road) owners of camels, who keep resting-places, which are well supplied with water from cisterns, or transported from a distance.

The Scenitae exact a moderate tribute from merchants, but [otherwise] do not molest them: the merchants, therefore, avoid the country on the banks of the river, and risk a journey through the desert, leaving the river on the right hand at a distance of nearly three days’ march. For the chiefs of the tribes living on both banks of the river, who occupy not indeed a fertile territory, yet one less sterile than the rest (of the country), are settled in the midst of their own peculiar domains, and each exacts a tribute of no moderate amount for himself. And it is difficult among so large a body of people, and of such daring habits, to establish any common standard of tribute advantageous to the merchant.

Scene is distant from Seleuceia 18 schoeni.

[28] The Euphrates and its eastern banks are the boundaries of the Parthian empire. The Romans and the chiefs of the Arabian tribes occupy the parts on this side the Euphrates as far as Babylonia. Some of the chiefs attach themselves in preference to the Parthians, others to the Romans, to whom they adjoin. The Scenitae nomades, who live near the river, are less friendly to the Romans than those tribes who are situated at a distance near Arabia Felix. The Parthians were once solicitous of conciliating the friendship of the Romans, but having repulsed Crassus,⁶⁶ who began the war with them, they suffered reprisals, when they themselves commenced hostilities, and sent Pacorus into Asia.⁶⁷ But Antony, following the advice of the Armenian,⁶⁸ was betrayed, and was unsuccessful (against them). Phraates, his⁶⁹ successor, was so anxious to obtain the friendship of Augustus Caesar, that he even sent the trophies, which the Parthians had set up as memorials of the defeat of the Romans. He also invited Titius to a conference, who was at that time prefect of Syria, and delivered into his hands, as hostages, four of his legitimate sons, Seraspadanes, Rhodaspes, Phraates, and Bonones, with two of their wives and four of their sons; for he was apprehensive of conspiracy and attempts on his life.⁷⁰ He knew that no one could prevail against him, unless he was opposed by one of the Arsacian family, to which race the Parthians were strongly attached. He therefore removed the sons out of his way, with a view of annihilating the hopes of the disaffected.

The surviving sons, who live at Rome, are entertained as princes at the public expense. The other kings (his successors) have continued to send ambassadors (to Rome), and to hold conferences (with the Roman prefects).

Geography. Strabo. Hans Claude Hamilton (Translator), William Falconer (Translator). London. 1854-1857.

Sponsored by Perseus Project, Tufts University.

Funding provided by Tufts University.

Current edition Perseus

Geography (English) (Strabo. The Geography of Strabo, Vols. 1-3. Hamilton, Hans Claude, translator; Falconer, William, translator. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1854-1857.)

Editions (1)

Γεωγραφικά Perseus (Strabo. Strabonis Geographica, Vols. 1-3. Meineke, August, editor. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877.) — 16.1 focus

[1] τῇ δὲ Περσίδι καὶ τῇ Σουσιανῇ συνάπτουσιν οἱ Ἀσσύριοι· καλοῦσι δʼ οὕτω τὴν Βαβυλωνίαν καὶ πολλὴν τῆς κύκλῳ γῆς, ἧς ἐν μέρει καὶ ἡ Ἀτουρία ἐστίν, ἐν ᾗπερ ἡ Νίνος καὶ ἡ Ἀπολλωνιᾶτις καὶ Ἐλυμαῖοι καὶ Παραιτάκαι καὶ ἡ περὶ τὸ Ζάγρον ὄρος Χαλωνῖτις καὶ τὰ περὶ τὴν Νίνον πεδία, Δολομηνή τε καὶ Καλαχηνὴ καὶ Χαζήνη καὶ Ἀδιαβηνή, καὶ τὰ τῆς Μεσοποταμίας ἔθνη τὰ περὶ Γορδυαίους καὶ τοὺς περὶ Νίσιβιν Μυγδόνας μέχρι τοῦ Ζεύγματος τοῦ κατὰ τὸν Εὐφράτην καὶ τῆς πέραν τοῦ Εὐφράτου πολλὴ ἣν Ἄραβες κατέχουσι, καὶ οἱ ἰδίως ὑπὸ τῶν νῦν λεγόμενοι Σύροι μέχρι Κιλίκων καὶ Φοινίκων καὶ Ἰουδαίων καὶ τῆς θαλάττης τῆς κατὰ τὸ Αἰγύπτιον πέλαγος καὶ τὸν Ἰσσικὸν κόλπον.

[2] δοκεῖ δὲ τὸ τῶν Σύρων ὄνομα διατεῖναι ἀπὸ μὲν τῆς Βαβυλωνίας μέχρι τοῦ Ἰσσικοῦ κόλπου, ἀπὸ δὲ τούτου μέχρι τοῦ Εὐξείνου τὸ παλαιόν. οἱ γοῦν Καππάδοκες ἀμφότεροι, οἵ τε πρὸς τῷ Ταύρῳ καὶ οἱ πρὸς τῷ Πόντῳ, μέχρι νῦν Λευκόσυροι καλοῦνται, ὡς ἂν ὄντων τινῶν Σύρων καὶ μελάνων· οὗτοι δʼ εἰσὶν οἱ ἐκτὸς τοῦ Ταύρου· λέγω δὲ Ταῦρον μέχρι τοῦ Ἀμανοῦ διατείνων τοὔνομα. οἱ δʼ ἱστοροῦντες τὴν Σύρων ἀρχὴν ὅταν φῶσι Μήδους μὲν ὑπὸ Περσῶν καταλυθῆναι Σύρους δὲ ὑπὸ Μήδων, οὐκ ἄλλους τινὰς τοὺς Σύρους λέγουσιν ἀλλὰ τοὺς ἐν Βαβυλῶνι καὶ Νίνῳ κατεσκευασμένους τὸ βασίλειον· ὧν ὁ μὲν Νίνος ἦν ὁ τὴν Νίνον ἐν τῇ Ἀτουρίᾳ κτίσας, ἡ δὲ τούτου γυνή, ἥπερ καὶ διεδέξατο τὸν ἄνδρα, Σεμίραμις, ἧς ἐστι κτίσμα ἡ Βαβυλών. οὗτοι δὲ ἐκράτησαν τῆς Ἀσίας, καὶ τῆς Σεμιράμιδος χωρὶς τῶν ἐν Βαβυλῶνι ἔργων πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα κατὰ πᾶσαν γῆν σχεδὸν δείκνυται ὅση τῆς ἠπείρου ταύτης ἐστί, τά τε χώματα ἃ δὴ καλοῦσι Σεμιράμιδος, καὶ τείχη καὶ ἐρυμάτων κατασκευαὶ καὶ συρίγγων τῶν ἐν αὐτοῖς καὶ ὑδρείων καὶ κλιμάκων καὶ διωρύγων ἐν ποταμοῖς καὶ λίμναις καὶ ὁδῶν καὶ γεφυρῶν. ἀπέλιπον δὲ τοῖς μεθʼ ἑαυτοὺς τὴν ἀρχὴν μέχρι * τῆς Σαρδαναπάλλου καὶ Ἀρβάκου· μετέστη δʼ εἰς Μήδους ὕστερον.

[3] ̔η μὲν οὖν Νίνος πόλις ἠφανίσθη παραχρῆμα μετὰ τὴν τῶν Σύρων κατάλυσιν. πολὺ δὲ μείζων ἦν τῆς Βαβυλῶνος, ἐν πεδίῳ κειμένη τῆς Ἀτουρίας· ἡ δʼ Ἀτουρία τοῖς περὶ Ἄρβηλα τόποις ὅμορός ἐστι μεταξὺ τὸν Λύκον ἔχουσα ποταμόν. τὰ μὲν οὖν Ἄρβηλα τῆς Βαβυλωνίας ὑπάρχει * ἃ κατʼ αὐτήν ἐστιν· ἐν δὲ τῇ περαίᾳ τοῦ Λύκου τὰ τῆς Ἀτουρίας πεδία τῇ Νίνῳ περίκειται. ἐν δὲ τῇ Ἀτουρίᾳ ἐστὶ Γαυγάμηλα κώμη, ἐν ᾗ συνέβη νικηθῆναι καὶ ἀποβαλεῖν τὴν ἀρχὴν Δαρεῖον. ἔστι μὲν οὖν τόπος ἐπίσημος οὗτος καὶ τοὔνομα· μεθερμηνευθὲν γάρ ἐστι καμήλου οἶκος· ὠνόμασε δʼ οὕτω Δαρεῖος ὁ Ὑστάσπεω, κτῆμα δοὺς εἰς διατροφὴν τῇ καμήλῳ τῇ συνεκπεπονηκυίᾳ μάλιστα τὴν ὁδὸν τὴν διὰ τῆς ἐρήμου Σκυθίας μετὰ τῶν φορτίων, ἐν οἷς ἦν καὶ ἡ διατροφὴ τῷ βασιλεῖ. οἱ μέντοι Μακεδόνες τοῦτο μὲν ὁρῶντες κώμιον εὐτελές, τὰ δὲ Ἄρβηλα κατοικίαν ἀξιόλογον, κτίσμα ὥς φασιν Ἀρβήλου τοῦ Ἀθμονέως, περὶ Ἄρβηλα τὴν μάχην καὶ νίκην κατεφήμισαν καὶ τοῖς συγγραφεῦσιν οὕτω παρέδωκαν.

