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On this account it is, that the subjects of Tragedy, as before remarked, are confined to a small number of families. For it was not to art, but to fortune, that Poets applied themselves, to find incidents of this nature. Hence the necessity of having recourse to those families, in which such calamities have happened.

[14]

Poetics. Aristotle. Thomas Twining (Translator). London, UK. 1789.

Sponsored by Perseus Project, Tufts University.

Current edition Experimental

Poetics (Thomas Twining, 1789) (OCR draft) (English) (Thomas Twining's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1789 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.)

Provisional text from uncorrected OCR; expect errors.

Editions (4)

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) (Aristotle, Poetics. Immanuel Bekker, editor, Aristotelis Opera, volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1837.) — 14 focus

Ἔστι μὲν οὖν τὸ φοβερὸν καὶ ἐλεεινὸν ἐκ τῆς ὄψεως γίνεσθαι, ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς συστάσεως τῶν πραγμάτων, ὅπερ ἐστὶ πρότερον καὶ ποιητοῦ ἀμείνονος.

Δεῖ γὰρ καὶ ἄνευ τοῦ ὁρᾶν οὕτω συνεστάναι τὸν μῦθον ὥστε τὸν ἀκούοντα τὰ πράγματα γινόμενα καὶ φρίττειν καὶ ἐλεεῖν ἐκ τῶν συμβαινόντων· ἅπερ ἂν πάθοι τις ἀκούων τὸν τοῦ Οἰδίποδος μῦθον.

Τὸ δὲ διὰ τῆς ὄψεως τοῦτο παρασκευάζειν ἀτεχνότερον καὶ χορηγίας δεόμενόν ἐστιν.

Οἱ δὲ μὴ τὸ φοβερὸν διὰ τῆς ὄψεως ἀλλὰ τὸ τερατῶδες μόνον παρασκευάζοντες οὐδὲν τραγῳδίᾳ κοινωνοῦσιν· οὐ γὰρ πᾶσαν δεῖ ζητεῖν ἡδονὴν ἀπὸ τραγῳδίας, ἀλλὰ τὴν οἰκείαν.

Ἐπεὶ δὲ τὴν ἀπὸ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου διὰ μιμήσεως δεῖ ἡδονὴν παρασκευάζειν τὸν ποιητήν, φανερὸν ὡς τοῦτο ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν ἐμποιητέον.

Ποῖα οὖν δεινὰ ἢ ποῖα οἰκτρὰ φαίνεται τῶν συμπιπτόντων, λάβωμεν. Ἀνάγκη δὲ ἢ φίλων εἶναι πρὸς ἀλλήλους τὰς τοιαύτας πράξεις ἢ ἐχθρῶν ἢ μηδετέρων.

Ἂν μὲν οὖν ἐχθρὸς ἐχθρὸν ἀποκτείνῃ, οὐδὲν ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε ποιῶν οὔτε μέλλων δείκνυσι, πλὴν κατ᾿ αὐτὸ τὸ πάθος·

οὐδ᾿ ἂν μηδετέρως ἔχοντες.

Ὅταν δ᾿ ἐν ταῖς φιλίαις ἐγγένηται τὰ πάθη, οἷον εἰ ἀδελφὸς ἀδελφὸν ἢ υἱὸς πατέρα ἢ μήτηρ υἱὸν ἢ υἱὸς μητέρα ἀποκτείνει ἢ μέλλει ἤ τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον δρᾷ, ταῦτα ζητητέον.

Τοὺς μὲν οὖν παρειλημμένους μύθους λύειν οὐκ ἔστιν, λέγω δὲ οἷον τὴν Κλυταιμνήστραν ἀποθανοῦσαν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀρέστου καὶ τὴν Ἐριφύλην ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἀλκμαίωνος·

αὐτὸν δἐ εὑρίσκειν δεῖ, καὶ τοῖς παραδεδομένοις χρῆσθαι καλῶς. Τὸ δὲ καλῶς τί λέγομεν, εἴπωμεν σαφέστερον.

Ἔστι μὲν γὰρ οὕτω γίνεσθαι τὴν πρᾶξιν ὥσπερ οἱ παλαιοὶ ἐποίουν, εἰδότας καὶ γινώσκοντας, καθάπερ καὶ Εὐριπίδης ἐποίησεν ἀποκτείνουσαν τοὺς παῖδας τὴν Μήδειαν·

ἔστι δὲ πρᾶξαι μέν, ἀγνοοῦντας δὲ πρᾶξαι τὸ δεινόν, εἶθ᾿ ὕστερον ἀναγνωρίσαι τὴν φιλίαν, ὥσπερ ὁ Σοφοκλέους Οἰδίπους. Τοῦτο μὲν οὖν ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἐν δ᾿ αὐτῇ τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ, οἷος ὁ Ἀλκμαίων ὁ Ἀστυδάμαντος ἢ ὁ Τηλέγονος ὁ ἐν τῷ τραυματίᾳ Ὀδυσσεῖ.

Ἔτι δὲ τρίτον παρὰ ταῦτα τὸν μέλλοντα ποιεῖν τι τῶν ἀνηκέστων δι᾿ ἄγνοιαν ἀναγνωρίσαι πρὶν ποιῆσαι.

Καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλως· ἢ γὰρ πρᾶξαι ἀνάγκη ἢ μή, καὶ εἰδότας ἢ μὴ εἰδότας.

Τούτων δὲ τὸ μὲν γινώσκοντα μελλῆσαι καὶ μὴ πρᾶξαι χείριστον· τό τε γὰρ μιαρὸν ἔχει, καὶ οὐ τραγικόν· ἀπαθὲς γάρ. Διόπερ οὐδεὶς ποιεῖ ὁμοίως, εἰ μὴ ὀλιγάκις, οἷος ἐν Ἀντιγόνῃ τὸν Κρέοντα ὁ Αἵμων.

Τὸ δὲ πρᾶξαι δεύτερον.

Βέλτιον δὲ τὸ ἀγνοοῦντα μὲν πρᾶξαι, πράξαντα δὲ ἀναγνωρίσαι· τό τε γὰρ μιαρὸν οὐ πρόσεστι, καὶ ἡ ἀναγνώρισις ἐκπληκτικόν.

Κράτιστον δὲ τὸ τελευταῖον, λέγω δὲ οἷον ἐν τῷ Κρεσφόντῃ ἡ Μερόπη μέλλει τὸν υἱὸν ἀποκτείνειν, ἀποκτείνει δὲ οὒ ἀλλ᾿ ἀνεγνώρισεν, καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰφιγενείᾳ ἡ ἀδελφὴ τὸν ἀδελφόν, καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἕλλῃ ὁ υἱὸς τὴν μητέρα ἐκδιδόναι μέλλων ἀνεγνώρισεν.

Διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο, ὅπερ πάλαι εἴρηται, οὐ περὶ πολλὰ γένη αἱ τραγῳδίαι εἰσίν. Ζητοῦντες γὰρ οὐκ ἀπὸ τέχνης ἀλλ᾿ ἀπὸ τύχης εὗρον τὸ τοιοῦτον παρασκευάζειν ἐν τοῖς μύθοις· ἀναγκάζονται οὖν ἐπὶ ταύτας τὰς οἰκίας ἀπαντᾶν, ὅσαις τὰ τοιαῦτα συμβέβηκε πάθη.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσεως, καὶ ποίους τινὰς εἶναι δεῖ τοὺς μύθους, εἴρηται ἱκανῶς.

Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) Perseus (Aristotle, De arte poetica liber. Rudolf Kassel, editor. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965. Reference edition for passage alignment.) — 14 focus

1453b 1 ἔστιν μὲν οὖν τὸ φοβερὸν καὶ ἐλεεινὸν ἐκ τῆς ὄψεως γίγνεσθαι, ἔστιν δὲ καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς συστάσεως τῶν πραγμάτων, ὅπερ ἐστὶ πρότερον καὶ ποιητοῦ ἀμείνονος.

δεῖ γὰρ καὶ ἄνευ τοῦ ὁρᾶν οὕτω συνεστάναι τὸν μῦθον ὥστε τὸν 5 ἀκούοντα τὰ πράγματα γινόμενα καὶ φρίττειν καὶ ἐλεεῖν ἐκ τῶν συμβαινόντων· ἅπερ ἂν πάθοι τις ἀκούων τὸν τοῦ Οἰδίπου μῦθον.

τὸ δὲ διὰ τῆς ὄψεως τοῦτο παρασκευάζειν ἀτεχνότερον καὶ χορηγίας δεόμενόν ἐστιν.

οἱ δὲ μὴ τὸ 9 φοβερὸν διὰ τῆς ὄψεως ἀλλὰ τὸ τερατῶδες μόνον 10 παρασκευάζοντες οὐδὲν τραγῳδίᾳ κοινωνοῦσιν· οὐ γὰρ πᾶσαν δεῖ ζητεῖν ἡδονὴν ἀπὸ τραγῳδίας ἀλλὰ τὴν οἰκείαν.

