Aristotle Poetics 17.4

In constructing plots and completing the effect by the help of dialogue the poet should, as far as possible, keep the scene before his eyes. Only thus by getting the picture as clear as if he were present at the actual event, will he find what is fitting and detect contradictions.

The censure upon Carcinos is evidence of this. Amphiaraos was was made to rise from a temple. The poet did not visualize the scene and therefore this escaped his notice, but on the stage it was a failure since the audience objected. ¹

The poet should also, as far as possible, complete the effect by using the gestures. For, if their natural powers are equal, those who are actually in the emotions are the most convincing; he who is agitated blusters and the angry man rages with the maximum of conviction. ²

And that is why poetry needs either a sympathetic nature or a madman, ³ the former being impressionable and the latter inspired.

The stories, whether they are traditional or whether you make them up yourself, 1455b 1 should first be sketched in outline and then expanded by putting in episodes.

I mean that one might look at the general outline, say of the Iphigeneia, like this: A certain maiden has been sacrificed, and has disappeared beyond the ken of those who sacrificed her and has been established in another country, where it is a custom to sacrifice strangers to the goddess; and this priesthood she holds. Some time afterwards it happens that the brother of the priestess arrives there—the fact that the god told him to go there, and why, and the object of his journey, lie outside the outline-plot. He arrives, is seized, and is on the point of being sacrificed, when he reveals his identity either by Euripides’ method or according to Polyidos, by making the very natural remark that after all it is not only his sister who was born to be sacrificed but himself too; and thus he is saved.

Not until this has been done should you put in names and insert the episodes;

and you must mind that the episodes are appropriate, as, for instance, in the case of Orestes the madness that led to his capture and his escape by means of the purification. ⁴

Now in drama the episodes are short, but it is by them that the epic gains its length.

The story of the Odyssey is quite short. A man is for many years away from home and his footsteps are dogged by Poseidon and he is all alone. Moreover, 20 affairs at home are in such a state that his estate is being wasted by suitors and a plot laid against his son, but after being storm-tossed he arrives himself, reveals who he is, and attacks them, with the result that he is saved and destroys his enemies.

That is the essence, the rest is episodes.

In constructing the plot and working it out with
the proper diction, the poet should place the scene,
as far as possible, before his eyes.
In this way, seeing
everything with the utmost vividness, as if he were a
spectator of the action, he will discover what is in keeping
with it, and be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies.

The need of such a rule is shown by the fault found in
Carcinus.
Amphiaraus was on his way from the temple.
This fact escaped the observation of one who did not see
the situation.
On the stage, however, the piece failed,
the audience being offended at the oversight.

Again, the poet should work out his play, to the
best of his power, with appropriate gestures; for
those who feel emotion are most convincing through
natural sympathy with the characters they represent;

and one who is agitated storms, one who is angry rages,
with the most life-like reality.
Hence poetry implies
either a happy gift of nature or a strain of madness.
In
the one case a man can take the mould of any character;
in the other, he is lifted out of his proper self.

As for the story, whether the poet takes it ready
made or constructs it for himself, he should first sketch
its general outline, and then fill in the episodes and
amplify in detail.

The general plan may be illustrated by
the Iphigenia. A young girl is sacrificed;
she disappears
mysteriously from the eyes of those who sacrificed her;
she is transported to another country, where the custom is
to offer up all strangers to the goddess.
To this ministry
she is appointed. Some time later her own brother
chances to arrive.
The fact that the oracle for some reason
ordered him to go there, is outside the general plan of
the play.
The purpose, again, of his coming is outside the
action proper.
However, he comes, he is seized, and, when
on the point of being sacrificed, reveals who he is.
The
mode of recognition may be either that of Euripides or of
Polyidus, in whose play he exclaims very naturally : —
'So it was not my sister only, but I too, who was doomed
to be sacrificed';
and by that remark he is saved.

After this, the names being once given, it remains
to fill in the episodes.

We must see that they are
relevant to the action.
In the case of Orestes, for
example, there is the madness which led to his capture,
and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite.

In the drama the episodes are short, but it is these that
give extension to Epic poetry.

