Poetics. Aristote. Paris. 1692.
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Il eſt donc conſtant que le principal, & comme l'ame de la Tragedie, c'eſt le ſujet.
Current edition Experimental
La poëtique d'Aristote (André Dacier, 1692) (OCR draft) (fra) (André Dacier's French translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1692.)
Provisional text from uncorrected OCR; expect errors.
Editions (4)
Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) (Aristotle, Poetics. Immanuel Bekker, editor, Aristotelis Opera, volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1837.) — 6 focus
Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς ἐν ἑξαμέτροις μιμητικῆς καὶ περὶ κωμῳδίας ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν, περὶ δὲ τραγῳδίας λέγωμεν, ἀπολαβόντες αὐτῆς ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων τὸν γινόμενον ὅρον τῆς οὐσίας.
Ἔστιν οὖν τραγῳδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας καὶ τελείας, μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ, χωρὶς ἑκάστου τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι᾿ ἀπαγγελίας, δι᾿ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων παθημάτων κάθαρσιν.
Λέγω δὲ ἡδυσμένον μὲν λόγον τὸν ἔχοντα ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν καὶ μέλος,
τὸ δὲ χωρὶς τοῖς εἴδεσι τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα διὰ μέλους.
Ἐπεὶ δὲ πράττοντες ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν, πρῶτον μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἂν εἴη τι μόριον τραγῳδίας ὁ τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος, εἶτα μελοποιία καὶ λέξις· ἐν τούτοις γὰρ ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν.
Λέγω δὲ λέξιν μὲν αὐτὴν τὴν τῶν μέτρων σύνθεσιν, μελοποιίαν δὲ ὃ τὴν δύναμιν φανερὰν ἔχει πᾶσαν.
Ἐπεὶ δὲ πράξεώς ἐστι μίμησις, πράττεται δὲ ὑπό τινων πραττόντων, οὓς ἀνάγκη ποιούς τινας εἶναι κατά τε τὸ ἦθος καὶ τὴν διάνοιαν (διὰ γὰρ τούτων καὶ τὰς πράξεις εἶναί φαμεν ποιάς τινας,) πέφυκεν αἴτια δύο τῶν πράξεων εἶναι, διάνοια καὶ ἦθος, καὶ κατὰ ταύτας καὶ τυγχάνουσι καὶ ἀποτυγχάνουσι πάντες.
Ἔστι δὲ τῆς μὲν πράξεως ὁ μῦθος ἡ μίμησις· λέγω γὰρ μῦθον τοῦτον τὴν σύνθεσιν τῶν πραγμάτων, τὰ δὲ ἤθη, καθ᾿ ἃ ποιούς τινας εἶναί φαμεν τοὺς πράττοντας, διάνοιαν δέ, ἐν ὅσοις λέγοντες ἀποδεικνύασί τι ἣ καὶ ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην.
Ἀνάγκη οὖν πάσης τραγῳδίας μέρη εἶναι ἕξ, καθ᾿ἃ ποιά τις ἐστὶν ἡ τραγῳδία· ταῦτα δ᾿ ἐστὶ μῦθος καὶ ἤθη καὶ λέξις καὶ διάνοια καὶ ὄψις καὶ μελοποιία.
Οἷς μὲν γὰρ μιμοῦνται, δύο μέρη ἐστίν, ὡς δὲ μιμοῦνται, ἕν, ἃ δὲ μιμοῦνται, τρία, καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐδέν.
Τούτοις μὲν οὖν οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν ὡς εἰπεῖν κέχρηνται τοῖς εἴδεσιν· καὶ γὰρ ὄψεις ἔχει πᾶν καὶ ἦθος καὶ μῦθον καὶ λέξιν καὶ μέλος καὶ διάνοιαν ὡσαύτως.