ἐπεὶ δὲ τὴν ἀπὸ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου διὰ μιμήσεως δεῖ ἡδονὴν παρασκευάζειν τὸν ποιητήν, φανερὸν ὡς τοῦτο ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν ἐμποιητέον.

ποῖα οὖν δεινὰ ἢ ποῖα οἰκτρὰ φαίνεται τῶν 15 συμπιπτόντων, λάβωμεν. ἀνάγκη δὴ ἢ φίλων εἶναι πρὸς ἀλλήλους τὰς τοιαύτας πράξεις ἢ ἐχθρῶν ἢ μηδετέρων.

ἂν μὲν οὖν ἐχθρὸς ἐχθρόν, οὐδὲν ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε ποιῶν οὔτε μέλλων, πλὴν κατ’ αὐτὸ τὸ πάθος·

οὐδ’ ἂν μηδετέρως ἔχοντες·

ὅταν δ’ ἐν ταῖς φιλίαις ἐγγένηται τὰ 20 πάθη, οἷον ἢ ἀδελφὸς ἀδελφὸν ἢ υἱὸς πατέρα ἢ μήτηρ υἱὸν ἢ υἱὸς μητέρα ἀποκτείνῃ ἢ μέλλῃ ἤ τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον δρᾷ, ταῦτα ζητητέον.

τοὺς μὲν οὖν παρειλημμένους μύθους λύειν οὐκ ἔστιν, λέγω δὲ οἷον τὴν Κλυταιμήστραν ἀποθανοῦσαν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀρέστου καὶ τὴν Ἐριφύλην ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἀλκμέωνος,

25 αὐτὸν δὲ εὑρίσκειν δεῖ καὶ τοῖς παραδεδομένοις χρῆσθαι καλῶς. τὸ δὲ καλῶς τί λέγομεν, εἴπωμεν σαφέστερον.

ἔστι μὲν γὰρ οὕτω γίνεσθαι τὴν πρᾶξιν, ὥσπερ οἱ παλαιοὶ ἐποίουν εἰδότας καὶ γιγνώσκοντας, καθάπερ καὶ Εὐριπίδης ἐποίησεν ἀποκτείνουσαν τοὺς παῖδας τὴν Μήδειαν·

ἔστιν δὲ 30 πρᾶξαι μέν, ἀγνοοῦντας δὲ πρᾶξαι τὸ δεινόν, εἶθ’ ὕστερον ἀναγνωρίσαι τὴν φιλίαν, ὥσπερ ὁ Σοφοκλέους Οἰδίπους· τοῦτο μὲν οὖν ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἐν δ’ αὐτῇ τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ οἷον ὁ Ἀλκμέων ὁ Ἀστυδάμαντος ἢ ὁ Τηλέγονος ὁ ἐν τῷ τραυματίᾳ Ὀδυσσεῖ.

ἔτι δὲ τρίτον παρὰ ταῦτα τὸ 35 μέλλοντα ποιεῖν τι τῶν ἀνηκέστων δι’ ἄγνοιαν ἀναγνωρίσαι πρὶν ποιῆσαι.

καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλως. ἢ γὰρ πρᾶξαι ἀνάγκη ἢ μὴ καὶ εἰδότας ἢ μὴ εἰδότας.

τούτων δὲ τὸ μὲν γινώσκοντα μελλῆσαι καὶ μὴ πρᾶξαι χείριστον· τό τε γὰρ μιαρὸν ἔχει, καὶ οὐ τραγικόν· ἀπαθὲς γάρ. διόπερ οὐδεὶς 1454a 1 ποιεῖ ὁμοίως, εἰ μὴ ὀλιγάκις, οἷον ἐν Ἀντιγόνῃ τὸν Κρέοντα ὁ Αἵμων.

τὸ δὲ πρᾶξαι δεύτερον.

βέλτιον δὲ τὸ ἀγνοοῦντα μὲν πρᾶξαι, πράξαντα δὲ ἀναγνωρίσαι· τό τε γὰρ μιαρὸν οὐ πρόσεστιν καὶ ἡ ἀναγνώρισις ἐκπληκτικόν.

κράτιστον δὲ 5 τὸ τελευταῖον, λέγω δὲ οἷον ἐν τῷ Κρεσφόντῃ ἡ Μερόπη μέλλει τὸν υἱὸν ἀποκτείνειν, ἀποκτείνει δὲ οὔ, ἀλλ’ ἀνεγνώρισε, καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰφιγενείᾳ ἡ ἀδελφὴ τὸν ἀδελφόν, καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἕλλῃ ὁ υἱὸς τὴν μητέρα ἐκδιδόναι μέλλων ἀνεγνώρισεν.

διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο, ὅπερ πάλαι εἴρηται, οὐ περὶ πολλὰ 10 γένη αἱ τραγῳδίαι εἰσίν. ζητοῦντες γὰρ οὐκ ἀπὸ τέχνης ἀλλ’ ἀπὸ τύχης εὗρον τὸ τοιοῦτον παρασκευάζειν ἐν τοῖς μύθοις· ἀναγκάζονται οὖν ἐπὶ ταύτας τὰς οἰκίας ἀπαντᾶν ὅσαις τὰ τοιαῦτα συμβέβηκε πάθη.

περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσεως καὶ ποίους τινὰς εἶναι δεῖ τοὺς μύθους 15 εἴρηται ἱκανῶς.

Poetics, Greek text (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's Greek text of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 14 focus

Ἔστιν μὲν οὖν τὸ φοβερὸν καὶ ἐλεεινὸν ἐκ τῆς ὄψεως
γίγνεσθαι, ἔστιν δὲ καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς συστάσεως τῶν πραγμάτων,
ὅπερ ἐστὶ πρότερον καὶ ποιητοῦ ἀμείνονος.

δεῖ γὰρ
καὶ ἄνευ τοῦ ὁρᾶν οὕτω συνεστάναι τὸν μῦθον ὥστε τὸν
ἀκούοντα τὰ πράγματα γινόμενα καὶ φρίττειν καὶ ἐλεεῖν
ἐκ τῶν συμβαινόντων· ἅπερ ἂν πάθοι τις ἀκούων τὸν τοῦ
Οἰδίπου μῦθον.

τὸ δὲ διὰ τῆς ὄψεως τοῦτο παρασκευάζειν
ἀτεχνότερον καὶ χορηγίας δεόμενόν ἐστιν.

οἱ δὲ μὴ τὸ
φοβερὸν διὰ τῆς ὄψεως ἀλλὰ τὸ τερατῶδες μόνον παρασκευάζοντες
οὐδὲν τραγῳδίᾳ κοινωνοῦσιν· οὐ γὰρ πᾶσαν δεῖ
ζητεῖν ἡδονὴν ἀπὸ τραγῳδίας ἀλλὰ τὴν οἰκείαν.

ἐπεὶ δὲ
τὴν ἀπὸ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου διὰ μιμήσεως δεῖ ἡδονὴν παρασκευάζειν
τὸν ποιητήν, φανερὸν ὡς τοῦτο ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν
ἐμποιητέον.

ποῖα οὖν δεινὰ ἢ ποῖα οἰκτρὰ φαίνεται
τῶν συμπιπτόντων, λάβωμεν. ἀνάγκη δὴ ἢ φίλων εἶναι
πρὸς ἀλλήλους τὰς τοιαύτας πράξεις ἢ ἐχθρῶν ἢ μηδετέρων.

ἂν μὲν οὖν ἐχθρὸς ἐχθρόν, οὐδὲν ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε
ποιῶν οὔτε μέλλων, πλὴν κατ᾽ αὐτὸ τὸ πάθος·

οὐδ᾽ ἂν
μηδετέρως ἔχοντες·

ὅταν δ᾽ ἐν ταῖς φιλίαις ἐγγένηται τὰ
πάθη, οἷον ἢ ἀδελφὸς ἀδελφὸν ἢ υἱὸς πατέρα ἢ μήτηρ
υἱὸν ἢ υἱὸς μητέρα ἀποκτείνῃ ἢ μέλλῃ ἤ τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον
δρᾷ, ταῦτα ζητητέον.

τοὺς μὲν οὖν παρειλημμένους μύθους
λύειν οὐκ ἔστιν, λέγω δὲ οἷον τὴν Κλυταιμνήστραν ἀποθανοῦσαν
ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀρέστου καὶ τὴν Ἐριφύλην ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἀλκμέωνος,

αὐτὸν δὲ εὑρίσκειν δεῖ καὶ τοῖς παραδεδομένοις χρήσθαι
καλῶς. τὸ δὲ καλῶς τί λέγομεν, εἴπωμεν σαφέστερον.