Thus the story of the
Odyssey can be stated briefly.
A certain man is absent
from home for many years; he is jealously watched by
Poseidon, and left desolate.
Meanwhile his home is in
a wretched plight — suitors are wasting his substance and
plotting against his son.
At length, tempest-tost, he him-
self arrives; he makes certain persons acquainted with
him;
he attacks the suitors with his own hand, and is
himself preserved while he destroys them.

This is the
essence of the plot; the rest is episode.

At the time when he is constructing his Plots, and en-
gaged on the Diction in which they are worked out, the
poet should remember (1) to put the actual scenes as far
as possible before his eyes. In this way, seeing everything
with the vividness of an eye-witness as it were, he will
devise what is appropriate, and be least likely to overlook
incongruities.

This is shown by what was censured in
Carcinus, the return of Amphiaraus from the sanctuary; it
would have passed unnoticed, if it had not been actually
seen by the audience; but on the stage his play failed, the
incongruity of the incident offending the spectators.

(2) As
far as may be, too, the poet should even act his story with
the very gestures of his personages. Given the same natural
qualifications, he who feels the emotions to be described
will be the most convincing; distress and anger, for
instance, are portrayed most truthfully by one who is feeling
them at the moment.

Hence it is that poetry demands
a man with a special gift for it, or else one with a touch of
madness in him; the former can easily assume the required
mood, and the latter may be actually beside himself with
emotion.

(3) His story, again, whether already made or of
his own making, he should first simplify and reduce to a
universal form, before proceeding to lengthen it out by the
insertion of episodes.

The following will show how the
universal element in Iphigenia, for instance, may be viewed:
A certain maiden having been offered in sacrifice, and spirited
away from her sacrificers into another land, where the custom
was to sacrifice all strangers to the Goddess, she was made
there the priestess of this rite. Long after that the brother
of the priestess happened to come; the fact, however, of
the oracle having for a certain reason bidden him go thither,
and his object in going, are outside the Plot of the play.
On his coming he was arrested, and about to be sacrificed,
when he revealed who he was either as Euripides puts
it, or (as suggested by Polyidus) by the not improbable
exclamation, 'So I too am doomed to be sacrificed, as my
sister was'; and the disclosure led to his salvation.

This
done, the next thing, after the proper names have been fixed
as a basis for the story, is to work in episodes or accessory
incidents.

One must mind, however, that the episodes are
appropriate, like the fit of madness in Orestes, which led
to his arrest, and the purifying, which brought about his
salvation.

In plays, then, the episodes are short; in epic
poetry they serve to lengthen out the poem.

The argu-
ment of the Odyssey is not a long one. A certain man has
been abroad many years; Poseidon is ever on the watch
for him, and he is all alone. Matters at home too have
come to this, that his substance is being wasted and his
son's death plotted by suitors to his wife. Then he arrives
there himself after his grievous sufferings; reveals himself,
and falls on his enemies;
and the end is his salvation and
their death.

This being all that is proper to the Odyssey,
everything else in it is episode.

Oportet autem fabulas componere et oratione simul elaborare rem quam maxime oculis suis subiicientem (sic enim evidentissime dispiciens, quasi praesens in ipsis quae aguntur, inveniet quod deceat, et inimime latebunt contraria.

signum autem huius rei est quod Carcino vitio dabatur: Amphiaraus enim ex delubro rediebat, id quod spectatorem non adspicientem latebat, et in scena non stetit, aegre hoc spectatoribus ferentibus),

quantum autem fieri potest, etiam corporis habitu simul operantem. nam proxime ad verum accedunt, eiusdem quidem ingenii homines, qui animo commoti, ac perturbat perturbatus et exacerbat iratus proxime verum.

quamobrem solertis est poetica aut eius qui animo commotus: hi enim facile flectuntur, illi ad inquirendum proclives sunt.

tam haec argumenta quam ea quae ficta sunt debet et ipse fingens sibi explicare generatim, deinde iam episodiis instruere atque extendere.