Μέγιστον δὲ τούτων ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν πραγμάτων σύστασις· ἡ γὰρ τραγῳδία μίμησίς ἐστιν οὐκ ἀνθρώπων ἀλλὰ πράξεως καὶ βίου καὶ εὐδαιμονίας καὶ κακοδαιμονίας· καὶ γὰρ ἡ εὐδαιμονία ἐν πράξει ἐστί, καὶ τὸ τέλος πρᾶξίς τις ἐστίν, οὐ ποιότης. Εἰσὶ δὲ κατὰ μὲν τὰ ἤθη ποιοί τινες, κατὰ δὲ τὰς πράξεις εὐδαίμονες ἢ τοὐναντίον.
Οὔκουν ὅπως τὰ ἤθη μιμήσωνται πράττουσιν, ἀλλὰ τὰ ἤθη συμπεριλαμβάνουσι διὰ τὰς πράξεις. Ὥστε τὰ πράγματα καὶ ὁ μῦθος τέλος τῆς τραγῳδίας· τὸ δὲ τέλος μέγιστον ἁπάντων.
Ἔτι ἄνευ μὲν πράξεως οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο τραγῳδία, ἄνευ δὲ ἠθῶν γένοιτ᾿ ἄν.
Αἱ γὰρ τῶν νέων τῶν πλείστων ἀήθεις τραγῳδίαι εἰσί, καὶ ὅλως ποιηταὶ πολλοὶ τοιοῦτοι, οἷον καὶ τῶν γραφέων Ζεῦξις πρὸς Πολύγνωτον πέπονθεν· ὁ μὲν γὰρ Πολύγνωτος ἀγαθὸς ἠθογράφος, ἡ δὲ Ζεύξιδος γραφὴ οὐδὲν ἔχει ἦθος.
Ἔτι ἐάν τις ἐφεξῆς θῇ ῥήσεις ἠθικὰς καὶ λέξεις καὶ διανοίας εὖ πεποιημένας, οὐ ποιήσει ὃ ἦν τῆς τραγῳδίας ἔργον, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον ἡ καταδεεστέροις τούτοις κεχρημένη τραγῳδία, ἔχουσα δὲ μῦθον καὶ σύστασιν πραγμάτων.
Πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ μέγιστα οἷς ψυχαγωγεῖ ἡ τραγῳδία, τοῦ μύθου μέρη ἐστίν, αἵ τε περιπέτειαι καὶ ἀναγνωρίσεις.
Ἔτι σημεῖον ὅτι καὶ οἱ ἐγχειροῦντες ποιεῖν πρότερον δύνανται τῇ λέξει καὶ τοῖς ἤθεσιν ἀκριβοῦν ἢ τὰ πράγματα συνίστασθαι, οἷον καὶ οἱ πρῶτοι ποιηταὶ σχεδὸν ἅπαντες.
Ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἷον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη.
Παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστι καὶ ἐπὶ τῇς γραφικῆς· εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας εἰκόνα.
Ἔστι τε μίμησις πράξεως, καὶ διὰ ταύτην μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων. Τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια.
Τοῦτο δ᾿ ἐστὶ τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα, ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν·
οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς.
Ἔστι δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν ὁποία τις· διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν οἷς μηδ᾿ ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων.
Διάνοια δέ, ἐν οἷς ἀποδεικνύουσί τι ὡς ἔστιν ἢ ὡς οὐκ ἔστιν, ἢ καθόλου τι ἀποφαίνονται.
Τέταρτον δὲ τῶν μὲν λόγων ἡ λέξις· λέγω δέ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρηται, λέξιν εἶναι τὴν διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίας ἑρμηνείαν, ὃ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν.
Τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν πέντε ἡ μελοποιία μέγιστον τῶν ἡδυσμάτων.
Ἡ δὲ ὄψις ψυχαγωγικὸν μέν, ἀτεχνότατον δὲ καὶ ἥκιστα οἰκεῖον τῆς ποιητικῆς· ἡ γὰρ τῆς τραγῳδίας δύναμις καὶ ἄνευ ἀγῶνος καὶ ὑποκριτῶν ἐστίν. Ἔτι δὲ κυριωτέρα περὶ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν τῶν ὄψεων ἡ τοῦ σκευοποιοῦ τέχνη τῆς τῶν ποιητῶν ἐστίν.