[4] μετὰ δὲ Ἄρβηλα καὶ τὸ Νικατόριον ὄρος (ὃ προσωνόμασεν Ἀλέξανδρος νικήσας τὴν περὶ Ἄρβηλα μάχην) ὁ Κάπρος ἐστὶ ποταμὸς ἐν ἴσῳ διαστήματι ὅσῳ καὶ ὁ Λύκος· ἡ δὲ χώρα * Ἀρτακηνὴ λέγεται. περὶ Ἄρβηλα δὲ ἔστι καὶ Δημητριὰς πόλις· εἶθʼ ἡ τοῦ νάφθα πηγὴ καὶ τὰ πυρὰ καὶ τὸ τῆς * Ἀναίας ἱερὸν καὶ Σαδράκαι, τὸ Δαρείου τοῦ Ὑστάσπεω βασίλειον, καὶ ὁ Κυπαρισσὼν καὶ ἡ τοῦ Κάπρου διάβασις συνάπτουσα ἤδη Σελευκείᾳ καὶ Βαβυλῶνι.

[5] ̔η δὲ Βαβυλὼν καὶ αὐτὴ μέν ἐστιν ἐν πεδίῳ, τὸν δὲ κύκλον ἔχει τοῦ τείχους τριακοσίων ἑξήκοντα πέντε σταδίων, πάχος δὲ τοῦ τείχους ποδῶν δύο καὶ τριάκοντα, ὕψος δὲ τῶν μὲν μεσοπυργίων πήχεις πεντήκοντα τῶν δὲ πύργων ἑξήκοντα, ἡ δὲ πάροδος τοῖς ἐπὶ τοῦ τείχους ὥστε τέθριππα ἐναντιοδρομεῖν ἀλλήλοις ῥᾳδίως· διόπερ τῶν ἑπτὰ θεαμάτων λέγεται καὶ τοῦτο καὶ ὁ κρεμαστὸς κῆπος ἔχων ἐν τετραγώνῳ σχήματι ἑκάστην πλευρὰν τεττάρων πλέθρων· συνέχεται δὲ ψαλιδώμασι καμαρωτοῖς ἐπὶ πεττῶν ἱδρυμένοις κυβοειδῶν ἄλλοις ἐπʼ ἄλλοις· οἱ δὲ πεττοὶ κοῖλοι πλήρεις γῆς ὥστε δέξασθαι φυτὰ δένδρων τῶν μεγίστων, ἐξ ὀπτῆς πλίνθου καὶ ἀσφάλτου κατεσκευασμένοι καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ ψαλίδες καὶ τὰ καμαρώματα. ἡ δʼ ἀνωτάτω στέγη προσβάσεις κλιμακωτὰς ἔχει, παρακειμένους δʼ αὐταῖς καὶ κοχλίας διʼ ὧν τὸ ὕδωρ ἀνῆγον εἰς τὸν κῆπον ἀπὸ τοῦ Εὐφράτου συνεχῶς οἱ πρὸς τοῦτο τεταγμένοι. ὁ γὰρ ποταμὸς διὰ μέσης ῥεῖ τῆς πόλεως σταδιαῖος τὸ πλάτος, ἐπὶ δὲ τῷ ποταμῷ ὁ κῆπος. ἔστι δὲ καὶ ὁ τοῦ Βήλου τάφος αὐτόθι, νῦν μὲν κατεσκαμμένος, Ξέρξης δʼ αὐτὸν κατέσπασεν, ὥς φασιν· ἦν δὲ πυραμὶς τετράγωνος ἐξ ὀπτῆς πλίνθου καὶ αὐτὴ σταδιαία τὸ ὕψος, σταδιαία δὲ καὶ ἑκάστη τῶν πλευρῶν· ἣν Ἀλέξανδρος ἐβούλετο ἀνασκευάσαι, πολὺ δʼ ἦν ἔργον καὶ πολλοῦ χρόνου (αὐτὴ γὰρ ἡ χοῦς εἰς ἀνακάθαρσιν μυρίοις ἀνδράσι δυεῖν μηνῶν ἔργον ἦν), ὥστʼ οὐκ ἔφθη τὸ ἐγχειρηθὲν ἐπιτελέσαι· παραχρῆμα γὰρ ἡ νόσος καὶ ἡ τελευτὴ συνέπεσε τῷ βασιλεῖ, τῶν δʼ ὕστερον οὐδεὶς ἐφρόντισεν. ἀλλὰ καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ ὠλιγωρήθη καὶ κατήρειψαν τῆς πόλεως τὰ μὲν οἱ Πέρσαι τὰ δʼ ὁ χρόνος καὶ ἡ τῶν Μακεδόνων ὀλιγωρία περὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα, καὶ μάλιστα ἐπειδὴ τὴν Σελεύκειαν ἐπὶ τῷ Τίγρει πλησίον τῆς Βαβυλῶνος ἐν τριακοσίοις που σταδίοις ἐτείχισε Σέλευκος ὁ Νικάτωρ. καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῖνος καὶ οἱ μετʼ αὐτὸν ἅπαντες περὶ ταύτην ἐσπούδασαν τὴν πόλιν καὶ τὸ βασίλειον ἐνταῦθα μετήνεγκαν· καὶ δὴ καὶ νῦν ἡ μὲν γέγονε Βαβυλῶνος μείζων ἡ δʼ ἔρημος ἡ πολλή, ὥστʼ ἐπʼ αὐτῆς μὴ ἂν ὀκνῆσαί τινα εἰπεῖν ὅπερ ἔφη τις τῶν κωμικῶν ἐπὶ τῶν Μαγαλοπολιτῶν τῶν ἐν Ἀρκαδίᾳ ἐρημία μεγάλη ʼστὶν ἡ Μεγάλη πόλις. διὰ δὲ τὴν τῆς ὕλης σπάνιν ἐκ φοινικίνων ξύλων αἱ οἰκοδομαὶ συντελοῦνται καὶ δοκοῖς καὶ στύλοις· περὶ δὲ τοὺς στύλους στρέφοντες ἐκ τῆς καλάμης σχοινία περιτιθέασιν, εἶτʼ ἐπαλείφοντες χρώμασι καταγράφουσι, τὰς δὲ θύρας ἀσφάλτῳ· ὑψηλαὶ δὲ καὶ αὗται καὶ οἱ οἶκοι καμαρωτοὶ πάντες διὰ τὴν ἀξυλίαν· ψιλὴ γὰρ ἡ χώρα καὶ θαμνώδης ἡ πολλὴ πλὴν φοίνικος· οὗτος δὲ πλεῖστος ἐν τῇ Βαβυλωνίᾳ, πολὺς δὲ καὶ ἐν Σούσοις καὶ ἐν τῇ παραλίᾳ τῇ Περσίδι καὶ ἐν τῇ Καρμανίᾳ. κεράμῳ δʼ οὐ χρῶνται· οὐδὲ γὰρ κατομβροῦνται. παραπλήσια δὲ καὶ τὰ ἐν Σούσοις καὶ τῇ Σιτακηνῇ.

[6] Ἀφώριστο δʼ ἐν τῇ Βαβυλῶνι κατοικία τοῖς ἐπιχωρίοις φιλοσόφοις τοῖς Χαλδαίοις προσαγορευομένοις, οἳ περὶ ἀστρονομίαν εἰσὶ τὸ πλέον· προσποιοῦνται δέ τινες καὶ γενεθλιαλογεῖν, οὓς οὐκ ἀποδέχονται οἱ ἕτεροι. ἔστι δὲ καὶ φῦλόν τι τὸ τῶν Χαλδαίων καὶ χώρα τῆς Βαβυλωνίας ὑπʼ ἐκείνων οἰκουμένη, πλησιάζουσα καὶ τοῖς Ἄραψι καὶ τῇ κατὰ Πέρσας λεγομένῃ θαλάττῃ. ἔστι δὲ καὶ τῶν Χαλδαίων τῶν ἀστρονομικῶν γένη πλείω· καὶ γὰρ Ὀρχηνοί τινες προσαγορεύονται καὶ Βορσιππηνοὶ καὶ ἄλλοι πλείους ὡς ἂν κατὰ αἱρέσεις ἄλλα καὶ ἄλλα νέμοντες περὶ τῶν αὐτῶν δόγματα. μέμνηνται δὲ καὶ τῶν ἀνδρῶν ἐνίων οἱ μαθηματικοί, καθάπερ Κιδηνᾶ τε καὶ Ναβουριανοῦ καὶ Σουδίνου· καὶ Σέλευκος δʼ ὁ ἀπὸ τῆς Σελευκείας Χαλδαῖός ἐστι καὶ ἄλλοι πλείους ἀξιόλογοι ἄνδρες.

[7] τὰ δὲ Βόρσιππα ἱερὰ πόλις ἐστὶν Ἀρτέμιδος καὶ Ἀπόλλωνος, λινουργεῖον μέγα. πληθύουσι δὲ ἐν αὐτῇ νυκτερίδες μείζους πολὺ τῶν ἐν ἄλλοις τόποις· ἁλίσκονται δʼ εἰς βρῶσιν καὶ ταριχεύονται.

[8] περιέχεται δʼ ἡ χώρα τῶν Βαβυλωνίων ἀπὸ μὲν τῆς ἠοῦς ὑπό τε Σουσίων καὶ Ἐλυμαίων καὶ Παραιτακηνῶν, ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς μεσημβρίας ὑπὸ τοῦ Περσικοῦ κόλπου καὶ τῶν Χαλδαίων μέχρι Ἀράβων τῶν Μεσηνῶν, ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς ἑσπέρας ὑπό τε Ἀράβων τῶν σκηνιτῶν μέχρι τῆς Ἀδιαβηνῆς καὶ τῆς Γορδυαίας, ἀπὸ δὲ τῶν ἄρκτων ὑπό τε Ἀρμενίων καὶ Μήδων μέχρι τοῦ Ζάγρου καὶ τῶν περὶ αὐτὸ ἐθνῶν.