ἔστι μὲν γὰρ οὕτω γίνεσθαι τὴν πρᾶξιν, ὥσπερ οἱ παλαιοὶ
ἐποίουν εἰδότας καὶ γιγνώσκοντας, καθάπερ καὶ Εὐριπίδης
ἐποίησεν ἀποκτείνουσαν τοὺς παῖδας τὴν Μήδειαν·

ἔστιν δὲ
πρᾶξαι μέν, ἀγνοοῦντας δὲ πρᾶξαι τὸ δεινόν, εἶθ᾽ ὕστερον
ἀναγνωρίσαι τὴν φιλίαν, ὥσπερ ὁ Σοφοκλέους Οἰδίπους· τοῦτο
μὲν οὖν ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἐν δ᾽ αὐτῇ τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ οἷον
ὁ Ἀλκμέων ὁ Ἀστυδάμαντος ἢ ὁ Τηλέγονος ὁ ἐν τῷ
τραυματίᾳ Ὀδυσσεῖ.

ἔτι δὲ τρίτον παρὰ ταῦτα τὸ μέλλοντα
ποιεῖν τι τῶν ἀνηκέστων δι᾽ ἄγνοιαν ἀναγνωρίσαι πρὶν
ποιήσαι.

καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλως. ἢ γὰρ πρᾶξαι
ἀνάγκη ἢ μὴ καὶ εἰδότας ἢ μὴ εἰδότας.

τούτων δὲ τὸ μὲν
γινώσκοντα μελλῆσαι καὶ μὴ πρᾶξαι χείριστον· τό τε γὰρ
μιαρὸν ἔχει, καὶ οὐ τραγικόν· ἀπαθὲς γάρ.
διόπερ οὐδεὶς
ποιεῖ ὁμοίως, εἰ μὴ ὀλιγάκις, οἷον ἐν Ἀντιγόνῃ τὸν Κρέοντα
ὁ Αἵμων.

τὸ δὲ πρᾶξαι δεύτερον.

βέλτιον δὲ τὸ ἀγνοοῦντα
μὲν πρᾶξαι, πράξαντα δὲ ἀναγνωρίσαι· τό τε γὰρ μιαρὸν
οὐ πρόσεστιν καὶ ἡ ἀναγνώρισις ἐκπληκτικόν.

κράτιστον δὲ
τὸ τελευταῖον, λέγω δὲ οἷον ἐν τῷ Κρεσφόντῃ ἡ Μερόπη
μέλλει τὸν υἱὸν ἀποκτείνειν, ἀποκτείνει δὲ οὔ, ἀλλ᾽ ἀνεγνώρισε,
καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰφιγενείᾳ ἡ ἀδελφή τὸν ἀδελφόν, καὶ
ἐν τῇ Ἕλλῃ ὁ υἱὸς τὴν μητέρα ἐκδιδόναι μέλλων ἀνεγνώρισεν.

διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο, ὅπερ πάλαι εἴρηται, οὐ περὶ πολλὰ
γένη αἱ τραγῳδίαι εἰσίν. ζητοῦντες γὰρ οὐκ ἀπὸ τέχνης
ἀλλ᾽ ἀπὸ τύχης εὗρον τὸ τοιοῦτον παρασκευάζειν ἐν τοῖς
μύθοις· ἀναγκάζονται οὖν ἐπὶ ταύτας τὰς οἰκίας ἀπαντᾶν
ὅσαις τὰ τοιαῦτα συμβέβηκε πάθη.

περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς τῶν
πραγμάτων συστάσεως καὶ ποίους τινὰς εἶναι δεῖ τοὺς μύθους
εἴρηται ἱκανῶς.

Poetics, Greek text (Franz Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's 1839 Greek edition, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 14 focus

Ἔστι μὲν οὖν τὸ φοβερὸν καὶ ἐλεεινὸν ἐκ τῆς ὄψεως για νεσθαι, ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς συστάσεως τῶν πραγμά των, ὅπερ ἐστὶ πρότερον καὶ ποιητοῦ ἀμείνονος.

δεῖ γὰρ καὶ ἄνευ τοῦ ὁρᾶν οὕτω συνεστάναι τὸν μῦθον ὥστε τὸν ἀκούοντα τὰ πράγματα γινόμενα καὶ φρίττειν καὶ ἐλεεῖν ἐκ τῶν συμβαινόντων· ἅπερ ἂν πάθοι τις ἀκούων τὸν τοῦ Οἰδίποδος μῦθον.

τὸ δὲ διὰ τῆς ὄψεως τοῦτο παρασκευάζειν ατεχνότερον καὶ χορηγίας δεόμενόν ἐστιν.

οἱ δὲ μὴ τὸ φοβερὸν διὰ τῆς ὄψεως ἀλλὰ τὸ τερατῶδες μόνον παρασκευάζοντες οὐδὲν τραγῳδίᾳ κοινωνοῦσιν· οὐ γὰρ πᾶσαν δεῖ ζητεῖν ἡδονὴν ἀπὸ τραγῳδίας, ἀλλὰ τὴν οἰκείαν.

ἐπεὶ δὲ τὴν ἀπὸ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου διὰ μιμήσεως δεῖ ἡδονὴν παρασκευάζειν τὸν ποιητήν, φανερὸν ὡς τοῦτο ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν ἐμπ ποιητέον.

ποῖα οὖν δεινὰ ἢ ποῖα οἰκτρὰ φαίνεται τῶν συμπιπτόντων, λάβωμεν. ἀνάγκη δὲ ἢ φίλων εἶναι πρὸς ἀλλήλους τὰς τοιαύτας πράξεις ἢ ἐχθρῶν ἢ μηδετέρων.

ἂν μὲν οὖν ἐχθρὸς ἐχθρὸν ἀποκτείνῃ, οὐδὲν ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε ποιῶν οὔτε μέλλων δείκνυσι, πλὴν κατ᾿ αὐτὸ τὸ πάθος·

οὐδ᾽ ἂν μηδετέρως ἔχοντες.

ὅταν δ᾽ ἐν ταῖς φιλίαις ἐγγένηται τὰ πάθη, οἷον εἰ ἀδελφὸς ἀδελφὸν ἢ υἱὸς πατέρα ἢ μήτηρ υἱὸν ἢ υἱὸς μητέρα ἀποκτείνει ἢ μέλλει ἤ τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον δρῷ, ταῦτα ζητητέον.

τοὺς μὲν οὖν παρειλημμένους μύθους λύειν οὐκ ἔστιν, λέγω δὲ οἷον τὴν Κλυταιμνήστραν ἀποθανοῦσαν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀρέστου καὶ τήν Ἐριφύλην ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἀλκμαίωνος·

αὐτὸν δὲ εὑρίσκειν δεῖ, καὶ τοῖς παραδεδομένοις χρῆσθαι καλῶς. τὸ δὲ καλῶς τί λέγομεν, εἴπωμεν σαφέστερον.

ἔστι μὲν γὰρ οὕτω γίνεσθαι τὴν πρᾶξιν ὥσπερ οἱ παλαιοὶ ἐποίουν, εἰδότας καὶ γινώσκοντας, καθάπερ καὶ Εὐριπίδης ἐποίησεν ἀποκ¹τείνουσαν τοὺς παῖδας τὴν Μήδειαν·

ἔστι δὲ πρᾶξαι μέν, ἀγνοοῦντας δὲ πρᾶξαι τὸ δεινόν, εἶθ᾽ ὕστερον ἀναγνωρίσαι τὴν φιλίαν, ὥσπερ ὁ Σοφοκλέους Οἰδίπους. τοῦτο μὲν οὖν ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἐν δ᾽ αὐτῇ τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ, οἷος ὁ Ἀλκμαίων ὁ Ἀστυδάμαντος ἢ ὁ Τηλέγονος ὁ ἐν τῷ τραυματίᾳ Οδυσσεῖ.

ἔτι δὲ τρίτον παρὰ ταῦτα τὸν μέλλοντα ποιεῖν τι τῶν ἀνηκέστων δι᾽ ἄγνοιαν ἀναγνωρίσαι πρὶν ποιῆσαι.

καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλως· ἢ γὰρ πρᾶξαι ἀνάγκη ἢ μή, καὶ εἰδότας ἢ μὴ εἰδότας.

τούτων δὲ τὸ μὲν γινώσκοντα μελλῆσαι καὶ μὴ πρᾶξαι χείριστον· τό τε γὰρ μικρὸν ἔχει, καὶ οὐ τραγικόν· ἀπαθὲς γάρ. [διόπερ οὐδεὶς ποιεῖ ὁμοίως, εἰ μὴ ὀλιγάκις, οἷον ἐν Ἀντιγόνῃ τὸν Κρέοντα ὁ Αἵμων.]

τὸ δὲ πρᾶξαι δεύτερον.

βέλτιον δὲ τὸ ἀγνοοῦντα μὲν πρᾶξαι, πράξαντα δὲ ἀναγνωρίσαι· τό τε γὰρ μικρὸν οὐ πρόσεστι, καὶ ἡ ἀναγνώρισις ἐκπληκτικόν.

κράτιστον δὲ τὸ τελευταῖον, λέγω δὲ οἷον ἐν τῷ Κρεσφόντῃ ἡ Μερόπη μέλλει τὸν υἱὸν ἀποκτείνειν, ἀποκτείνει δὲ οὐ ἀλλ᾽ ἀνεγνώρισεν, καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἰφιγενείᾳ ἡ ἀδελφὴ τὸν ἀδελφόν, καὶ ἐν τῇ Ελλῃ ὁ υἱὸς τὴν μητέρα ἐκ διδόναι μέλλων ἀνεγνώρισεν.

διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο, ὅπερ πάλαι τοεἴρηται, οὐ περὶ πολλὰ γένη αἱ τραγῳδίαι εἰσίν. ζητοῦντες γὰρ οὐκ ἀπὸ τέχνης ἀλλ᾽ ἀπὸ τύχης εὗρον τὸ τοιοῦτον παρασκευάζειν ἐν τοῖς μύθοις· ἀναγκάζονται οὖν ἐπὶ ταύτας τὰς οἰκίας ἀπαντᾶν, ὅσαις τὰ τοιαῦτα συμβέβηκε πάθη.

περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσεως, καὶ ποίους τινὰς εἶναι δεῖ τοὺς μύθους, εἴρηται ἱκανῶς.

Translations (13)

Poetics (W. H. Fyfe) (OCR draft) Perseus (William Hamilton Fyfe's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, Loeb Classical Library, 1939 printing.) — 14 focus

1453b 1 Fear and pity sometimes result from the spectacle and are sometimes aroused by the actual arrangement of the incidents, which is preferable and the mark of a better poet.

The plot should be so constructed that even without seeing the play anyone hearing of the incidents happening thrills with fear and pity as a result of what occurs. So would anyone feel who heard the story of Oedipus.

To produce this effect by means of an appeal to the eye is inartistic and needs adventitious aid,

while those who by such means produce an effect which is not fearful but merely monstrous have nothing in common with tragedy.¹ For one should not seek from tragedy all kinds of pleasure but that which is peculiar to tragedy,

and since the poet must by representation produce the pleasure which comes from feeling pity and fear, obviously this quality must be embodied in the incidents.

We must now decide what incidents seem dreadful or rather pitiable. Such must necessarily be the actions of friends to each other or of enemies or of people that are neither.

Now if an enemy does it to an enemy, there is nothing pitiable either in the deed or the intention,

except so far as the actual calamity goes.

Nor would there be if they were neither friends nor enemies. But when these calamities happen among friends, 20 when for instance brother kills brother, or son father, or mother son, or son mother—either kills or intends to kill, or does something of the kind, that is what we must look for.

Now it is not right to break up the traditional stories, I mean, for instance, Clytaemnestra being killed by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alcmaeon,

but the poet must show invention and make a skilful use of the tradition.

But we must state more clearly what is meant by skilful.

The action may happen in the way in which the old dramatists made their characters act—consciously and knowing the facts, as Euripides² also made his Medea kill her children.

Or they may do the deed but without realizing the horror of it and then discover the relationship afterwards, like Oedipus in Sophocles. That indeed lies outside the play,³ but an example of this in the tragedy itself is the Alcmaeon of Astydamas⁴ or Telegonus in the Wounded Odysseus.

A third alternative is to intend to do some irremediable action in ignorance and to discover the truth before doing it.

Besides these there is no other way, for they must either do the deed or not, either knowing or unknowing.

The worst of these is to intend the action with full knowledge and not to perform it. That outrages the feelings and is not tragic, for there is no calamity. 1454a 1 So nobody does that, except occasionally, as, for instance, Haemon and Creon⁵ in the Antigone.

Next comes the doing of the deed.

It is better to act in ignorance and discover afterwards. Our feelings are not outraged and the discovery is startling.

Best of all is the last; in the Cresphontes,⁶ for instance, Merope intends to kill her son and does not kill him but discovers; and in the Iphigeneia⁷ the case of the sister and brother; and in the Helle⁸ the son discovers just as he is on the point of giving up his mother.

So this is the reason, as was said above,⁹ why tragedies are about a few families. For in their experiments it was from no technical knowledge but purely by chance that they found out how to produce such an effect in their stories. So they are obliged to have recourse to those families in which such calamities befell.¹⁰

Now concerning the structure of the incidents and the proper character of the plots enough has been said.

Arabic Poetics (Badawī edition, 1953) (OCR draft) (The ancient Arabic translation of Aristotle's Poetics in ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Badawī's 1953 edition.) — 14 focus

〈الخوف والإشفاق؛ تصادق الشخصيات؛ التزام عمود الشعر〉

فأما كون الذى للخوف والحزن فانما يحصل من البصر، وقد يوجد شىء ما من قوام الأمور ما هو منذ قديم الدهر وهو لشاعر حاذق. وقد ينبغى أن تقوم الخرافة على هذا النحو من غير إبصار حتى يكون السامع للأمور يفزع وينتهى ويناله حزن عندما يسمع خرافة أوريفيدس من النوائب التى ينفعل بها الإنسان، وإن كان ذلك الشاعر إنما أصلح هذا بالبصر، وعلى أنه بلا صناعة وما هو محتاج إلى مادة.

ومنهم من يعد بالبصر لا التى هى للخوف، لكن التى هى للتعجب فقط، من حيث لا يشاركون صناعة المديح بشىء من الأشياء، وذلك أنه ليس ينبغى أن يطلب من صناعة المديح كل لذة، لكن التناسب. فأما فى تلك التى يعدها الشاعر بالمحاكاة التى تكون بسبب اللذة من غير حزن وخوف فهو معلوم؛ فاذن هذه الخلة ينبغى أن يفعلها فى الأمر...

وهى أن نأخذ أيما هى الأشياء غير الصعبة من النوائب التى تنوب، وأيما هى التى يرى أنها يسيرة.

وذلك أنه قد يجب ضرورةً أن تكون مثل هذه الأفعال الإرادية إما للأصدقاء بعضهم إلى بعض، وأما للأعداء، وإما لا لهؤلاء ولا لهؤلاء. فان كان إنما يكون العدو يعادى عدوه، فليس شىء فى هذه الحال مما يخزن، لا عندما يفعل ولا عندما يكون مزمعاً على أن يفعل. غير أن فى التأثير نفسه والألم لا يكون حالهم أيضاً ولا على أن كانت حالهم حال الاختلاف. وأما متى اختار التأثيرات والآلام فى المحبات والمحبين، بمنزلة إما أن يكون أخ يقتل الأخ، أو ابن للأب، أو أم لابنها، أو ابن لأمه، أو كان مزمعاً أن يفعل شيئاً آخر من مثل هذه، فقد يحتاج فى مثل ذلك إلى هذه الخلة، وهو أن تكون الخرافات التى قد أخذت على هذه لا تحل ولا تبطل، وأعنى بذلك مثل أنه ليس لأحد يبطل من أمر المرأة المعروفة بأقلوطيمسطر أنه لم تنلها المنية من أورسسطس، ولا للمعروفة بأريفيلى من ألقيماون، وأما هو فقد يجد[ه] أيضاً الأشياء التى أفيدت أنها قد استعملت على جهة جيدة. ولنخبر معنى قولنا إنا نقول قولاً على جهة الجودة إخباراً أوضح وأشرح.

فالفعل الإرادى تكون حاله هذه الحال، كما كانوا القدماء يفعلون ويعلمون المعروفين، كما فعل أوريفيدس عند قتل المرأة المسماة ميديا بنيها. وأما معنى ألا يفعل بالإرادة عندما يعرفون وأن يفعلوا من حيث لا يعرفون، ثم يعرفون المحبة والصادقة خيراً فهو حال رديئة، وهذا كحال سوفقلس وأوديفس. فهذه هى خارجة عن القينة نفسها، وأما ما هو فى المديح فبمنزلة القاماون واسطودامنطس، أو حيث يقول على نحو الضربة لأودوسيس.

وأيضاً التى هى ثالثة نحو هذه؛ فهى أمر ذلك الذى كان مزمعاً أن يفعل شيئاً من هذه التى لا برء لها، فانه يدل قبل أن يفعل بسبب فقد الدربة والمعرفة ولأشياء خارجاً عن هذه تجرى على جهة أخرى. وذلك أنه قد يجب ضرورةً إما أن يفعل، وإما ألا يفعل. وإذا فعل فاما أن يفعل وهو عارف، وإما أن يفعل وهو غير عارف، بل مزمع بأن يعرف.

وأيضاً أما للذين يعرفون، وأما للذين لا يعرفون. فمن كان من هؤلاء لا يعرف وهو يعى ولا يفعل فهو أرذل، وذلك أن نشيده حينئذ هو بشع كريهً، وليس هو داخلا فى باب المدح، من قبل أنه قد كان اعتبر. ولذلك ليس إنسان أن يفعل على جهة التشابه إلا أقل ذاك، بمنزلة ما «بأنطيغونى» 〈من موقف هايمون بازاء قريون〉. وأما معنى أن يفعل بالارادة فهو الثانى: والخير لمن هو غير عارف بأن يفعل أن يكون إذا فعل أن يتعرف، وذلك أن الكراهة حينئذ والبشاعة لا يدانيانه؛ وأما الاستدلال والتعرف فهو أعجب وأجود.