Περὶ ποιητικῆς (OCR draft) Perseus (Aristotle, De arte poetica liber. Rudolf Kassel, editor. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965. Reference edition for passage alignment.) — 6 focus
περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς ἐν ἑξαμέτροις μιμητικῆς καὶ περὶ κωμῳδίας ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν· περὶ δὲ τραγῳδίας λέγωμεν ἀναλαβόντες αὐτῆς ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων τὸν γινόμενον ὅρον τῆς οὐσίας.
ἔστιν οὖν τραγῳδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας
25
καὶ τελείας μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ χωρὶς ἑκάστῳ τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι’ ἀπαγγελίας, δι’ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων παθημάτων κάθαρσιν.
λέγω δὲ ἡδυσμένον μὲν λόγον τὸν ἔχοντα ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν
καὶ μέλος,
τὸ δὲ χωρὶς τοῖς
30
εἴδεσι τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα διὰ μέλους.
ἐπεὶ δὲ πράττοντες ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν, πρῶτον μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἂν εἴη τι μόριον τραγῳδίας ὁ τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος· εἶτα μελοποιία καὶ λέξις, ἐν τούτοις γὰρ ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν.
λέγω δὲ λέξιν μὲν αὐτὴν τὴν τῶν
35
μέτρων σύνθεσιν, μελοποιίαν δὲ ὃ τὴν δύναμιν φανερὰν ἔχει πᾶσαν.
ἐπεὶ δὲ πράξεώς ἐστι μίμησις, πράττεται δὲ ὑπὸ τινῶν πραττόντων, οὓς ἀνάγκη ποιούς τινας εἶναι κατά τε τὸ ἦθος καὶ τὴν διάνοιαν (διὰ γὰρ τούτων καὶ τὰς
1450a
1
πράξεις εἶναί φαμεν ποιάς τινας,
πέφυκεν αἴτια δύο τῶν πράξεων εἶναι, διάνοια καὶ ἦθος καὶ κατὰ ταύτας καὶ τυγχάνουσι καὶ ἀποτυγχάνουσι πάντες),
ἔστιν δὲ τῆς μὲν πράξεως ὁ μῦθος ἡ μίμησις, λέγω γὰρ μῦθον τοῦτον τὴν
5
σύνθεσιν τῶν πραγμάτων, τὰ δὲ ἤθη, καθ’ ὃ ποιούς τινας εἶναί φαμεν τοὺς πράττοντας, διάνοιαν δέ, ἐν ὅσοις λέγοντες ἀποδεικνύασίν τι ἢ καὶ ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην—
ἀνάγκη οὖν πάσης τῆς τραγῳδίας μέρη εἶναι ἕξ, καθ’ ὃ ποιά τις ἐστὶν ἡ τραγῳδία· ταῦτα δ’ ἐστὶ μῦθος καὶ ἤθη καὶ λέξις καὶ
10
διάνοια καὶ ὄψις καὶ μελοποιία.
οἷς μὲν γὰρ μιμοῦνται, δύο μέρη ἐστίν, ὡς δὲ μιμοῦνται, ἕν, ἃ δὲ μιμοῦνται, τρία, καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐδέν.
τούτοις μὲν οὖν † οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν † ὡς εἰπεῖν κέχρηνται τοῖς εἴδεσιν· καὶ γὰρ † ὄψις ἔχει πᾶν † καὶ ἦθος καὶ μῦθον καὶ λέξιν καὶ μέλος καὶ διάνοιαν ὡσαύτως.