[9] διαρρεῖται δʼ ὑπὸ πλειόνων μὲν ποταμῶν ἡ χώρα, μεγίστων δὲ τοῦ τε Εὐφράτου καὶ τοῦ Τίγριος· μετὰ γὰρ τοὺς Ἰνδικοὺς οὗτοι λέγονται δευτερεύειν κατὰ τὰ νότια μέρη τῆς Ἀσίας οἱ ποταμοί· ἔχουσι δʼ ἀνάπλους ὁ μὲν ἐπὶ τὴν Ὦπιν καὶ τὴν νῦν Σελεύκειαν (ἡ δὲ Ὦπις κώμη ἐμπόριον τῶν κύκλῳ τόπων) ὁ δʼ ἐπὶ Βαβυλῶνα πλειόνων ἢ τρισχιλίων σταδίων. οἱ μὲν οὖν Πέρσαι τοὺς ἀνάπλους ἐπίτηδες κωλύειν θέλοντες φόβῳ τῶν ἔξωθεν ἐφόδων καταράκτας χειροποιήτους κατεσκευάκεισαν· ὁ δὲ Ἀλέξανδρος ἐπιὼν ὅσους οἷός τε ἦν ἀνεσκεύασε, καὶ μάλιστα τοὺς ἐπὶ τὴν Ὦπιν. ἐπεμελήθη δὲ καὶ τῶν διωρύγων· πλημμυρεῖ γὰρ ὁ Εὐφράτης κατὰ τὴν ἀρχὴν τοῦ θέρους ἀπὸ τοῦ ἔαρος ἀρξάμενος, ἡνίκα τήκονται αἱ χιόνες αἱ ἀπὸ τῆς Ἀρμενίας, ὥστʼ ἀνάγκη λιμνάζειν καὶ κατακλύζεσθαι τὰς ἀρούρας, εἰ μὴ διοχετεύει τις ταφρείαις καὶ διώρυξι τὸ ἐκπῖπτον τοῦ ῥοῦ καὶ ἐπιπολάζον ὕδωρ, καθάπερ καὶ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ τὸ τοῦ Νείλου· ἐντεῦθεν μὲν οὖν αἱ διώρυγες γεγένηνται. χρεία δέ ἐστιν ὑπουργίας μεγάλας· βαθεῖα γὰρ ἡ γῆ καὶ μαλακὴ καὶ εὐένδοτος ὥστε καὶ ἐκσύρεται ῥᾳδίως ὑπὸ τῶν ῥευμάτων καὶ γυμνοῖ τὰ πεδία, πληροῖ δὲ τὰς διώρυγας καὶ τὰ στόματα αὐτῶν ἐμφράττει ῥᾳδίως ἡ χοῦς· οὕτω δὲ συμβαίνει πάλιν τὴν ὑπέρχυσιν τῶν ὑδάτων εἰς τὰ πρὸς τῇ θαλάττῃ πεδία ἐκπίπτουσαν λίμνας ἀποτελεῖν καὶ ἕλη καὶ καλαμῶνας, ἐξ ὧν καλάμινα πλέκεται παντοῖα σκεύη, τὰ μὲν ὑγροῦ δεκτικὰ τῇ ἀσφάλτῳ περιαλειφόντων, τοῖς δʼ ἄλλοις ψιλῶς χρωμένων· καὶ ἱστία δὲ ποιοῦνται καλάμινα ψιάθοις ἢ ῥιψὶ παραπλήσια.

[10] τὸ μὲν οὖν παντάπασι κωλύειν τὴν τοιαύτην πλήμμυραν οὐχ οἷόν τε ἴσως, τὸ δὲ τὴν δυνατὴν προσφέρειν βοήθειαν ἡγεμόνων ἀγαθῶν ἐστιν. ἡ δὲ βοήθεια αὕτη, τὴν μὲν πολλὴν παρέκχυσιν ἐμφράξει κωλύειν, τὴν δὲ πλήρωσιν ἣν ἡ χοῦς ἐργάζεται, τοὐναντίον ἀνακαθάρσει τῶν διωρύγων καὶ ἐξανοίξει τῶν στομάτων. ἡ μὲν οὖν ἀνακάθαρσις ῥᾳδία ἡ δὲ ἔμφραξις πολυχειρίας δεῖται· εὐένδοτος γὰρ οὖσα ἡ γῆ καὶ μαλακὴ τὴν ἐπιφορηθεῖσαν οὐχ ὑπομένει χοῦν, ἀλλʼ εἴκουσα συνεφέλκεται κἀκείνην καὶ ποιεῖ δυσέγχωστον τὸ στόμα. καὶ γὰρ καὶ τάχους δεῖ πρὸς τὸ ταχέως κλεισθῆναι τὰς διώρυγας καὶ μὴ πᾶν ἐκπεσεῖν ἐξ αὐτῶν τὸ ὕδωρ. ξηρανθεῖσαι γὰρ τοῦ θέρους ξηραίνουσι καὶ τὸν ποταμόν· ταπεινωθεὶς δὲ τὰς ἐποχετείας οὐ δύναται παρέχεσθαι κατὰ καιρὸν ὧν δεῖται πλεῖστον τοῦ θέρους ἔμπυρος οὖσα ἡ χώρα καὶ καυματηρά· διαφέρει δʼ οὐδὲν ἢ τῷ πλήθει τῶν ὑδάτων κατακλύζεσθαι τοὺς καρπούς, ἢ τῇ λειψυδρίᾳ τῷ δίψει διαφθείρεσθαι· ἅμα δὲ καὶ τοὺς ἀνάπλους, πολὺ τὸ χρήσιμον ἔχοντας ἀεὶ δὲ λυμαινομένους ὑπʼ ἀμφοτέρων τῶν λεχθέντων παθῶν, οὐχ οἷόν τε ἐπανορθοῦν, εἰ μὴ ταχὺ μὲν ἐξανοίγοιτο τὰ στόμια τῶν διωρύγων, ταχὺ δὲ κλείοιτο, καὶ αἱ διώρυγες ἀεὶ μετριάζοιεν ὥστε μήτε πλεονάζειν ἐν αὐταῖς τὸ ὕδωρ μήτʼ ἐλλείπειν.

[11] φησὶ δʼ Ἀριστόβουλος τὸν Ἀλέξανδρον αὐτὸν ἀναπλέοντα καὶ κυβερνῶντα τὸ σκάφος ἐπισκοπεῖν καὶ ἀνακαθαίρειν τὰς διώρυγας μετὰ τοῦ πλήθους τῶν συνακολουθησάντων· ὡς δʼ αὕτως καὶ τὰ στόμια ἐμφράττειν, τὰ δʼ ἀνοίγειν· κατανοήσαντα δὲ μίαν τὴν μάλιστα τείνουσαν ἐπὶ τὰ ἕλη καὶ τὰς λίμνας τὰς πρὸ τῆς Ἀραβίας, δυσμεταχείριστον ἔχουσαν τὸ στόμα καὶ μὴ ῥᾳδίως ἐμφράττεσθαι δυναμένην διὰ τὸ εὐένδοτον καὶ μαλακόγειον, ἄλλο ἀνοῖξαι καινὸν στόμα, ἀπὸ σταδίων τριάκοντα ὑπόπετρον λαβόντα χωρίον, κἀκεῖ μεταγαγεῖν τὸ ῥεῖθρον· ταῦτα δὲ ποιεῖν προνοοῦντα ἅμα καὶ τοῦ μὴ τὴν Ἀραβίαν δυσείσβολον τελέως ὑπὸ τῶν λιμνῶν ἢ καὶ τῶν ἑλῶν ἀποτελεσθῆναι, νησίζουσαν ἤδη διὰ τὸ πλῆθος τοῦ ὕδατος· διανοεῖσθαι γὰρ δὴ κατακτᾶσθαι τὴν χώραν ταύτην καὶ στόλους καὶ ὁρμητήρια ἤδη κατεσκευάσθαι, τὰ πλοῖα τὰ μὲν ἐν Φοινίκῃ τε καὶ Κύπρῳ ναυπηγησάμενον διάλυτά τε καὶ γομφωτά, ἃ κομισθέντα εἰς Θάψακον σταθμοῖς ἑπτὰ εἶτα τῷ ποταμῷ κατακομισθῆναι μέχρι Βαβυλῶνος, τὰ δʼ ἐν τῇ Βαβυλωνίᾳ συμπηξάμενον τῶν ἐν τοῖς ἄλσεσι καὶ τοῖς παραδείσοις κυπαρίττων· σπάνις γὰρ ὕλης ἐνταῦθα, ἐν δὲ Κοσσαίοις καὶ ἄλλοις τισὶ μετρία τίς ἐστιν εὐπορία. σκήψασθαι μὲν οὖν αἰτίαν τοῦ πολέμου φησίν, ἐπειδὴ μόνοι τῶν ἁπάντων οὐ πρεσβεύσαιντο οἱ Ἄραβες ὡς αὐτόν, τὸ δʼ ἀληθὲς ὀρεγόμενον πάντων εἶναι κύριον· καὶ ἐπεὶ δύο θεοὺς ἐπυνθάνετο τιμᾶσθαι μόνους ὑπʼ αὐτῶν, τόν τε Δία καὶ τὸν Διόνυσον, τοὺς τὰ κυριώτατα πρὸς τὸ ζῆν παρέχοντας, τρίτον ὑπολαβεῖν ἑαυτὸν τιμήσεσθαι, κρατήσαντα καὶ ἐπιτρέψαντα τὴν πάτριον αὐτονομίαν ἔχειν ἣν εἶχον πρότερον. ταῦτά τε δὴ πραγματεύεσθαι περὶ τὰς διώρυγας τὸν Ἀλέξανδρον, καὶ τοὺς τάφους σκευωρεῖσθαι τοὺς τῶν βασιλέων καὶ δυναστῶν· τοὺς γὰρ πλείστους ἐν ταῖς λίμναις εἶναι.