dico autem sic ferme spectari quod generale est, velut in Iphigenia. immolata quaedam puella esset et sublata e conspectu immolantibus, collocataque in alia regione, ubi mos erat hospites mactare deae, hoc tenuit illa sacerdotium. interiecto autem cum tempore accidit ut [veniret] frater sacerdotis [. id autem, quod respondit deus, propter quam causam, extra id quod generale] veniret illuc [, et quam ob rem, extra fabulam.], sed cum venisset et captus in eo iam esset ut immolaretur, agnovit, sive ut Euripides sive ut Polyidus instituit, id quod verisimile prolocutus, non ergo sororem tantum sed ipsum etiam immolari fatale fuisse; atque inde ratio salutis.

post

haec autem iam subiccta nomina episodiis instruere debet, sed ut sint propria episodia videre, quemadmodum in Oreste furor quo captus est, et salus per lustrationem.

atque in fabulis scenicis episodia brevia, epopocia autem iis dilatatur.

Odysseae enim magnum est argumentum: dum quidam per multos annos peregrinatur et observatur a Neptuno et solus est, praeterea res domesticae sic se habent, ut opes a procis consumantur filiusque insidiis obiiciatur; ipse autem tempestatibus iactatus venit et, cum aliquos agnovisset, illos adgressus ipse quidem servatus est, inimicos autem perdidit.

proprium igitur hoc, cetera episodia.

4.

M A e'biſogna in tal modo affettare la compoſitio ne della Fauola, & con la Locutione figurarla di tal maniera, ch'ella ti metta la coſa dauanti agli occhi;perchè in tal modo il Poeta veggedo le cofe manife ſtamente, come ſe e' fuffe lor preſente mentre che elle ſi fanno, trouerrà in eſſe il decoro: & quello, che gli è contrario non gli potrà effer naſcoſto. ¹

Di ciò fia inditio quello, di che è biafimato Carcino, doue Anfiarao è introdotto, che vſciua del Tempio; & ciò era incognito agli Spettatori, che non lo vedeuono:& il Poe ta perciò fu dal Popolo deriſo, per hauere ei unatal coſa ſopportata maluolentieri.

Debbefi'adunche fingere il più che ſi può le coſe con gli habıti naturali; concioſia che quegli huomini mafsimamente commuouino di lor natura, che in effe perturbationi ſi ritrouano. Onde interuiene, che chi è afflitto, commoue altri ad afflittione; & l'adirato commuque veraméte à ſdegno.

Et però la Poeſia è coſa da huomini, che ſieno ô ingegnoſi, ô che ſieno ripieni di furore;

perchè li ſecondi ſono atti per natura alla Poefia, & li primi per eſſere in ueftigatori. Debbe anchora il Poeta le fintioni d'effe Fauole eſporle vniuerfalmente, & dipoi vſarui gli Epi fodii, & anneſtaruegli dentro.

Io dico l'uniuerfale in tal modo douere eſſere confiderato, come è questo, Ifigenia vna certa fanciulla coſtituita dauanti all'Altare per eſſer ſacrificata, & fparita dinaſcoſto dagli occhi de' Sacerdoti, & in vnaltra regione traportata; doue à quella Dea era per legge ordinato, che gli foreftieri le fuſsino ſacrificati: ella,dico, fu à quello vffitio prepoſta. Dipoi auuenne ne tempi, che corfono, che il fratello di tal Sacerdoteſſa là perueniffe;ma perchè ciò gli incontraffe, che Dio cioe l'haueſſe là ſpinto per qualche ſua colpa, è coſa fuori dell'uniuerfale: & à che fine e'vi fuſſe venuto è coſa medefimamente fuori della Fauola. Ma venuto, che egli vi fu, & poi ch'e' fu preſo per douere eſſer ſacrificato, riconobbe la forella,ò vero ficome finge Euripide; o vero come finge Polide, hauendo detto per via di verifimile, che non pure la fo rella, ma che egli anchora doueua eſſere ſacrificato: dal qual diſcorſo coſi fatto ne nacque la fua falute.

Et doppo queſto ſubito, poſto i nomi, fi debbono comin ciare gli Epiſodii;

doue fi debbe auuertire, che e' fieno tolti propiamente, ſi come è la pazzia in Orefte, dalla quale e fu prefo: & la fua liberatione per hauerla efpur gata.