15
μέγιστον δὲ τούτων ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν πραγμάτων σύστασις. ἡ γὰρ τραγῳδία μίμησίς ἐστιν οὐκ ἀνθρώπων ἀλλὰ πράξεων καὶ βίου
καὶ εὐδαιμονία καὶ κακοδαιμονία ἐν πράξει ἐστίν, καὶ τὸ τέλος πρᾶξίς τις ἐστίν, οὐ ποιότης· εἰσὶν δὲ κατὰ μὲν τὰ ἤθη ποιοί τινες, κατὰ δὲ τὰς
20
πράξεις εὐδαίμονες ἢ τοὐναντίον·
οὔκουν ὅπως τὰ ἤθη μιμήσωνται πράττουσιν, ἀλλὰ τὰ ἤθη συμπεριλαμβάνουσιν διὰ τὰς πράξεις· ὥστε τὰ πράγματα καὶ ὁ μῦθος τέλος τῆς τραγῳδίας, τὸ δὲ τέλος μέγιστον ἁπάντων.
ἔτι ἄνευ μὲν πράξεως οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο τραγῳδία, ἄνευ δὲ ἠθῶν
25
γένοιτ’ ἄν·
αἱ γὰρ τῶν νέων τῶν πλείστων ἀήθεις τραγῳδίαι εἰσίν, καὶ ὅλως ποιηταὶ πολλοὶ τοιοῦτοι, οἷον καὶ τῶν γραφέων Ζεῦξις πρὸς Πολύγνωτον πέπονθεν· ὁ μὲν γὰρ Πολύγνωτος ἀγαθὸς ἠθογράφος, ἡ δὲ Ζεύξιδος γραφὴ οὐδὲν ἔχει ἦθος.
ἔτι ἐάν τις ἐφεξῆς θῇ ῥήσεις ἠθικὰς καὶ λέξει
30
καὶ διανοίᾳ εὖ πεποιημένας, οὐ ποιήσει ὃ ἦν τῆς τραγῳδίας ἔργον, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον ἡ καταδεεστέροις τούτοις κεχρημένη τραγῳδία, ἔχουσα δὲ μῦθον καὶ σύστασιν πραγμάτων.
πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ μέγιστα οἷς ψυχαγωγεῖ ἡ τραγῳδία τοῦ μύθου μέρη ἐστίν, αἵ τε περιπέτειαι καὶ
35
ἀναγνωρίσεις.
ἔτι σημεῖον ὅτι καὶ οἱ ἐγχειροῦντες ποιεῖν πρότερον δύνανται τῇ λέξει καὶ τοῖς ἤθεσιν ἀκριβοῦν ἢ τὰ πράγματα συνίστασθαι, οἷον καὶ οἱ πρῶτοι ποιηταὶ σχεδὸν ἅπαντες.
ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἷον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη
(παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ
1450b
1
ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς· εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας εἰκόνα)·
ἔστιν τε μίμησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων.
τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια· τοῦτο δέ
5
ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα, ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν·
οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς.
ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν, ὁποία τις
ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἢ
10
προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν
10a
οἷς μηδ’ ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων—
διάνοια δὲ ἐν οἷς ἀποδεικνύουσί τι ὡς ἔστιν ἢ ὡς οὐκ ἔστιν ἢ καθόλου τι ἀποφαίνονται.
τέταρτον δὲ † τῶν μὲν λόγων † ἡ λέξις· λέγω δέ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρηται, λέξιν εἶναι τὴν διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίας ἑρμηνείαν, ὃ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ
15
ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν.
τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν ἡ μελοποιία μέγιστον τῶν ἡδυσμάτων,
ἡ δὲ ὄψις ψυχαγωγικὸν μέν, ἀτεχνότατον δὲ καὶ ἥκιστα οἰκεῖον τῆς ποιητικῆς· ἡ γὰρ τῆς τραγῳδίας δύναμις καὶ ἄνευ ἀγῶνος καὶ ὑποκριτῶν ἔστιν, ἔτι δὲ κυριωτέρα περὶ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν
20
τῶν ὄψεων ἡ τοῦ σκευοποιοῦ τέχνη τῆς τῶν ποιητῶν ἐστιν.