[12] Ἐρατοσθένης δὲ τῶν λιμνῶν μνησθεὶς τῶν πρὸς τῇ Ἀραβίᾳ, φησὶ τὸ ὕδωρ ἀπορούμενον διεξόδων ἀνοῖξαι πόρους ὑπὸ γῆς καὶ διʼ ἐκείνων ὑποφέρεσθαι μέχρι Κοιλοσύρων· ἀναθλίβεσθαι δὲ εἰς τοὺς περὶ Ῥινοκόρουρα καὶ τὸ Κάσιον ὄρος τόπους καὶ ποιεῖν τὰς ἐκεῖ λίμνας καὶ τὰ βάραθρα· οὐκ οἶδα δʼ εἰ πιθανῶς εἴρηκεν. αἱ γὰρ τοῦ Εὐφράτου παρεκχύσεις αἱ ποιοῦσαι τὰς πρὸς τῇ Ἀραβίᾳ λίμνας καὶ τὰ ἕλη πλησίον εἰσὶ τῆς κατὰ Πέρσας θαλάττης, ὁ δὲ διείργων ἰσθμὸς οὔτε πολύς ἐστιν οὔτε πετρώδης, ὥστε ταύτῃ μᾶλλον εἰκὸς ἦν βιάσασθαι τὸ ὕδωρ εἰς τὴν θάλατταν, εἴτʼ ὑπὸ γῆς εἰτʼ ἐπιπολῆς, ἢ πλείους τῶν ἑξακισχιλίων σταδίων διανύειν, ἄνυδρον καὶ ξηρὰν οὕτω, καὶ ταῦτα ὀρῶν ἐν μέσῳ κειμένων, τοῦ τε Λιβάνου καὶ τοῦ Ἀντιλιβάνου καὶ τοῦ Κασίου· οἱ μὲν δὴ τοιαῦτα λέγουσι.

[13] πολύκλειτος δέ φησι μὴ πλημμυρεῖν τὸν Εὐφράτην· διὰ γὰρ πεδίων φέρεσθαι μεγάλων, τὰ δʼ ὄρη τὰ μὲν δισχιλίους ἀφεστάναι σταδίους τὰ δὲ Κοσσαῖα μόλις χιλίους, οὐ πάνυ ὑψηλὰ οὐδὲ νιφόμενα σφοδρῶς οὐδʼ ἀθρόαν ἐπιφέροντα τῇ χιόνι τὴν τῆξιν· εἶναι γὰρ καὶ τὰ ὕψη τῶν ὀρῶν ἐν τοῖς ὑπὲρ Ἐκβατάνων μέρεσι τοῖς προσβορείοις· ἐν δὲ τοῖς πρὸς νότον σχιζόμενα καὶ πλατυνόμενα πολὺ ταπεινοῦσθαι, ἅμα δὲ καὶ τὸ πολὺ τοῦ ὕδατος ἐκδέχεσθαι τὸν Τίγριν καὶ οὕτως πλημμυρεῖν. τὸ μὲν οὖν ὕστατον ῥηθὲν φανερῶς ἄτοπον· εἰς γὰρ τὰ αὐτὰ κατέρχεται πεδία· τὰ δὲ λεχθέντα ὕψη τῶν ὀρῶν ἀνωμαλίαν ἔχει, πῆ μὲν ἐξηρμένα μᾶλλον τὰ βόρεια, πῆ δὲ πλατυνόμενα τὰ μεσημβρινά· ἡ δὲ χιὼν οὐ τοῖς ὕψεσι κρίνεται μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς κλίμασι· τό τε αὐτὸ ὄρος τὰ βόρεια μέρη νίφεται μᾶλλον ἢ τὰ νότια, καὶ τὴν χιόνα συμμένουσαν ἔχει μᾶλλον ἐκεῖνα ἢ ταῦτα. ὁ μὲν οὖν Τίγρις ἐκ τῶν νοτιωτάτων μερῶν τῆς Ἀρμενίας, ἃ πλησίον ἐστὶ τῆς Βαβυλωνίας, δεχόμενος τὸ ἐκ τῶν χιόνων ὕδωρ οὐ πολὺ ὄν, ἅτε ἐκ τῆς νοτίου πλευρᾶς, ἧττον ἂν πλημμύροι· ὁ δὲ Εὐφράτης τὸ ἐξ ἀμφοτέρων δέχεται τῶν μερῶν, καὶ οὐκ ἐξ ἑνὸς ὄρους ἀλλὰ πολλῶν, ὡς ἐδηλοῦμεν ἐν τῇ περιηγήσει τῆς Ἀρμενίας, προστιθεὶς τὸ μῆκος τοῦ ποταμοῦ, ὅσον μὲν τὸ ἐν τῇ μεγάλῃ Ἀρμενίᾳ διέξεισι καὶ τῇ μικρᾷ, ὅσον δὲ τὸ ἐκ τῆς μικρᾶς Ἀρμενίας καὶ τῆς Καππαδοκίας διὰ τοῦ Ταύρου διεκβαλὼν ἕως Θαψάκου φέρεται, τὴν κάτω Συρίαν καὶ τὴν Μεσοποταμίαν ἀφορίζων, ὅσον δὲ τὸ λοιπὸν μέχρι Βαβυλῶνος καὶ τῆς ἐκβολῆς ὁμοῦ τρισμυρίων καὶ ἑξακισχιλίων σταδίων. τὰ μὲν οὖν περὶ τὰς διώρυγας τοιαῦτα.

[14] ̔η δὲ χώρα φέρει κριθὰς μὲν ὅσας οὐκ ἄλλη (καὶ γὰρ τριακοσιοντάχουν λέγουσι), τὰ δὲ ἄλλα ἐκ τοῦ φοίνικος παρέχεται· καὶ γὰρ ἄρτον καὶ οἶνον καὶ ὄξος καὶ μέλι καὶ ἄλφιτα· τά τε πλεκτὰ παντοῖα ἐκ τούτου· τοῖς δὲ πυρῆσιν ἀντʼ ἀνθράκων οἱ χαλκεῖς χρῶνται, βρεχόμενοι δὲ τοῖς σιτιζομένοις εἰσὶ τροφὴ βουσὶ καὶ προβάτοις. φασὶ δʼ εἶναι καὶ Περσικὴν ᾠδήν, ἐν ᾗ τὰς ὠφελείας τριακοσίας καὶ ἑξήκοντα διαριθμοῦνται· ἐλαίῳ δὲ χρῶνται τῷ σησαμίνῳ τὸ πλέον· οἱ δʼ ἄλλοι τόποι σπανίζονται τούτου τοῦ φυτοῦ.

[15] γίνεται δʼ ἐν τῇ Βαβυλωνίᾳ καὶ ἄσφαλτος πολλή, περὶ ἧς Ἐρατοσθένης μὲν οὕτως εἴρηκεν ὅτι ἡ μὲν ὑγρὰ ἣν καλοῦσι νάφθαν, γίνεται ἐν τῇ Σουσίδι, ἡ δὲ ξηρὰ δυναμένη πήττεσθαι ἐν τῇ Βαβυλωνίᾳ· ταύτης δʼ ἐστὶν ἡ πηγὴ τοῦ Εὐφράτου πλησίον· πλημμύροντος δὲ τούτου κατὰ τὰς τῶν χιόνων τήξεις καὶ αὐτὴ πληροῦται καὶ ὑπέρχυσιν εἰς τὸν ποταμὸν λαμβάνει· ἐνταῦθα δὲ συνίστανται βῶλοι μεγάλαι πρὸς τὰς οἰκοδομὰς ἐπιτήδειαι τὰς διὰ τῆς ὀπτῆς πλίνθου. ἄλλοι δὲ καὶ τὴν ὑγρὰν ἐν τῇ Βαβυλωνίᾳ γίνεσθαί φασι. περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς ξηρᾶς εἴρηται πόσον τὸ χρήσιμον τὸ ἐκ τῶν οἰκοδομιῶν μάλιστα· φασὶ δὲ καὶ πλοῖα πλέκεσθαι, ἐμπλασθέντα δʼ ἀσφάλτῳ πυκνοῦσθαι. τὴν δὲ ὑγρὰν ἣν νάφθαν καλοῦσι, παράδοξον ἔχειν συμβαίνει τὴν φύσιν· προσαχθεὶς γὰρ ὁ νάφθας πυρὶ πλησίον ἀναρπάζει τὸ πῦρ, κἂν ἐπιχρίσας αὐτῷ σῶμα προσαγάγῃς, φλέγεται· σβέσαι δʼ ὕδατι οὐχ οἷόν τε (ἐκκαίεται γὰρ μᾶλλον) πλὴν εἰ πάνυ πολλῷ, ἀλλὰ πηλῷ καὶ ὄξει καὶ στυπτηρίᾳ καὶ ἰξῷ πνιγεὶς σβέννυται. πείρας δὲ χάριν φασὶν Ἀλέξανδρον ἐν λουτρῷ προσχέαι παιδὶ τοῦ νάφθα καὶ προσαγαγεῖν λύχνον· φλεγόμενον δὲ τὸν παῖδα ἐγγὺς ἐλθεῖν τοῦ ἀπολέσθαι, πλὴν πολλῷ σφόδρα καταντλοῦντες τῷ ὕδατι ἐξίσχυσαν καὶ διέσωσαν οἱ περιεστῶτες. Ποσειδώνιος δέ φησι τοῦ ἐν τῇ Βαβυλωνίᾳ νάφθα τὰς πηγὰς τὰς μὲν εἶναι λευκοῦ τὰς δὲ μέλανος· τούτων δὲ τὰς μὲν εἶναι θείου ὑγροῦ (λέγω δὲ τὰς τοῦ λευκοῦ· ταύτας δʼ εἶναι τὰς ἐπισπώσας τὰς φλόγας), τὰς δὲ τοῦ μέλανος ἀσφάλτου ὑγρᾶς, ᾧ ἀντʼ ἐλαίου τοὺς λύχνους κάουσι.