Nelle Fauole adunche gli Epiſodii debbono efferui fatti con breuità. Ma il Poema Heroico per tali debbe eſſere più allungato.

Che molto lunga inuero è nella Odiſſea la fintione di colui, ch'eſſendo ito molti annı in peregrinaggio, & da Nettuno eſſendo ſtato perſeguitato, & da tutti gli altri laſciato in abbandobaulba no,con hauere imprima in tal modo diſpoſte le fue fac cende, che tutta la roba ſua gli fuſsi confumata da Proci, & che al figliuolo ſopraſteſsino le infidie; egli alla fine dopo molte fortune in mare ſopportate à ca ſa ſe ne tornaffe, & quiui riconoſciuti inimici, & poſto loro l'infidie, di loro fi vendicaſſe, & egli rimaneffe faluo.

Questo è adunche il propio fuggetto di quel Poema, & tutto il resto vi ſono Epiſodii.

Fabulae autem sunt constituendae et elocutione conficiendae quam maxime ante oculos ponendo: sic enim evidentissime perspiciens, tanquam rebus ipsis praesens fuerit dum gerebantur, inveniet quod decet, et ipsum minime fallent subcontraria.

signum autem huius rei est quod reprehenditur in Carcino: Amphiaraus enim e fano exiit; quod fefellit spectatorem non videntem: in scena vero lapsus est, aegre ferentibus id spectatoribus.

quantum autem fieri potest, oportet figuris exornando exercere poësim: maxime enim persuasibiles sunt ab eadem natura, qui in perturbationibus sunt; quamobrem et fluctuare facit Auctuans, et ad iram concitat iratus verissime.

itaque ingeniosi poëtica est vel furore perciti: ex his enim alii quidem bene fortunati,

alii vero extra se positi sunt. hos autem sermones oportet esse factos, et ipsum facientem expo- nere exponere in universum, deinde episodiis uti, eaque inserere.

dico vero sic universum spectari, ut Iphigeniae. cum esset immolata quaedam virgo sublataque immolantibus non manifesto ac compostata in aliam regionem, in qua lex erat hospites deae immolare, hoc sacerdotium obtinuit. tempore autem sequenti fratri sacerdotis huc venire contigit propter nescio quid, quoniam responsum dedit deus propter aliquam causam, quae extra universum est, eo venire: sed quamobrem, id extra fabulam est. cum vero venisset et captus esset, dum immolandus esset, agnovit, sive ut Euripides sive ut Po- lyides Polyides fecit, dicens secundum verisimile non solum sororem sed etiam ipsum sacrificari oportuisse, et hinc salutem.

post haec cum quis iam nomina supposuerit, eum episodiis uti oportebit.

et quando erunt propria episodia, considerare, ut in Oreste insania, propter quam captus est, et salus per expiationem.

ac in dramatibus quidem episodia concisa sunt, epopoeia vero his producitur.

Odysseae enim longus sermo est, de quodam multos annos peregrinante et observato a Neptuno, et dum solus esset; et praeterea sic se habentibus domesticis rebus ut fortunae ipsius a procis consumeren- tur consumerentur et filius insidiis peteretur, ipse venit tempestatibus perturbatus, et cum quosdam agnovisset, ipsos decipiens ipse quidem servatus est, inimicos vero perdidit.

ac proprium quidem est hoc, alia vero episodia.

Oportet enim fabulas consistere et locutione cooperari quam maxime pre oculis positum (sic enim utique efficacissime videns sicut apud ipsa gesta presens inveniet decens et minime utique latebunt que subcontraria ;

signum autem huius quod increpat Karkino ; nam Ámphiaraus ex sacro utique erat, quod non videntem inspectorem latebat, in skene autem decidit aspernantibus hoc inspectoribus),

quecumque autem possibile et scematibus cooperantem. Probabilissimi enim ab eadem natura quales in passionibus sunt et hyemizat hyematus et exasperat iratus verissime.

Propter quod eius qui apte nature poetica est quam manici ; horum enim hii quidem euplasti (idest facile plasmabiles), hii autem exquisitores sunt.