وما 〈هو〉 أصلح وأجود 〈هو〉 ما يروى، أعنى ما كان فى الموضع المسمى «كرسفنطس» من المرأة المسماة ميروفا، فيما كانت مستعدة لقتل أحد بنيها، إلا أنها لم تقتله، لكن تعرفت فى الموضع المعروف «بايفيغانيا» 〈أنها〉 أخت لأخيها؛ وتعرف، فى الموضع المسمى «ايلى»، الابن أمه، وتعرفها عندما كان يريد إنشاداً ورواية.

فلهذا السبب عندما تفوهت وتكلم بها، أعنى بالمدائح، منذ قديم الدهر ليست عند أجناس كثيرة ويباحث عنها، لا من الصناعة، لكن من أى حال كانت مما وجدوا وأعدوها بالخرافات، فقد يضطرون أن ينقلوا هذه فى مثل هذه التأثيرات والآلام التى تعرض لها بحسب الخواص.

وأما فى قوام الأمور، وكيف ينبغى أن يكون الذين يركبون الخرافات، فقد قيل قولا كافياً.

Poetics (S. H. Butcher, 1911) (OCR draft) Experimental (S. H. Butcher's English translation from Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, fourth edition, 1911.) — 14 focus

Fear and pity may be aroused by spectacular means;
but they may also result from the inner structure of the
piece, which is the better way, and indicates a superior
poet.

For the plot ought to be so constructed that, even without
the aid of the eye, he who hears the tale told will thrill
with horror and melt to pity at what takes place.
This is the impression we should receive from hearing
the story of the Oedipus.

But to produce this effect by the mere spectacle is a
less artistic method, and dependent on extraneous aids.

Those who employ spectacular means to create a sense
not of the terrible but only of the monstrous, are strangers
to the purpose of Tragedy;
for we must not demand of Tragedy any and every kind
of pleasure, but only that which is proper to it.

And since the pleasure which the poet should afford is
that which comes from pity and fear through imitation,
it is evident that this quality must be impressed upon the
incidents.

Let us then determine what are the circumstances which
strike us as terrible or pitiful.

Actions capable of this effect must happen between
persons who are either friends or enemies or indifferent
to one another.
If an enemy kills an enemy, there is nothing to excite
pity either in the act or the intention,—except so far as
the suffering in itself is pitiful.

So again with indifferent persons.

But when the tragic incident occurs between those who
are near or dear to one another—if, for example, a brother
kills, or intends to kill, a brother, a son his father, a mother
her son, a son his mother, or any other deed of the kind
is done—these are the situations to be looked for by the
poet.

He may not indeed destroy the framework of the received
legends—the fact, for instance, that Clytemnestra was slain
by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alcmaeon—

but he ought to show invention of his own, and skilfully
handle the traditional material.
Let us explain more clearly what is meant by skilful handling.

The action may be done consciously and with knowledge
of the persons, in the manner of the older poets.
It is thus too that Euripides makes Medea slay her children.

Or, again, the deed of horror may be done, but done in
ignorance, and the tie of kinship or friendship be discovered
afterwards.
The Oedipus of Sophocles is an example. Here, indeed, the
incident is outside the drama proper; but cases occur where
it falls within the action of the play: one may cite the
Alcmaeon of Astydamas, or Telegonus in the Wounded Odysseus.

Again, there is a third case,—
knowledge of the persons and then not to act. The fourth
case is> when some one is about to do an irreparable deed
through ignorance, and makes the discovery before it is done.

These are the only possible ways. For the deed must
either be done or not done, and that wittingly or unwittingly.

But of all these ways, to be about to act knowing the
persons, and then not to act, is the worst.
It is shocking without being tragic, for no disaster follows.

It is, therefore, never, or very rarely, found in poetry.
One instance, however, is in the Antigone, where Haemon
threatens to kill Creon.
The next and better way is that the deed should be perpetrated.

Still better, that it should be perpetrated in ignorance,
and the discovery made afterwards.
There is then nothing to shock us, while the discovery
produces a startling effect.

The last case is the best, as when in the Cresphontes
Merope is about to slay her son, but, recognising who he is,
spares his life.
So in the Iphigenia, the sister recognises the brother just
in time.
Again in the Helle, the son recognises the mother when on
the point of giving her up.

This, then, is why a few families only, as has been already
observed, furnish the subjects of tragedy.
It was not art, but happy chance, that led the poets in
search of subjects to impress the tragic quality upon their
plots.
They are compelled, therefore, to have recourse to those
houses whose history contains moving incidents like these.

Enough has now been said concerning the structure of
the incidents, and the right kind of plot.

Aristotle on the Art of Poetry (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 14 focus

The tragic fear and pity may be aroused by the Spectacle;
but they may also be aroused by the very structure and
incidents of the play—which is the better way and shows
the better poet.

The Plot in fact should be so framed
that, even without seeing the things take place, he who
simply hears the account of them shall be filled with horror
and pity at the incidents; which is just the effect that the
mere recital of the story in Oedipus would have on one.

To produce this same effect by means of the Spectacle is
less artistic, and requires extraneous aid.

Those, however,
who make use of the Spectacle to put before us that
which is merely monstrous and not productive of fear, are
wholly out of touch with Tragedy; not every kind of
pleasure should be required of a tragedy, but only its own
proper pleasure.

The tragic pleasure is that of pity and
fear, and the poet has to produce it by a work of imitation;
it is clear, therefore, that the causes should be included in
the incidents of his story.

Let us see, then, what kinds of
incident strike one as horrible, or rather as piteous.
In a
deed of this description the parties must necessarily be either
friends, or enemies, or indifferent to one another.

Now when
enemy does it on enemy, there is nothing to move us to
pity either in his doing or in his meditating the deed, except
so far as the actual pain of the sufferer is concerned;

and
the same is true when the parties are indifferent to one
another.

Whenever the tragic deed, however, is done within
the family—when murder or the like is done or meditated
by brother on brother, by son on father, by mother on son,
or son on mother—these are the situations the poet should
seek after.

The traditional stories, accordingly, must be
kept as they are, e.g. the murder of Clytaemnestra by
Orestes and of Eriphyle by Alcmeon.

At the same time
even with these there is something left to the poet himself;
it is for him to devise the right way of treating them.
Let
us explain more clearly what we mean by 'the right way.'

The deed of horror may be done by the doer knowingly
and consciously, as in the old poets, and in Medea's murder
of her children in Euripides.

Or he may do it, but in
ignorance of his relationship, and discover that afterwards,
as does the Oedipus in Sophocles. Here the deed is outside
the play; but it may be within it, like the act of the Alcmeon
in Astydamas, or that of the Telegonus in Ulysses Wounded.

A third possibility is for one meditating some deadly
injury to another, in ignorance of his relationship, to make
the discovery in time to draw back.

These exhaust the
possibilities, since the deed must necessarily be either done
or not done, and either knowingly or unknowingly.

The worst situation is when the personage is with full
knowledge on the point of doing the deed, and leaves it
undone. It is odious and also (through the absence of
suffering) untragic;
hence it is that no one is made to
act thus except in some few instances, e. g. Haemon and
Creon in Antigone.

Next after this comes the actual per-
petration of the deed meditated.

A better situation than
that, however, is for the deed to be done in ignorance,
and the relationship discovered afterwards, since there is
nothing odious in it, and the Discovery will serve to
astound us.

But the best of all is the last; what we have
in Cresphontes, for example, where Merope, on the point
of slaying her son, recognizes him in time; in Iphigenia,
where sister and brother are in a like position; and in
Helle, where the son recognizes his mother, when on the
point of giving her up to her enemy.

This will explain why
our tragedies are restricted (as we said just now) to such
a small number of families. It was accident rather than art
that led the poets in quest of subjects to embody this kind
of incident in their Plots. They are still obliged, accordingly,
to have recourse to the families in which such horrors have
occurred.

On the construction of the Plot, and the kind of Plot
required for Tragedy, enough has now been said.

The Poetic of Aristotle (Henry James Pye, revised 1792) (OCR draft) Experimental (Henry James Pye's revised 1792 English translation, corrected against the 1788 first edition, aligned to the Kassel reference edition, and supplied with a selective apparatus of substantive 1788 readings.) — 14.20 focus

but accident, that the poets learned to form their fables on such incidents and they were obliged to have recourse to those families in which misfortunes of that nature had happened. And this is sufficient concerning the combination of the incidents

The Poetic of Aristotle (Theodore Alois Buckley) (OCR draft) Experimental (Theodore Alois Buckley's English translation, first published in 1850 and represented from the Henry G. Bohn 1857 printing; corrected against a second OCR and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 14.20 focus

but from fortune 8. They ¹ were compelled, therefore, to direct their attention to those families in which calamities of this kind happened.