[16] πάλαι μὲν οὖν ἡ Βαβυλὼν ἦν μητρόπολις τῆς Ἀσσυρίας, νῦν δὲ Σελεύκεια ἡ ἐπὶ τῷ Τίγρει λεγομένη. πλησίον δʼ ἐστὶ κώμη Κτησιφῶν λεγομένη, μεγάλη· ταύτην δʼ ἐποιοῦντο χειμάδιον οἱ τῶν Παρθυαίων βασιλεῖς φειδόμενοι τῶν Σελευκέων, ἵνα μὴ κατασταθμεύοιντο ὑπὸ τοῦ Σκυθικοῦ φύλου καὶ στρατιωτικοῦ· δυνάμει οὖν Παρθικῇ πόλις ἀντὶ κώμης ἐστὶ * καὶ τὸ μέγεθος, τοσοῦτόν γε πλῆθος δεχομένη καὶ τὴν κατασκευὴν ὑπʼ ἐκείνων αὐτῶν κατεσκευασμένη καὶ τὰ ὤνια καὶ τὰς τέχνας προσφόρους ἐκείνοις πεπορισμένη. εἰώθασι γὰρ ἐνταῦθα τοῦ χειμῶνος διάγειν οἱ βασιλεῖς διὰ τὸ εὐάερον· θέρους δὲ ἐν Ἐκβατάνοις καὶ τῇ Ὑρκανίᾳ διὰ τὴν ἐπικράτειαν τῆς παλαιᾶς δόξης. ὥσπερ δὲ Βαβυλωνίαν τὴν χώραν καλοῦμεν, οὕτω καὶ τοὺς ἄνδρας τοὺς ἐκεῖθεν Βαβυλωνίους καλοῦμεν, οὐκ ἀπὸ τῆς πόλεως, ἀλλʼ ἀπὸ τῆς χώρας· ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς Σελευκείας ἧττον, κἂν ἐκεῖθεν ὦσι, καθάπερ Διογένη τὸν στωικὸν φιλόσοφον.

[17] ἔστι δὲ καὶ Ἀρτεμίτα πόλις ἀξιόλογος, διέχουσα πεντακοσίους τῆς Σελευκείας σταδίους, πρὸς ἕω τὸ πλέον, καθάπερ καὶ ἡ Σιτακηνή· καὶ γὰρ αὕτη πολλή τε καὶ ἀγαθὴ μέση Βαβυλῶνος τέτακται καὶ τῆς Σουσίδος, ὥστε τοῖς ἐκ Βαβυλῶνος εἰς Σοῦσα βαδίζουσι διὰ τῆς Σιτακηνῆς ἡ ὁδὸς ἅπασα πρὸς ἕω· πρὸς ἕω δʼ ἐστὶ καὶ τοῖς ἐκ Σούσων εἰς τὴν μεσόγαιαν τῆς Περσίδος διὰ τῆς Οὐξίας καὶ τοῖς ἐκ τῆς Περσίδος εἰς τὰ μέσα τῆς Καρμανίας. τὴν μὲν οὖν Καρμανίαν ἐγκυκλοῦται πρὸς ἑσπέραν καὶ ἄρκτον ἡ Περσὶς πολλὴ οὖσα· ταύτῃ δὲ συνάπτει ἡ Παραιτακηνὴ καὶ ἡ Κοσσαία μέχρι Κασπίων πυλῶν, ὀρεινὰ καὶ λῃστρικὰ ἔθνη· τῇ δὲ Σουσίδι ἡ Ἐλυμαῒς καὶ αὐτὴ τραχεῖα ἡ πολλὴ καὶ λῃστρική· τῇ δὲ Ἐλυμαΐδι τὰ περὶ τὸν Ζάγρον καὶ ἡ Μηδία.

[18] κοσσαῖοι μὲν οὖν εἰσι τοξόται τὸ πλέον, καθάπερ καὶ οἱ συνεχεῖς ὀρεινοί, προνομεύοντες ἀεί· χώραν γὰρ ἔχουσιν ὀλίγην τε καὶ λυπρὰν ὥστʼ ἐκ τῶν ἀλλοτρίων ἀνάγκη ζῆν· ἀνάγκη δὲ καὶ ἰσχύειν· ἅπαντες γάρ εἰσι μάχιμοι· τοῖς γοῦν Ἐλυμαίοις συνεμάχουν μύριοι καὶ τρισχίλιοι πολεμοῦσι πρός τε Βαβυλωνίους καὶ Σουσίους. οἱ δὲ Παραιτακηνοὶ μᾶλλον μὲν τῶν Κοσσαίων ἐπιμελοῦνται γῆς· ὅμως δὲ καὶ αὐτοὶ λῃστηρίων οὐκ ἀπέχονται. Ἐλυμαῖοι δὲ καὶ μείζω τούτων κέκτηνται χώραν καὶ ποικιλωτέραν. ὅση μὲν οὖν ἀγαθὴ γεωργοὺς ἔχει τοὺς ἐνοικοῦντας, ἡ δʼ ὀρεινὴ στρατιώτας τρέφει τοξότας τοὺς πλείστους· πολλὴ δὲ οὖσα πολὺ καὶ τὸ στρατιωτικὸν παρέχεται, ὥστε καὶ ὁ βασιλεὺς αὐτῶν δύναμιν κεκτημένος μεγάλην οὐκ ἀξιοῖ τῷ τῶν Παρθυαίων βασιλεῖ παραπλησίως τοῖς ἄλλοις ὑπήκοος εἶναι· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ πρὸς τοὺς Μακεδόνας πρότερον τοὺς τῆς Συρίας ἄρχοντας διέκειτο. Ἀντίοχον μὲν οὖν τὸν μέγαν τὸ τοῦ Βήλου συλᾶν ἱερὸν ἐπιχειρήσαντα ἀνεῖλον ἐπιθέμενοι καθʼ αὑτοὺς οἱ πλησίον βάρβαροι. ἐκ δὲ τῶν ἐκείνῳ συμβάντων παιδευθεὶς ὁ Παρθυαῖος χρόνοις ὕστερον ἀκούων τὰ ἱερὰ πλούσια παρʼ αὐτοῖς, ὁρῶν δʼ ἀπειθοῦντας, ἐμβάλλει μετὰ δυνάμεως μεγάλης, καὶ τό τε τῆς Ἀθηνᾶς ἱερὸν εἷλε καὶ τὸ τῆς Ἀρτέμιδος, τὰ Ἄζαρα, καὶ ἦρε ταλάντων μυρίων γάζαν· ᾑρέθη δὲ καὶ πρὸς τῷ Ἡδυφῶντι ποταμῷ Σελεύκεια, μεγάλη πόλις· Σολόκη δʼ ἐκαλεῖτο πρότερον. τρεῖς δʼ εἰσὶν εἰς τὴν χώραν εὐφυεῖς εἰσβολαί· ἐκ μὲν τῆς Μηδίας καὶ τῶν περὶ τὸν Ζάγρον τόπων διὰ τῆς Μασσαβατικῆς, ἐκ δὲ τῆς Σουσίδος διὰ τῆς Γαβιανῆς (ἐπαρχίαι δʼ εἰσὶν αὗται τῆς Ἐλυμαίας ἥ τε Γαβιανὴ καὶ ἡ Μασσαβατική), τρίτη δʼ ἐστὶν ἡ ἐκ τῆς Περσίδος. ἔστι δὲ καὶ Κορβιανὴ ἐπαρχία τῆς Ἐλυμαΐδος. ὅμοροι δʼ εἰσὶ τούτοις Σαγαπηνοί τε καὶ Σιλακηνοί, δυναστεῖαι μικραί. τοσαῦτα μὲν καὶ τοιαῦτα ἔθνη πρὸς ἕω τὰ ὑπερκείμενα τῆς Βαβυλωνίας. πρὸς ἄρκτον δὲ τὴν Μηδίαν ἔφαμεν καὶ τὴν Ἀρμενίαν· ἀπὸ δὲ δύσεώς ἐστιν ἡ Ἀδιαβηνὴ καὶ ἡ Μεσοποταμία.

[19] τῆς μὲν οὖν Ἀδιαβηνῆς ἡ πλείστη πεδιάς ἐστι, καὶ αὐτὴ τῆς Βαβυλωνίας μέρος οὖσα ἔχουσα δʼ ὅμως ἄρχοντα ἴδιον, ἔστιν ὅπη καὶ τῇ Ἀρμενίᾳ προσχωροῦσα. οἱ γὰρ Μῆδοι καὶ οἱ Ἀρμένιοι τρίτοι δὲ Βαβυλώνιοι τὰ μέγιστα τῶν ἐθνῶν τῶν ταύτῃ διετέλουν οὕτως ἐξ ἀρχῆς συνεστῶτες ὥστʼ ἀλλήλοις ἐπιτίθεσθαι κατὰ καιροὺς τοὺς οἰκείους ἕκαστοι καὶ πάλιν διαλύεσθαι· καὶ τοῦτο καὶ μέχρι τῆς τῶν Παρθυαίων ἐπικρατείας διέμεινε. τῶν μὲν οὖν Μήδων καὶ τῶν Βαβυλωνίων ἐπάρχουσι Παρθυαῖοι, τῶν δʼ Ἀρμενίων οὐδʼ ἅπαξ· ἀλλʼ ἔφοδοι μὲν γεγόνασι πολλάκις, ἀνὰ κράτος δʼ οὐχ ἑάλωσαν, ἀλλʼ ὅ γε Τιγράνης καὶ ἐρρωμένως ἀντεπεκράτησεν, ὡς ἐν τοῖς Ἀρμενιακοῖς εἴρηται. ἡ μὲν οὖν Ἀδιαβηνὴ τοιαύτη¹· περὶ δὲ τῆς Μεσοποταμίας ἐροῦμεν ἐφεξῆς καὶ τῶν πρὸς μεσημβρίαν ἐθνῶν, ἐπιόντες ἐπὶ μικρὸν πρότερον τὰ λεγόμενα περὶ τῶν ἐθῶν τῶν παρὰ τοῖς Ἀσσυρίοις.