Hosque sermones et poetizatos oportet et ipsum facientem

exponere universaliter, puta Ifigeneie ; immolanda quadam puella et disparente occulte ab immolantibus, demorante autem in aliam regionem, in qua lex erat extraneis immolare dee, hanc habuit sanctificationem ; tempore autem posterius fratri accidit venire sanctificationis (istud quia responsum dederat deus propter quam causam extra universale venire illuc et ad quid autem extra fabulam), veniens autem et captus immolari futurus recognovit; sive ut Euripedes sive ut Polyeidus fecit, secundum verisimile dicens quod non ergo solum sororem sed et ipsum oportebat immolari ; et hinc salus.

Post hec autem iam supponentem nomina episodizare,

qualiter autem erunt congrua episodia, puta in Horeste mania per quam assumptus est et salus per purificationem.

In curribus quidem 3oigitur episodia brevia, epopoiia autem hiis producitur.

Nam Odysseie longus sermo est; peregrinante quodam annis multis et observato a Possidone et solo ente, in habentibus autem domi sic ut res a ministris consumerentur et filius insidias pateretur, ipse autem pervenit hyematus, et recognoscens quosdam ipse insiliens, ipse quidem salvatus est, inimicos autem peremit.

Proprium quidem igitur hoc, alia autem episodia.

‏وقد ينبغى ان تقوم الخرافات وتتمم بالمقولة من قبل ان الامور توضع امام العينين جدا وذلك انه على هذه الجهة عند ما برى الشاعر على ما عند الامور المعمولة انفسها وعند ما يصير هناك يجد الشى الاولى والاحرى والاجمل ولا يذهب عليه البتة المضاد لهذه

‏ودليل هذا هو ما تبكت به لڡادٯيٮس وذلك ان ذاك صعد فيما يقال الى ذاك كانه صاعد من اٮان اى من الهيكل من حيث لم يكن يرى وكان يذهب على الناظر ووقع فى الخيمة وعند ما يصعٮ السامعين فى هذا

‏بمقدار ما كانه يمكن كان يفعل مع الاشكال على مجرى الاذعان والانقياد فالذين هم فى الالام هم فى طبيعة واحدة بعينها وان كان الذى فى الهزاير يتعذب ويتقلب وكان الذى يتسخط بالحق بتصعب

‏ولذلك فان صناعة الشعر هى للماهو اكثر منها للذين هم تلهين المعقول وذلك ان هولا منهم من هو بسيط عحس

‏اعنى فى الاقاويل والخرافات النى عملت وقد يجب عليه هو ايضا ان يكون عند ما يعمل ان يضعها على طريق الكلية ومن بعد ذلك ان ٮتحد يدخل شى وان بركب

‏واعنى بقولى ان يكون معنى الكل بهذا النحو كالحال فى امر ايباغانيا عند ما نحرت صبية ما واخفيت لكيما لا تظهر قامت بين المنحورين ووضعت فى بلد اخر فوق الٯايم قد كانت السنة جرت فى ذلك البلد ان يضحا لله ضحايا واقتنت هذا الفوز وفى زمان ما بالاخرة عرض ان قدم اخوها وجا من قبل ان الوالى احطا من قبل ان العلة هنالك خارج عن معنى الكل وفى البلد وايضا الذى عملت فيه هذه فماذى غير الخرافة مما يخبر به زعم ڡعل الان اد قد حٮت ولها اخذ وقدم ولٮتحد يعرف احيه فان على ما يعمل اوريفدس القينة على مذهب الحق اعواح كثيرة فلانه قال انه ليس اخته اذا كان يجب ان ٮتحد لكن هو ايضا قد كان يجب ان ٮمٮٮل فيه ذلك ومن هاهنا يكون الخلاص

‏ومن ذلك يدخل اسما قد وصڡت وفرغ من وصڡها

‏ويكون الاسما المداخلة مناسبة بمنزلة ما لاورسطس وهو الذى تدبيره كان الخلاص بالطهير