[1] And thus we have spoken sufficiently concerning the combination of the incidents,

Poetica Latine conversa (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's Latin translation, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 14 focus

Ac potest quod timendum et miserandum ex adspectu nasci, potest etiam ex ipsa compositione factorum, quod est potius et poetae melioris.

oportet enim etiam sine spectatione ita constitutam esse fabulam, ut qui audiat quae agantur fiantque et inhorrescat et misereatur propter ea quae contingunt; id quod acciderit audienti Oedipi fabulam.

spectatione autem hoc parare et ab arte magis alienum et choregia indiget.

qui vero ne quod timendum quidem per spectationem sed nonnisi quod portentosum comparant, nihil cum tragoedia negotii habent: non enim convenit quamcumque voluptatem exigere a tragoedia, sed quae sit propria.

quoniam autem ex miseratione et timore vuluptatem per imitationem debet comparare poeta, hoc factis inserendum esse manifestum est, quae igitur timenda quaeve miseranda sint ex iis quae accidunt, dispiciamus.

necesse autem est aut amicorum inter sese esse tales actiones aut inimicorum aut neutrorum.

quod si inimicus inimicum occidat, nihil quod miserandum neque dum facit neque dum facturus est exhibet, nisi quod ad ipsam perpessionem attinet;

neque qui neutro modo sese habent.

verum cum in amicitiis atrocia acciderint, veluti si frater fratrem vel filius patrem vel mater filium vel filius matrem occidat vel in eo est ut occidat vel aliud huiuscemodi committat, haec consectanda sunt.

ac quas accepimus fabulas, solvere eas non licet, veluti Clytemnestram peremptam ab Oreste et Eriphylam ab Alcmaeone:

ipsum vero invenire decet, et traditis recte uti. sed illud recte quid intelligamus, clarius dicamus..

potest enim sic fieri actio ut veteres instituebant, a scientibus et intelligentibus, quemadmodum etiam Euripides fecit occidentem liberos Medeam:

possunt porro admisisse, sed nescientes sese admisisse quod horrendum, et postea agnoscere cognationem, ut Sophoclis Oedipus. hoc quidem extra fabulam, in ipsa autem tragoedia, ut Alcmaeo Astydamantis vel Telegonus qui in vulnerato Ulixe.

praeter haec tertium etiam, ut qui facturus est per ignorantiam aliquid inexpiabile agnoscat ante facinus perpatratum.

ac praeter haec haud licet aliter: aut enim oportet facere aut non, et scientes aut non scientes.

ex his vero scientem facturum esse et non facere pessimum: habet enim quod foedum, tragicum non habet: quippe atroci malo caret. [quare nemo similiter agit, nisi raro,

ut in Antigona in Creontem Haemo.] perpatrare secundum est.

melius autem nescientem patrare et post facinus agnoscere: abest enim foedum, et agnitio ad percellendum facit.

optimum vero postremum; hoc dico, ut in Cresphonte Meropa in eo est ut occidat filium, non autem occidit sed agnovit, et in Iphigenia soror fratrem, et in Hella filius dum matrem tradere intendit agnovit.

nam propter hanc causam, quod pridem dictum, non circa multas gentes tragoediae versantur. dispicientes enim non arte sed casu tale quid in fabulis instituere didicerunt: coguntur igitur ad has familias animum appellere, quibus eiusmodi calamitates acciderunt.

iam de factorum compositione, et quales esse fabulas deceat, satis dictum est.

La poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) Experimental (André Dacier's French translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1692.) — 14.20 focus

La raiſon de cela eſt que les premiers Poëtes en cherchant des ſujets, ne les ont pas tirez de leur art, mais les ont empruntez de la fortune, dont ils ont ſuivi les caprices dans leurs imitations. Voilà pourquoi les Poëtes d'aujourd'huy ſont forcez d'avoir recours à ces mêmes Familles dans leſquelles la fortune a permis que tous ces grands malheurs ſoient arrivez.

11.

Poetica d'Aristotile (Bernardo Segni, 1549) (OCR draft) Experimental (Bernardo Segni's 1549 Florentine Italian translation, aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 14 focus

VO adúche il Terribile, & il Cópaſsioneuole Puerfi mediante la viſta, & puofsi muomuouere mediante la compoſitione d'effe faccende; & queſto modo va innanzi, & è da miglior Poeta.¹

Perchè egli è di necefsità, che la Fauola ſia in tal modo cópoſta, che chi ode i caſi ſucceſsí ſenza altrimenti vedergli, ſi ſpauenti, & n'habbia mifericordia;i quali due affetti accaggiono à chi ode il cafo d'Edippo.

Che inuero il mouergli per -uia della viſta manca d'artificio, & ha biſogno di ſpeſa.

Et quegli, che nó muouono ſpauéto per uia dello aſpet to, ma che ſolamente vanno preparando coſe prodigio ſe, non hanno con la Tragedia à far nulla; cóciofia che da lei non ſi debba ricercare di qual ſi voglia maniera piacere:ma quello, che è ſuo propio.

Et perchè il Poeta debbe ire preparando quello, che per via della imita tione naſce dal timor & dalla mifericordia;però è mani feſto, che questo coſi fatto ſi debbe fingere in effe Fauo de.

Ma prédiamo à dire quali fieno i caſi, ch'appariſcono ſpauentofi, & qualı fien' quegli, che appariſcono compafsioneuoli. E' cominciado, di neceſsità che l'attions, che s'appartengono alla Tragedia, vi interuenghino ò infra amici l'ano con l'altrojò infra i nimici, ò infra que iii gli, che non habbino nè l'una nè l'altra qualità.

Se adun che il nimico vi amazza l'altro nimico, vn ſimil caſo ne muoue à mifericordia, ne la può muouere;

infuori che con la confideratione d'eſſa crudeltà.

Queſto ſimil auuerrà, doue tali caſi interuenghino infra quegli, che non ſieno nè nell'uno, nè nell'altro modo diſpoſti. Ma quando i fatti crudeli interuerranno infra gli amici, co me è doue l'un fratello dall'altro, il padre dal figliuolo, & il figliuolo dalla madre ſia, ò debba eſſere ammazzato;ò patiſca,ò debba patire alcun' danno. Queſti, dico, ſono li caſi, che nella Tragedia ſi debbon' mettere.

Ma e' non è già lecito di tramutare le Fauole, che ſono ſtate gia riceuute, come è Clitemneſtra ammazzata da Orefte, & Erifile da Algmeone; anzi al Poeta ſta bene trouar' da ſe delle inuentioni: & le già riceuute vſar rettamente.

Quello che io intenda per Réttamente, dirò io con piu chiarezza. E' ſi può, dico, fare che e'ſegua vna coſa (& ciò fu dagli antichi Poeti offeruato) come ſeguita da chi ſappia, & da chi conoſca quello, che egli ha fatto.

Nel qual modo è da Euripide introdotta Medea, che ammazza i figliuoli. Puoſsi anchora fare, che e' fr commetta vna crudeltà da chi non ſappia quello, che e' fi fa,& che tale l'operi ; & doppo il fatto riconoſca l'amicitia: ſicome è l'Edippo di Sofocle.

Ma queſto caſo è fuori della Tragedia. Et nella Tragedia ſteſſa è come l'Algmeone d'Aſtidamante, & come è Telegono nella Tragedia chiamata Vliſſe ferito. Ecci anchora vn terzo modo da poter' mettere queſte coſe in atto, cioè che vno voglia ben cometterle, nonſappiendole; & innanzi che e' l'habbia commeſſe, ricanoſca contro à chi e' voleua farle:

nè altro modo ci è, fuori de' conti. Conciofia che egli è di neceſsità, che e' ſegua,ò non ſegua un ſimil caſo.

Et queſto medefimo dinuouo è di neceſsità che ſia fatto, ò da chi lo ſappia, ò da chi non lo fappia.

De' quali caſi quello è cattiuiffimo, che ſi tenta da chi fa quello, che e' fa, & non fi manda ad effetto; perchè e' u'è dentro la ſceleterezza, & non v'è dentro il tragico: concioſia che e' non muo ua gli affetti.

Onde neſſun' Poeta l'introduce in ſimil modo, ſenon rade uolte;

ſicome nello Antigone fece Emone di Creonte. Et nel ſecódo luogo di cattiuità fi mette quel caſo, che commette la ſceleratezza, & fa di commetterla.

Ma egli è molto meglio, che ella ſia commeſſa da chi non ſa quello, che e' fi faccia; & che doppo il fatto e' la riconoſca: perchè tal caſo manca di ſceleraggine; & la ricognitione, che vi è détro, muoue grandemente gli affetti. L'ultimo caſo ha l'intero artifitio, come è, dico, nella Tragedia detta Clesfonte; doue Merope douédo ammazzare il figliuolo, non l'ammazza, ma lo riconoſce: & nella Ifigenia la forella il fratello: & in Helle il figliuolo douendo mandar via la madre, la riconoſce.

Diqui naſce (fi come io ho detto diſopra) che le buone Tragedie ſi fanno intorno à poche famiglie, perchè i Poeti ricercando l'inuentione non dall'arte, ma accattandola dalla fortuna, hanno per queſta via intrecciato le Fauole; onde fono eglino Aati conſtretti à dar di cozzo nelle famiglie medeſime; in tutte quelle, dico, doue fimili coſe interuennono.

Sia detto adunche infin' qui à baſtanza quanto alla conftitutione della Fauola; & di che forte, & in che modo ella dabba ſtare.