[20] τἆλλα μὲν οὖν ἔοικε τοῖς Περσικοῖς, ἴδιον δὲ τὸ καθεστάναι τρεῖς ἄνδρας σώφρονας ἑκάστης ἄρχοντας φυλῆς, οἳ τὰς ἐπιγάμους κόρας προσάγοντες εἰς τὸ πλῆθος ἀποκηρύττουσι τοῖς νυμφίοις ἀεὶ τὰς ἐντιμοτέρας πρώτας. οὕτω μὲν αἱ συζυγίαι τελοῦνται· ὁσάκις δʼ ἂν μιχθῶσιν ἀλλήλοις, ἐπιθυμιάσοντες ἐξανίστανται ἑκάτερος χωρίς· ὄρθρου δὲ λούονται πρὶν ἀγγείου τινὸς ἅψασθαι· παραπλησίως γὰρ ὥσπερ ἀπὸ νεκροῦ τὸ λουτρὸν ἐν ἔθει ἐστίν, οὕτω καὶ ἀπὸ συνουσίας. πάσαις δὲ ταῖς Βαβυλωνίαις ἔθος κατά τι λόγιον ξένῳ μίγνυσθαι πρός τι ἀφροδίσιον ἀφικομέναις μετὰ πολλῆς θεραπείας καὶ ὄχλου· θώμιγγι δʼ ἔστεπται ἑκάστη· ὁ δὲ προσιὼν καταθεὶς ἐπὶ τὰ γόνατα ὅσον καλῶς ἔχει ἀργύριον, συγγίνεται ἄπωθεν τοῦ τεμένους ἀπαγαγών· τὸ δʼ ἀργύριον ἱερὸν τῆς Ἀφροδίτης νομίζεται. ἀρχεῖα δʼ ἐστὶ τρία, τὸ τῶν ἀφειμένων ἤδη τῆς στρατείας καὶ τὸ τῶν ἐνδοξοτάτων καὶ τὸ τῶν γερόντων, χωρὶς τοῦ ὑπὸ τοῦ βασιλέως καθισταμένου. τούτου δʼ ἐστὶ τὸ τὰς παρθένους ἐκδιδόναι καὶ τὸ τὰς περὶ τῆς μοιχείας δικάζειν δίκας, ἄλλου δὲ τὸ τὰς τῆς κλοπῆς, τρίτου τὸ περὶ τῶν βιαίων. τοὺς δʼ ἀρρώστους εἰς τὰς τριόδους ἐκτιθέντες πυνθάνονται τῶν παριόντων εἴ τίς τι ἔχοι λέγειν τοῦ πάθους ἄκος· οὐδείς τέ ἐστιν οὕτω κακὸς τῶν παριόντων, ὃς οὐκ ἐντυχὼν εἴ τι φρονεῖ σωτήριον ὑποτίθεται. ἐσθὴς δʼ αὐτοῖς ἐστι χιτὼν λινοῦς ποδήρης καὶ ἐπενδύτης ἐρεοῦς, ἱμάτιον λευκόν, κόμη μακρά, ὑπόδημα ἐμβάδι ὅμοιον. φοροῦσι δὲ καὶ σφραγῖδα καὶ σκῆπτρον οὐ λιτὸν ἀλλʼ ἐπίσημον, ἔχον ἐπάνω μῆλον ἢ ῥόδον ἢ κρίνον ἤ τι τοιοῦτον· ἀλείφονται δʼ ἐκ τοῦ σησάμου· θρηνοῦσι δὲ τοὺς ἀποθανόντας, ὡς Αἰγύπτιοι καὶ πολλοὶ τῶν ἄλλων· θάπτουσι δʼ ἐν μέλιτι κηρῷ περιπλάσαντες. τρεῖς δʼ εἰσὶ φρατρίαι τῶν ἀπόρων σίτου· ἕλειοι δʼ εἰσὶν οὗτοι καὶ ἰχθυοφάγοι, διαιτώμενοι παραπλησίως τοῖς κατὰ τὴν Γεδρωσίαν.

[21] μεσοποταμία δʼ ἀπὸ τοῦ συμβεβηκότος ὠνόμασται· εἴρηται δʼ ὅτι κεῖται τοῦ Εὐφράτου μεταξὺ καὶ τοῦ Τίγριος καὶ διότι ὁ μὲν Τίγρις τὸ ἑωθινὸν αὐτῆς μόνον κλύζει πλευρόν, τὸ δʼ ἑσπέριον καὶ νότιον ὁ Εὐφράτης· πρὸς ἄρκτον δὲ ὁ Ταῦρος ὁ τοὺς Ἀρμενίους διορίζων ἀπὸ τῆς Μεσοποταμίας. τὸ μὲν οὖν μέγιστον ὃ ἀφίστανται διάστημα ἀπʼ ἀλλήλων τὸ πρὸς τοῖς ὄρεσίν ἐστι· τοῦτο δʼ ἂν εἴη τὸ αὐτὸ ὅπερ εἴρηκεν Ἐρατοσθένης, τὸ ἀπὸ Θαψάκου, καθʼ ὃ ἦν τὸ ζεῦγμα τοῦ Εὐφράτου τὸ παλαιόν, ἐπὶ τὴν τοῦ Τίγριος διάβασιν, καθʼ ἣν διέβη Ἀλέξανδρος αὐτόν, δισχιλίων τετρακοσίων· τὸ δʼ ἐλάχιστον μικρῷ πλέον τῶν διακοσίων κατὰ Σελεύκειάν που καὶ Βαβυλῶνα. διαρρεῖ δʼ ὁ Τίγρις τὴν Θωπῖτιν καλουμένην λίμνην κατὰ πλάτος μέσην· περαιωθεὶς δʼ ἐπὶ θάτερον χεῖλος κατὰ γῆς δύεται μετὰ πολλοῦ ψόφου καὶ ἀναφυσημάτων, ἐπὶ πολὺ δʼ ἐνεχθεὶς ἀφανὴς ἀνίσχει πάλιν οὐ πολὺ ἄπωθεν τῆς Γορδυαίας· οὕτω δὲ σφοδρῶς διεκβάλλει τὴν λίμνην, ὥς φησιν Ἐρατοσθένης, ὥστε ἁλμυρὰν αὐτὴν οὖσαν καὶ ἄνιχθυν γλυκεῖαν κατὰ τοῦτʼ εἶναι τὸ μέρος καὶ ῥοώδη καὶ ἰχθύων πλήρη.

[22] Ἐπὶ μῆκος δὲ συχνὸν προπέπτωκεν ἡ συναγωγὴ τῆς Μεσοποταμίας καὶ πλοίῳ πως ἔοικε· ποιεῖ δὲ τὸ πλεῖστον τῆς περιφερείας ὁ Εὐφράτης· καὶ ἔστι τὸ μὲν ἀπὸ τῆς Θαψάκου μέχρι Βαβυλῶνος, ὡς εἴρηκεν Ἐρατοσθένης, τετρακισχίλιοι καὶ ὀκτακόσιοι στάδιοι· τὸ δʼ ἀπὸ τοῦ κατὰ Κομμαγηνὴν ζεύγματος, ἥπερ ἐστὶν ἀρχὴ τῆς Μεσοποταμίας, οὐκ ἔλαττον τῶν δισχιλίων σταδίων ἕως ἐπὶ Θάψακον.

[23] ἔστι δʼ ἡ μὲν παρόρειος εὐδαίμων ἱκανῶς· ἔχουσι δʼ αὐτῆς τὰ μὲν πρὸς τῷ Εὐφράτῃ καὶ τῷ ζεύγματι, τῷ τε νῦν τῷ κατὰ τὴν Κομμαγηνὴν καὶ τῷ πάλαι τῷ κατὰ τὴν Θάψακον, οἱ Μυγδόνες κατονομασθέντες ὑπὸ τῶν Μακεδόνων· ἐν οἷς ἐστιν ἡ Νίσιβις, ἣν καὶ αὐτὴν Ἀντιόχειαν τὴν ἐν τῇ Μυγδονίᾳ προσηγόρευσαν, ὑπὸ τῷ Μασίῳ ὄρει κειμένην, καὶ Τιγρανόκερτα καὶ τὰ περὶ Κάρρας καὶ Νικηφόριον χωρία καὶ Χορδίραζα καὶ Σίννακα, ἐν ᾗ Κράσσος διεφθάρη, δόλῳ ληφθεὶς ὑπὸ Σουρήνα τοῦ τῶν Παρθυαίων στρατηγοῦ.