‏الا فى القينات الدخيلة هى معتدلة وما صنعه الانواع فى هذه فتطول

‏وذلك ان لاودوسيا فالقول ليس هو بالطويل فانه عند ما شخص انسان وغاب سنين كثيرة قد ٮٮڡاق عن فوسيدس وقد كان وحيد وايضا فان حال من كانت حال انه الامر معها ان باد جميع املاكه فى الخطاب والملاملات وان يمكرون به ويحوبونه واما هو فبلغ بعد ان تاه تيه كثيرا ولما ٮڡرق اناس ما اما هو فشقا شقيا عظيما ونجا وتخلص واما اعداه فابادهم

‏فهذه هى خاصية هذا واما الاشيا الاخر فهى دخيلة

‏وقد ينبغى ان تقوم الخرافات وتتمم بالمقولة من قبل ان الامور توضع امام العينين جدا وذلك انه على هذه الجهة عند ما برى الشاعر على ما عند الامور المعمولة انفسها وعند ما يصير هناك يجد الشى الاولى والاحرى والاجمل ولا يذهب عليه البتة المضاد لهذه

‏ودليل هذا هو ما تبكت به لڡادٯيٮس وذلك ان ذاك صعد فيما يقال الى ذاك كانه صاعد من اٮان اى من الهيكل من حيث لم يكن يرى وكان يذهب على الناظر ووقع فى الخيمة وعند ما يصعٮ السامعين فى هذا

‏بمقدار ما كانه يمكن كان يفعل مع الاشكال

‏على مجرى الاذعان والانقياد فالذين هم فى الالام هم فى طبيعة واحدة بعينها وان كان الذى فى الهزاير يتعذب ويتقلب وكان الذى يتسخط بالحق بتصعب

‏ولذلك فان صناعة الشعر هى للماهو اكثر منها للذين هم تلهين المعقول وذلك ان هولا منهم من هو بسيط عحس

‏اعنى فى الاقاويل والخرافات النى عملت وقد يجب عليه هو ايضا ان يكون عند ما يعمل ان يضعها على طريق الكلية ومن بعد ذلك ان ٮتحد يدخل شى وان بركب

‏واعنى بقولى ان يكون معنى الكل بهذا النحو كالحال فى امر ايباغانيا

‏عند ما نحرت صبية ما واخفيت لكيما لا تظهر قامت بين المنحورين ووضعت فى بلد اخر فوق الٯايم قد كانت السنة جرت فى ذلك البلد ان يضحا لله ضحايا واقتنت هذا الفوز

‏وفى زمان ما بالاخرة عرض ان قدم اخوها وجا

‏من قبل ان الوالى احطا من قبل ان العلة هنالك خارج عن معنى الكل وفى البلد وايضا الذى عملت فيه هذه فماذى غير الخرافة

‏مما يخبر به زعم ڡعل الان اد قد حٮت ولها اخذ وقدم ولٮتحد يعرف احيه فان على ما يعمل اوريفدس القينة على مذهب الحق اعواح كثيرة فلانه قال انه ليس اخته اذا كان يجب ان ٮتحد لكن هو ايضا قد كان يجب ان ٮمٮٮل فيه ذلك ومن هاهنا يكون الخلاص

‏ومن ذلك يدخل اسما قد وصڡت وفرغ من وصڡها ويكون الاسما المداخلة مناسبة بمنزلة ما لاورسطس وهو الذى تدبيره كان الخلاص بالطهير

‏الا فى القينات الدخيلة هى معتدلة وما صنعه الانواع فى هذه فتطول

‏وذلك ان لاودوسيا فالقول ليس هو بالطويل فانه عند ما شخص انسان وغاب سنين كثيرة قد ٮٮڡاق عن فوسيدس وقد كان وحيد وايضا فان حال من كانت حال انه الامر معها ان باد جميع املاكه فى الخطاب والملاملات وان يمكرون به ويحوبونه واما هو فبلغ بعد ان تاه تيه كثيرا ولما ٮڡرق اناس ما اما هو فشقا شقيا عظيما ونجا وتخلص واما اعداه فابادهم

‏فهذه هى خاصية هذا واما الاشيا الاخر فهى دخيلة