De poetica (Antonio Riccobono, 1587) (OCR draft) Experimental (Antonio Riccobono's Latin translation, first published in 1587; text represented from Immanuel Bekker's 1831 edition.) — 14 focus

Ac licet quidem terribile et miserabile ex apparatu fieri, licet vero etiam ex ipsa constitutione; id quod prius est et poëtae melioris.

oportet enim etiam sine visu fabulam sic constitutam esse, nt ut audiens res quae fiunt, et horreat et misereatur ex iis quae contingunt.

in quas perturbationes cadet ille qui Oedipodis fabulam audiat.

efficere autem hoc per apparatum est magis artificii expers, et sumptus requirit. atque qui non solum terribile per apparatum sed monstruosum efficiunt, nihil commune habent cum tra- goedia tragoedia: non enim omnem a tragoedia oportet voluptatem quaerere, sed propriam.

quoniam vero ex misericordia et metu per imitationem poëtam efficere oportet voluptatem, id in rebus efficiendum esse manifestum est.

qualia igitur atrocia aut qualia miserabilia appareant, ex iis assumamus quae contingunt. necesse autem est aut amicorum esse inter se tales actiones, aut inimicorum, aut neutrorum.

quodsi inimicus inimicum occiderit, nihil miserabile, neque dum facit neque dum facturus est, monstrat,

praeterquam in illa ipsa perturbatione.

neque qui se neutro modo habent. quando autem in amicitiis sunt perturbationes, ut si frater fratrem aut filius patrem aut mater filium aut filius matrem occiderit aut occisurus fuerit ant aut tale aliquid aliud faciat, haec quaerere oportet.

ac receptas quidem fabulas solvere non licet: dico autem ut Clytaemnestram occisam ab Oreste et Eriphylen ab Alcmaeone. ipsum vero invenire ac traditis recte uti oportet.

idque quod dicimus se recte habere, apertius exponamus. licet enim sic actionem fieri ut antiqui faciebant,

ut eam praestarent scientes et cognoscentes, quemadmodum occidentem filium Medeam Euripides fecit. at licet agere ita ut ignorantes rem agant atrocem,

postea vero amicitiam agno- scant agnoscant, ut Sophoclis Oedipus. atque hoc quidem extra actionem. in ipsa vero tragoedia, ut Alcmaeon Astydamantis vel Telegonus in vulnerato Ulysse.

praeterea tertium est, cum quis aliquid laevi propter ignorantiam facturus erat et priusquam faceret agnovit.

et praeter haec aliter non licet: aut enim facere necesse est aut non,

et scientes aut non scientes. horum autem pessimum est, cum quis facturus fuit et non fecit: sceleratum enim habet et non tragicum, nam sine affectu est.

quare nemo facit similiter nisi raro,

ut in An- tigona Antigona Creontem Haemon: nam fecisse secundum est. ac melius est ignorantem quidem fecisse, cum autem fecerit, agnovisse: sceleratum enim non adest,

agnitio stuporem gignit. optimum vero est postremum. dico autem ut in Cresphonte Merope interfectura quidem filium erat, sed cum agnovisset, non interfecit. et in Iphigenia soror fratrem. et in Helle filius matrem dediturus agnovit.

quapropter quod pridem dictum est, non circa multas sunt tragoe- diae tragoediae familias: quaerentes enim non ab arte sed a fortuna huiusmodi fabulae confectionem invenerunt; itaque ad has domos coguntur occurrere, quibuscunque tales contigerunt perturbationes.

ac de rerum constitutione, et quales fabulas esse oporteat, satis dictum est.

De arte poetica liber (William of Moerbeke, ca. 1277) (OCR draft) Experimental (William of Moerbeke's medieval Latin translation, represented by the 1953 Aristoteles Latinus edition.) — 14 focus

Est quidem igitur quod terribile et miserabile ex visu fieri, est autem et ex ipsa consistentia rerum, quod quidem est prius et poete melioris.

Oportet enim et sine videre sic consistere fabulam, ut audiens res gestas et terreatur et misereatur ex accidentibus ; que quidem utique patietur aliquis audiens Oidipi fabulam.

Per visum autem hoc preparare inartificialius et successu indigens est. —

Qui autem non terribile per visum sed monstruosum solum preparant, nichil tragodia communicant ; non enim omnem oportet querere delectationem a tragodia, sed convenientem. —

Quoniam autem eam que a miseratione et terrore per imitationem oportet delectationem preparare poetam, manifestum quod hoc in rebus faciendum.

Qualia igitur dira aut qualia miserabilia videntur evenientium, sumamus. — Necesse autem aut amicorum esse ad invicem tales actiones aut inimicorum aut neutrorum.

Si quidem igitur inimicus inimicum, nichil miserabile neque faciens neque facturus, preter quam secundum ipsam passionem ;

neque si neutro modo habentes;

quando autem in amicitiis ingeruntur passiones, puta aut frater fratrem aut filius patrem aut mater filium aut filius matrem occidit aut occidet aut aliquid aliud tale agit, hec querendum. —

Assumptas quidem igitur fabulas solvere non est, dico autem puta Klytemnistram morientem ab Oreste et Erifylem ab Alkmeone. —

Ipsam autem invenire oportet et traditis uti bene. Bene autem quid dicimus, dicamus planius. —

Est quidem enim sic fieri actionem, sicut antiqui poetizabant scientes et cognoscentes, sicut et Euripedes poetizavit interficere Medeam.

Est autem agere quidem ignorantes, ignorantes autem agere quod dirum, deinde posterius recognoscere amicitiam, sicut qui Sophocleis Oidipes ; extra quidem igitur hoc opus, aut quia dicentis qui in Tramatia Odyssei.

Est autem tertium preter hec futurum facere aliquid indecentium propter ignorantiam recognoscere ante agere.

Et preter hec non est aliter ' aut enim agere necesse aut non, et scientes aut non scientes.

Horum autem cognoscentem quidem futurum agere et non agere pessimum ; tunc enim odibile habet, et non tragicum ; inpassionale enim. Propter quod quidem nullus facit similiter nisi raro, puta in Antigone Kreontem Aimon.

Agere autem secundum.

Melius autem ignorantem quidem agere, postquam egit recognoscere. Tunc enim odibile non adest; et recognitio stupefactivum.

Optimum autem quod ultimum ; dico autem quale in Kresfonte Merope debebat filium interficere, interfecit autem non, sed recognovit, et in Ifigeneia soror fratrem, et in Elle filius matrem tradere debens recognovit. —

Propter hoc enim, quod quidem olim dictum est, non circa multa genera tragodie sunt. Querentes enim non ab arte sed a fortuna, invenerunt quod tale preparare in fabulis. Coguntur igitur ad has convenientes occurrere, quibuscumque tales acciderunt passiones.

De rerum quidem igitur consistentia et quales quasdam oportet esse fabulas, dictum est sufficienter.

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition) (OCR draft) Experimental (The Arabic translation attributed to Abū Bishr Mattā, edited by Jaroslaus Tkatsch in 1928 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 14 focus

‏فاما كون الذى للخوف والحزن فانما يحصل من البصر وقد يوجد شى ما من قوام الامور ما هو منذ قديم الدهر وهو لشاعر حاذق

‏وقد ينبغى ان تقوم الخرافة على هذا النحو من غير ابصار حتى يكون السامع للامور يفزع وٮٮٮهى ويناله حزن عند ما يسمع خرافة اوريڡٮدس من النوايب التى ينفعل بها الانسان

‏وان كان ذلك الشاعر انما اصلح هذا بالبصر وعلى انه بلا صناعة وما هو محتاج الى ماده

‏ومنهم من يعد بالبصر لا التى هى الخوف لكن التى هى للتعجب فقط من حيث لا يشاركون صناعة المديح بشى من الاشيا وذلك انه ليس ينبغى ان يطلب من صناعة المديح كل لذة لكن الٮٮاسٮ

‏فاما فى تلك التى يعدها الشاعر بالمحاكاة التى تكون بسبب اللذة من غير حزن وخوف فهو معلوم قادر هذه الخلة ينبغى ان يفعلها فى الامر

‏وهى ان ناخذ ايما هى الاشيا غير الصعبة من النوايب التى تنوب وايما هى التى ترى انها يسيرة وذلك انه قد يجب ضرورة ان يكون مثل هذه الافعال الارادية اما للاصدقا بعضهم الى بعض واما للاعدا واما لا لهولا ولا لهولا

‏فان كان انما يكون العدو يعادى عدوه فليس شى فى هذه الحال مما يحزن لا عند ما يفعل ولا عند ما يكون مزمعا على ان يفعل غير ان فى التاثير نفسه

‏والالم لا يكون حالهم ايضا ولا على ان كانت حالهم ايضا حال الاختلاف

‏واما متى احتار التاثيرات والالام فى المحبات [والمحبين] بمنزلة اما ان يكون اخ يقتل الاخ وابن للاٮا وام لابنها او ابن لامه او كان مزمعا ان يفعل شيا اخر من مثل هذه فقد يحتاج فى مثل ذلك الى هذه الخلة