[24] πρὸς δὲ τῷ Τίγρει τὰ τῶν Γορδυαίων χωρία οὓς οἱ πάλαι Καρδούχους ἔλεγον, καὶ αἱ πόλεις αὐτῶν Σάρεισά τε καὶ Σάταλκα καὶ Πίνακα, κράτιστον ἔρυμα, τρεῖς ἄκρας ἔχουσα, ἑκάστην ἰδίῳ τείχει τετειχισμένην, ὥστε οἷον τρίπολιν εἶναι. ἀλλʼ ὅμως καὶ ὁ Ἀρμένιος εἶχεν ὑπήκοον καὶ οἱ Ῥωμαῖοι βίᾳ παρέλαβον, καίπερ ἔδοξαν οἱ Γορδυαῖοι διαφερόντως ἀρχιτεκτονικοί τινες εἶναι καὶ πολιορκητικῶν ὀργάνων ἔμπειροι· διόπερ αὐτοῖς εἰς ταῦτα ὁ Τιγράνης ἐχρῆτο. ἐγένετο δὲ καὶ ἡ λοιπὴ Μεσοποταμία ὑπὸ Ῥωμαίοις, Πομπήιος δʼ αὐτῆς τὰ πολλὰ τῷ Τιγράνῃ προσένειμεν ὅσα ἦν ἀξιόλογα· ἔστι γὰρ εὔβοτος ἡ χώρα καὶ εὐερνὴς ὥστε καὶ τὰ ἀειθαλῆ τρέφειν καὶ ἄρωμα τὸ ἄμωμον· καὶ λεοντοβότος ἐστί· φέρει δὲ καὶ τὸν νάφθαν καὶ τὴν γαγγῆτιν λίθον, ἣν φεύγει τὰ ἑρπετά.

[25] λέγεται δὲ Γόρδυς ὁ Τριπτολέμου τὴν Γορδυηνὴν οἰκῆσαι, ὕστερον δὲ καὶ Ἐρετριεῖς οἱ ἀναρπασθέντες ὑπὸ Περσῶν. περὶ μὲν οὖν Τριπτολέμου δηλώσομεν ἐν τοῖς Συριακοῖς αὐτίκα.

[26] τὰ δὲ πρὸς μεσημβρίαν κεκλιμένα τῆς Μεσοποταμίας καὶ ἀπωτέρω τῶν ὀρῶν ἄνυδρα καὶ λυπρὰ ὄντα ἔχουσιν οἱ σκηνῖται Ἄραβες, λῃστρικοί τινες καὶ ποιμενικοί, μεθιστάμενοι ῥᾳδίως εἰς ἄλλους τόπους, ὅταν ἐπιλείπωσιν αἱ νομαὶ καὶ αἱ λεηλασίαι. τοῖς οὖν παρορείοις ὑπό τε τούτων κακοῦσθαι συμβαίνει καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν Ἀρμενίων· ὑπέρκεινται δὲ καὶ καταδυναστεύουσι διὰ τὴν ἰσχύν· τέλος δʼ ὑπʼ ἐκείνοις εἰσὶ τὸ πλέον ἢ τοῖς Παρθυαίοις· ἐν πλευραῖς γάρ εἰσι κἀκεῖνοι τήν τε Μηδίαν ἔχοντες καὶ τὴν Βαβυλωνίαν.

[27] μεταξὺ δὲ τοῦ Εὐφράτου καὶ τοῦ Τίγριος ῥεῖ καὶ ἄλλος ποταμὸς Βασίλειος καλούμενος, καὶ περὶ τὴν Ἀνθεμουσίαν ἄλλος Ἀβόρρας· διὰ δὲ τῶν Σκηνιτῶν, * ὑπὸ τῶν Μαλίων νυνὶ λεγομένων, καὶ τῆς ἐκείνων ἐρημίας ἡ ὁδὸς τοῖς ἐκ τῆς Συρίας εἰς Σελεύκειαν καὶ Βαβυλῶνα ἐμπορευομένοις ἐστίν. ἡ μὲν οὖν διάβασις τοῦ Εὐφράτου κατὰ τὴν Ἀνθεμουσίαν ἐστὶν αὐτοῖς, τόπον τῆς Μεσοποταμίας· ὑπέρκειται δὲ τοῦ ποταμοῦ σχοίνους τέτταρας διέχουσα ἡ Βαμβύκη, ἣν καὶ Ἔδεσσαν καὶ Ἱερὰν πόλιν καλοῦσιν, ἐν ᾗ τιμῶσι τὴν Συρίαν θεὸν τὴν Ἀταργάτιν. διαβάντων δὲ ἡ ὁδός ἐστι διὰ τῆς ἐρήμου ἐπὶ τοὺς τῆς Βαβυλωνίας ὅρους μέχρι Σκηνῶν, ἀξιολόγου πόλεως ἐπί τινος διώρυγος ἱδρυμένης. ἔστι δʼ ἀπὸ τῆς διαβάσεως μέχρι Σκηνῶν ἡμερῶν πέντε καὶ εἴκοσιν ὁδός. καμηλῖται δʼ εἰσί, καταγωγὰς ἔχοντες τοτὲ μὲν ὑδρείων εὐπόρους τῶν λακκαίων τὸ πλέον, τοτὲ δʼ ἐπακτοῖς χρώμενοι τοῖς ὕδασι. παρέχουσι δʼ αὐτοῖς οἱ Σκηνῖται τήν τε εἰρήνην καὶ τὴν μετριότητα τῆς τῶν τελῶν πράξεως, ἧς χάριν φεύγοντες τὴν παραποταμίαν διὰ τῆς ἐρήμου παραβάλλονται, καταλιπόντες ἐν δεξιᾷ τὸν ποταμὸν ἡμερῶν σχεδόν τι τριῶν ὁδόν. οἱ γὰρ παροικοῦντες ἑκατέρωθεν τὸν ποταμὸν φύλαρχοι, χώραν οὐκ εὔπορον ἔχοντες, ἧττον δὲ ἄπορον νεμόμενοι, δυναστείαν ἕκαστος ἰδίᾳ περιβεβλημένος ἴδιον καὶ τελώνιον ἔχει, καὶ τοῦτʼ οὐ μέτριον. χαλεπὸν γὰρ ἐν τοῖς τοσούτοις καὶ τούτοις αὐθάδεσι κοινὸν ἀφορισθῆναι μέτρον τὸ τῷ ἐμπόρῳ λυσιτελές. διέχουσι δὲ τῆς Σελευκείας αἱ Σκηναὶ σχοίνους ὀκτωκαίδεκα.

[28] ̔́οριον δʼ ἐστὶ τῆς Παρθυαίων ἀρχῆς ὁ Εὐφράτης καὶ ἡ περαία· τὰ δʼ ἐντὸς ἔχουσι Ῥωμαῖοι καὶ τῶν Ἀράβων οἱ φύλαρχοι μέχρι Βαβυλωνίας, οἱ μὲν μᾶλλον ἐκείνοις οἱ δὲ τοῖς Ῥωμαίοις προσέχοντες, οἷσπερ καὶ πλησιόχωροί εἰσιν, ἧττον μὲν Σκηνῖται οἱ νομάδες οἱ τῷ ποταμῷ πλησίον, μᾶλλον δʼ οἱ ἄπωθεν καὶ πρὸς τῇ εὐδαίμονι Ἀραβίᾳ. οἱ δὲ Παρθυαῖοι καὶ πρότερον μὲν ἐφρόντιζον τῆς πρὸς Ῥωμαίους φιλίας, τὸν δὲ ἄρξαντα πολέμου Κράσσον ἠμύναντο· καὶ αὐτοὶ ἄρξαντες τῆς μάχης τῶν ἴσων ἔτυχον, ἡνίκα ἔπεμψαν ἐπὶ τὴν Ἀσίαν Πάκορον Ἀντώνιος δὲ συμβούλῳ τῷ Ἀρμενίῳ χρώμενος προὐδόθη καὶ κακῶς ἐπολέμησεν· ὁ δʼ ἐκεῖνον διαδεξάμενος Φραάτης τοσοῦτον ἐσπούδασε περὶ τὴν φιλίαν τὴν πρὸς Καίσαρα τὸν Σεβαστὸν ὥστε καὶ τὰ τρόπαια ἔπεμψεν ἃ κατὰ Ῥωμαίων ἀνέστησαν Παρθυαῖοι, καὶ καλέσας εἰς σύλλογον Τίτιον τὸν ἐπιστατοῦντα τότε τῆς Συρίας, τέτταρας παῖδας γνησίους ἐνεχείρισεν ὅμηρα αὐτῷ, Σερασπαδάνην καὶ Ῥωδάσπην καὶ Φραάτην καὶ Βονώνην, καὶ γυναῖκας τούτων δύο καὶ υἱεῖς τέτταρας, δεδιὼς τὰς στάσεις καὶ τοὺς ἐπιτιθεμένους αὐτῷ· ᾔδει γὰρ μηδένα ἰσχύσοντα καθʼ ἑαυτόν, ἂν μή τινα ἐπιλάβῃ τοῦ Ἀρσακίου γένους διὰ τὸ εἶναι σφόδρα φιλαρσάκας τοὺς Παρθυαίους· ἐκποδὼν οὖν ἐποίησε τοὺς παῖδας, ἀφελέσθαι ζητῶν τὴν ἐλπίδα ταύτην τοὺς κακουργοῦντας. τῶν μὲν οὖν παίδων ὅσοι περίεισιν ἐν Ῥώμῃ δημοσίᾳ βασιλικῶς τημελοῦνται· καὶ οἱ λοιποὶ δὲ βασιλεῖς πρεσβευόμενοι καὶ εἰς συλλόγους ἀφικνούμενοι διατετελέκασιν.

Notes on the current edition

Geography

1. According to Dion Cassius, xviii. § 26, Aturia is synonymous with Assyria, and only differs from it by a barbarous pronunciation; which shows that the name Assyria belonged peculiarly to the territory of Nineveh.

2. Aiaghi-dagh.

3. It is to be remarked that the people bordering upon the Gordyaei are the only people of Mesopotamia here mentioned, for the whole of Mesopotamia, properly so called, is comprised under the name of Assyria.

4. The bridge or passage at the foot of the modern fortress Roum-Kala

5. P. xii. c. iii. § 5; Herod. i. 6 and 72.

6. Al. Lucan. b. xi. c. xii. § 4; b. xiv. c. v. § 18; b. xvi. c. ii. § 8.

7. Probably walls built for the protection of certain districts. Such was the διατείχισμα σεμιοͅάμιδος, constructed between the Euphrates and the Tigris, and intended, together with canals brought from those rivers, to protect Babylon from the incursions of the Arabian Scenitee or Medes. B. ii.

8. κλίμακες, roads of steep ascent, with steps such as may be seen in the Alps of Europe; the word differs from ὁδοὶ, roads below, inasmuch as the former roads are only practicable for travellers on foot and beasts of bur-then, the latter for carriages also.

9. The union of these two names, says Kramer, is remarkable, and still more so is the insertion of the article τῆς before them: he, therefore, but with some hesitation, suggests that the word μάχης has been omitted in the text by the copyist.

10. Assyrians.

11. Erbil.

12. Called also Zabus, Zabatus, and Zerbes, new the Great Zab.

13. Adopting Kramer’s reading, καὶ ᾁ.

14. Probably a branch of the Karadgeh-dagh.

15. The Little Zab, or Or.

16. As the name Artacene occurs nowhere else, Groskurd, following Cellarius (v. Geogr. Ant. i. 771), suspects that here we ought to read Arbelene, and would understand by it the same district which is called Arbelitis by Ptolemy, vi. 1, and by Pliny, H. N. vi. 13, § 16, but as this form of the national name is nowhere to be found, it would appear improper to introduce it into the text. It is more probable, continues Kramer, that Strabo wrote Adiabene, of which Arbelitis was a part, according to Pliny, loco citato.

17. The same, no doubt, as the goddess Anaitis. B. xi. c. viii. § 4, and b. xv. c. iii. §15.

18. All manuscripts agree in giving this number, but critics agree also in its being an error for 365. The number of stadia in the wall, according to ancient authors, corresponded with the number of days in the year.

19. That is, at a short distance from the Persian Gulf, a little more to the south than the modern town Basra.

20. Some extensive ruins near the angle formed by the Adhem (the ancient Physcus) and the Tigris, and the remains of the Nahr-awan canal, are said to mark the site of Opis.

21. The name Coele-Syria, or Hollow Syria, which was properly applied to the district between Libanus and Antilibanus, was extended also to that part of Syria which borders upon Egypt and Arabia; and it is in this latter sense that Strabo here speaks of Coele-Syria. So also Diodorus Siculus, i. § 30, speaks of Joppa in Coele-Syria; and Polybius, v. 80, § 2, of Rhinocolura, the first of the cities in Coele-Syria; and Josephus, Ant. Jud. xiii. 13, § 2, of Scythopolis of Coele-Syria.

22. El-Arish.

23. El-Kas near Sebakit-Bardoil, the ancient lake Serbonis.

24. Barathra.

25. Strabo has misunderstood the meaning of Eratosthenes, who had said that the excess of the waters of the Euphrates sunk into the ground and reappeared under the form of torrents, which became visible near Rhinocolura in Coele-Syria and Mt. Casius, the Casius near Egypt. Our author properly observes that the length and nature of the course contradicts this hypothesis: but, misled by the names Coele-Syria and Casius, he forgets that the Casius of Egypt and the district bordering upon Egypt, improperly called Coele-Syria, are here in question; he transfers the first name to Coele-Syria of Libanus, and the second to Mt. Casius near Seleucia and Antioch, and adds that, according to the notion of Eratosthenes, the waters of the Euphrates would have to traverse Libanus, Antilibanus, and the Casius (of Syria), whilst Eratosthenes has not, and could not, say any such thing. The hypothesis of Eratosthenes could not, indeed, be maintained, but Strabo renders it absurd. The error of our author is the more remarkable, as the name of the city Rhinocolura ought necessarily to have suggested to him the sense in which the words Casius and Coele Syria should be understood.

26. καὶ οὕτως πλημμυρεῖν. These words are, as Kramer proposes, transferred from below. There can be no meaning given to them as they stand in the text, which is here corrupt.

27. Herod. i. 193.

28. Herod. i. 194.

29. Al-Madain.

30. Strabo probably here refers to Hecatompylos, which, in b. xi. c. ix. § 1, he calls the royal seat of the Parthians, and which shared with Ecbatana the honour of being a residence of the Parthian kings. The name Hyrcania has here a wide meaning; the proper name would have been Parthia.

31. Cicero de Nat. Deor. i. § 5.

32. Descura. D’Anville.

33. Sus.

34. Asciac part of Khosistan.

35. Kerman.

36. Groskurd here supposes an omission by the copyist of the words ἑσπέοͅαν καί ποͅὸς before ἄοͅκτον.

37. Paraetacene, Cossaea, and Elymaïs occupied the mountainous parts of Irak Adjami.

38. Aïaghi-dagh.

39. Media extended partly into Irak Adjami, and partly into Kurdistan.

40. ὕστεοͅον in the text must be omitted, or altered to ποͅότεοͅον, unless, as Kramer proposes, the words καὶ ποͅὸς τοὺς πέοͅσας be introduced into the text. Strabo frequently mentions together the three successive governments of Persians, Macedonians, and Parthians. B. xi. c. xiii. § 4, and c. xiv. § 15.

41. Mithridates I., son of Phraates, 163 B. C., and 124 years after the expedition of Antiochus.

42. Probably the Djerrahi.

43. On comparing this passage with others, (b. xi. c. xiv. § 12, and b. xvi. c. i. § 1, and c. i. § 8,) in which Strabo speaks of Adiabene, we perceive that he understood it to be a part of the country below the mountains of Armenia, and to the north of Nineveh, on both banks of the Tigris. Other authors have given a more extended meaning to the name, and applied it to the country on the north of the two rivers Zab, from whence (Amm. Marcel. xxiii. 5, 6) the name Adiabene appears to be derived. In this sense Adiabene may be considered the same as Assyria Proper.

44. B. xi. c. xiv. § 15.

45. Groskurd proposes reading Saulopodes, delicate walkers, in place of Saccopodes, sack-footed.

46. Herod. i. 198. Almost all the details concerning the Babylonian customs are taken from Herodotus, who sets them forth with greater clearness; there are, however, some differences, as, for example, the disposal of young women in marriage, and the different tribunals, which prove that Strabo had other sources of information.

47. Groskurd here suspects a corruption of the text, and for τούτου reads τοῦ ποͅώτου, of the first, and for ἄλλου, of another, δευτέοͅου, of the second.

48. Merkan.

49. El-der.

50. The Van. B. xi. c. xiv. § 8.

51. In b. xi. c. xiv. § 8, Strabo says that this lake contains one kind of fish only.

52. Now Roumkala, from the fortress which defends the passage of the river.

53. Nisibin.

54. Kara-dagh.

55. Sered.

56. Haran.

57. Racca.

58. B. C. 51.

59. Gordyaea was the most northerly part of Assyria, or Kurdistan, near the lake Van. From Carduchi, the name of the inhabitants, is derived the modern name Kurds.

60. Pliny, x. c. iii. and xxxvi. c. xix., calls it Gagates lapis; a name derived, according to Dioscorides, from a river Gagas in Lycia.

61. Herod. vi. 199.

62. These appear to be the rivers found in the neighbourhood of Roha or Orfa, the ancient Edessa. One of these rivers bears the name of Beles, and is perhaps the Baseleios of Strabo. Chabur is the Aborrhas.

63. Probably an interpolation.

64. The passage of the Euphrates here in question was effected at the Zeugma of Commagene, called by Strabo the present passage. On passing the river you entered Anthemusia, a province which appears to have received, later on, the name of Osroene. It extended considerably towards the north, for in it the Aborrhas, according to Strabo, had its source; but it is doubtful whether it extended to the north of Mount Masius, where the latitudes, as given by Ptolemy, would place it. I do not exactly know whether Strabo intends to speak of a city or a province, for the position of the city is unknown; we only learn from a passage in Pliny, vi. c. xxvi., that it was not on the Euphrates. The word τόπος is not, I think, so applicable to a province as to a city, and in this last sense I have understood it, giving also to κατὰ the meaning of latitude, in which it is so often applied by Strabo; strictly speaking, the sense of vis-á-vis, opposite to, might be given to it.— Letronne.

65. This is an error of the author or of the copyist. Edessa (now Orfah) is not to be confounded with Bambyce (Kara-Bambuche, or Buguk Munbedj) of Cyrrhestica in Syria, which obtained its Hellenic name from Seleucus Nicator.

66. B. C. 54.

67. The Parthians became masters of Syria under Pacorus, and of Asia Minor under Labienus. B. C. 38.

68. Artavasdes, king of the Armenians. B. xi. c. xiii. § 4.

69. The text would lead us to suppose that Phraates succeeded Pacorus, whereas below, § 8, Pacorus, the eldest son of the Parthian king, died before his father, Orodes. Letronne, therefore, and Groskurd suppose that the words, the son of Orodes, are omitted after Pacorus above, and his in the translation would then refer to Orodes.

70. See b. vi. c. iv. § 2, in which the motives for getting rid of these members of his family are not mentioned.

Strabo Geography 16.1

Hans Claude Hamilton (Translator), William Falconer (Translator)

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