‏وهو ان يكون الخرافات التى قد اخذت على هذه لا تحل وتبطل واعنى بذلك مثل انه ليس لاحد يبطل من امر المراة المعروفة باقلوطميسطر انه لم ينلها الميتة من اورسطس ولا للمعروفة بااريفيلى من القيماون

‏واما هو فقد يجده ايضا الاشيا التى افيدت انها قد استعملت على جهة جيدة ولتخبر معنى قولنا انا نقول قولا على جهة الجودة اخبارا اوضح واشرح

‏فالفعل الارادى يكون حاله هذه الحال كما كانوا القدما يفعلون ويعلمون المعروفين كما فعل اوريفيدس عند قتل المراة المسماة ميديا بنيها

‏واما معنى الا يفعل بالارادة عند ما يعرفون وان يفعلوا من حيث لا يعرفون ثم يعرفون المحبة والصادقة خيرا فهو حال ردية وهذا كحال سوقفلس واوديفس فهذه هى خارجة عن القينة نفسها واما ما هو فى المديح فبمنزلة القاماون واسطودامنطس او حٮٮ ٮقول على نحو الضربة لاودوسيس

‏وايضا التى هى ثالثة نحو هذه فهى امر ذلك الذى كان مزمعا ان يفعل شيا من هذه التى لا برو لها فانه يدل قبل ان يفعل بسبب فقد الدرية والمعرفة

‏ولا شيا خارجا عن هذه يجرى على جهة اخرى وذلك انه قد يجب ضرورة اما ان يفعل واما الا يفعل [واذا فعل فاما ان يفعل وهو عارف واما ان يفعل وهو غير عارف بل مزمع بان يعرف] وايضا اما للذين يعرفون واما للذين لا يعرفون

‏فمن كان من هولا يعرف وهو ٮعى ولا يفعل فهو ارذل وذلك ان نشيده حينيذ هو شنع كريه وليس هو داخلا فى باب المدح من قبل انه قد كان اعتبر ولذلك ليس انسان ان يفعل على جهة التشابه الا اقل ذاك بمنزلة ما ٮاٮ طىعوٮى لقريو يمن

‏واما معنى ان يفعل بالارادة هو الثانى

‏والخير لمن هو غير عارف بان يفعل ان يكون اذا فعل ان يتعرف وذلك ان الكراهة حينيذ والشناعة لا يدانيانه واما الاستدلال والتعرف فهو اعجب [واجود]

‏وما اصلح واجود ما يروى اعنى ما كان فى الموضع المسمى اسڡٮلوٯٮطس من المراة المسمى ميروا فيما كانت مستعدة لقتل احد بنيها الا انها لم تقتله لكن تعرفت فى الموضع المعروف ٮااٮٮعاٮٮا اخت لاخيها وتعرف فى الموضع المسما ايلى الابن امه وتعرفها عند ما كان يريد انشادا ورواية

‏فلهذا السبب عند ما تفوهت وتكلم بها اعنى بالمدايح منذ قديم الدهر ليست عند اجناس كثيرة ويباحث عنها لا من الصناعة لكن من اى حال كانت من ما وجدوا واعدوها بالخرافات فقد يضطرون ان ٮٮٯلوا هذه فى مثل هذه التاثيرات والالام التى تعرض لها بحسب الخواص

‏واما فى قوام الامور وكيف ينبغى ان يكون الذين يركبون الخرافات فقد قيل قولا كافيا

Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition, unaligned) (OCR draft) Experimental (Tkatsch's edition of the medieval Arabic translation in its original, unaligned segmentation.) — 14 focus

‏وقد ينبغى ان تقوم الخرافة على هذا النحو من غير ابصار حتى يكون السامع للامور يفزع وٮٮٮهى ويناله حزن عند ما يسمع خرافة اوريڡٮدس

‏من النوايب التى ينفعل بها الانسان وان كان ذلك الشاعر انما اصلح هذا بالبصر وعلى انه بلا صناعة وما هو محتاج الى ماده

‏وهى ان ناخذ ايما هى الاشيا غير الصعبة من النوايب التى تنوب وايما هى التى ترى انها يسيرة

‏وذلك انه قد يجب ضرورة ان يكون مثل هذه الافعال الارادية اما للاصدقا بعضهم الى بعض واما للاعدا واما لا لهولا ولا لهولا

‏فان كان انما يكون العدو يعادى عدوه فليس شى فى هذه الحال مما يحزن لا عند ما يفعل ولا عند ما يكون مزمعا على ان يفعل غير ان فى التاثير نفسه والالم لا يكون حالهم ايضا ولا على ان كانت حالهم ايضا حال الاختلاف

‏ولتخبر معنى قولنا انا نقول قولا على جهة الجودة اخبارا اوضح واشرح

‏فالفعل الارادى يكون حاله هذه الحال كما كانوا القدما يفعلون ويعلمون المعروفين كما فعل اوريفيدس عند قتل المراة المسماة ميديا بنيها واما معنى الا يفعل بالارادة عند ما يعرفون وان يفعلوا من حيث لا يعرفون ثم يعرفون المحبة والصادقة خيرا فهو حال ردية وهذا كحال سوقفلس واوديفس

‏فهذه هى خارجة عن القينة نفسها واما ما هو فى المديح فبمنزلة القاماون واسطودامنطس او حٮٮ ٮقول على نحو الضربة لاودوسيس

‏فمن كان من هولا يعرف وهو ٮعى ولا يفعل فهو ارذل وذلك ان نشيده حينيذ هو شنع كريه وليس هو داخلا فى باب المدح من قبل انه قد كان اعتبر

‏ولذلك ليس انسان ان يفعل على جهة التشابه الا اقل ذاك بمنزلة ما ٮاٮ طىعوٮى لقريو يمن

‏واما معنى ان يفعل بالارادة هو الثانى

‏فلهذا السبب عند ما تفوهت وتكلم بها اعنى بالمدايح منذ قديم الدهر ليست عند اجناس كثيرة

‏ويباحث عنها لا من الصناعة لكن من اى حال كانت من ما وجدوا واعدوها بالخرافات فقد يضطرون ان ٮٮٯلوا هذه فى مثل هذه التاثيرات والالام التى تعرض لها بحسب الخواص

‏واما فى قوام الامور وكيف ينبغى ان يكون الذين يركبون الخرافات فقد قيل قولا كافيا

Commentary

Remarques sur la poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) (André Dacier's French commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.) focus

16. mvp-aristotle-comment-348

14.14 Enfin on peut faire qu'une personne, qui par ignorance va commettre un tres grand crime, le reconnoît avant que de l'exe-cuter.]¹

Commentarius in Aristotelis Poeticam (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) (Ritter's Latin commentary, extracted from the 1839 volume, divided by Ritter's chapters and sections, and linked to the corresponding Perseus reference subsections.) focus

7. mvp-aristotle-comment-98

Ritter, cap. 14 § 7

καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλως: αρ praeter haec non licet aliter facere illum quem poeta in scenam tragicam produxit. statim quidem quattuor agendi modos enumerat, non tres, sed ex his quartum continuo ex tragoedia prorsus relegavit. διόπερ οὐδεὶς - ὁ Αἵμων: haec ab interpolatorė quodam inserta esse recte pronuntiavit Gruppius ¹) in Ariadna 1) Gruppius etiam voces ἀπαθὲς γάρ pro suppositiciis habet, sedp. 556., nisi quod vera argumenta falsis commiscuit. vere ille monuit hanc sententiam moleste inferri, neque esse quo commendetur, immo Sophoclem sine iusta causa vituperari; idemque recte observavit inepte dici οὐδεὶς ποιεῖ, εἰ μὴ ὀλιγάκις, articulumque ante Αντιγόνη omitti praeter consuetudinem Aristoteliam. fallitur cum in vitiosae dictionis indiciis numerat οἷος pro οἷον : οἷος enim nihil est nisi vitium editionis Bekkerianae maioris ab ipso editore in minore correctum; falsum est quod affirmavit, οὐδεὶς ποιεῖ de poeta dici et mire ad Haemonem continuo referri: immo ποιεῖ dictum est de persona a tragico poeta inducta, apteque statim de Haemone facinus in patrem commissuro dici potest. equidem addendum puto hoc, non modo Sophoclis Antigonam exstitisse, sed etiam Euripideam. verus igitur Aristoteles Sophoclis nomen non omisisset, si ipse, illum Antigonae locum ab interpolatore significatum (v. 1216-1219 ed. Herm.) pro exemplo attulisset, ut non omisit in Rhetoricis I, 13 init.. I, 15 init. III, 16. p. 1417 a 28 et b 19. III, 17. p. 1418 b 31. porro Aristoteles de eiusmodi facinoribus loquitur, unde totius tragoediae habitus et forma pendet: tale autem non est Haemonis. dignus esset Sophocles hac vituperatione, si Creon post multas minas nulla poena Antigonam affecisset. quae ad Sophoclem aut defendendum ab hac reprehensione aut incusandum a viris doctis in utramque partem disputata sunt, ea hoc quidem loco commemorare iam nihil attinet.

Aristotle Poetics 14.20

Thomas Twining (Translator)

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11.

Commentary

Ritter, cap. 14 § 7

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