Poetics, Greek text (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's Greek text of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 6 focus
Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς ἐν ἑξαμέτροις μιμητικῆς καὶ περὶ
κωμῳδίας ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν· περὶ δὲ τραγῳδίας λέγωμεν
ἀναλαβόντες αὐτῆς ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων τὸν γινόμενον ὅρον
τῆς οὐσίας.
ἔστιν οὖν τραγῳδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας
καὶ τελείας μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ χωρὶς ἑκάστῳ
τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι᾽ ἀπαγγελίας,
δι᾽ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων
παθημάτων κάθαρσιν.
καὶ τελείας μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ χωρὶς ἑκάστῳ
τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι᾽ ἀπαγγελίας,
δι᾽ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων
παθημάτων κάθαρσιν.
λέγω δὲ ἡδυσμένον μὲν λόγον τὸν
ἔχοντα ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν καὶ μέλος,
ἔχοντα ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν καὶ μέλος,
τὸ δὲ χωρὶς τοῖς
εἴδεσι τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα
διὰ μέλους.
εἴδεσι τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα
διὰ μέλους.
ἐπεὶ δὲ πράττοντες ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν, πρῶτον
μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἂν εἴη τι μόριον τραγῳδίας ὁ τῆς
ὄψεως κόσμος, εἶτα μελοποιία καὶ λέξις· ἐν τούτοις γὰρ
ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν.
λέγω δὲ λέξιν μὲν ταύτην, τὴν τῶν
μέτρων σύνθεσιν, μελοποιίαν δὲ ἣ τὴν δύναμιν φανερὰν
ἔχει πᾶσαν.
ἐπεὶ δὲ πράξεώς ἐστι μίμησις, πράττεται δὲ
ὑπὸ τινῶν πραττόντων, οὓς ἀνάγκη ποιούς τινας εἶναι κατά
τε τὸ ἦθος καὶ τὴν διάνοιαν, διὰ γὰρ τούτων καὶ τὰς
πράξεις εἶναί φαμεν ποιάς τινας, πέφυκεν αἴτια δύο τῶν
πράξεων εἶναι, διάνοιαν καὶ ἦθος, καὶ κατὰ ταύτας καὶ
τυγχάνουσι καὶ ἀποτυγχάνουσι πάντες.
ἔστιν δὲ τῆς μὲν
πράξεως ὁ μῦθος ἡ μίμησις· λέγω γὰρ μῦθον τοῦτον, τὴν
σύνθεσιν τῶν πραγμάτων, τὰ δὲ ἤθη, καθ᾽ ὃ ποιούς τινας
εἶναί φαμεν τοὺς πράττοντας, διάνοιαν δέ, ἐν ὅσοις λέγοντες
ἀποδεικνύασίν τι ἢ καὶ ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην.
πράξεως ὁ μῦθος ἡ μίμησις· λέγω γὰρ μῦθον τοῦτον, τὴν
σύνθεσιν τῶν πραγμάτων, τὰ δὲ ἤθη, καθ᾽ ὃ ποιούς τινας
εἶναί φαμεν τοὺς πράττοντας, διάνοιαν δέ, ἐν ὅσοις λέγοντες
ἀποδεικνύασίν τι ἢ καὶ ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην.
ἀνάγκη
οὖν πάσης τραγῳδίας μέρη εἶναι ἕξ, καθ᾽ ὃ ποιά τις ἐστὶν
ἡ τραγῳδία· ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶ μῦθος καὶ ἤθη καὶ λέξις καὶ
διάνοια καὶ ὄψις καὶ μελοποιία.
οἷς μὲν γὰρ μιμοῦνται,
δύο μέρη ἐστίν, ὡς δὲ μιμοῦνται, ἕν, ἃ δὲ μιμοῦνται, τρία,
καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐδέν.
τούτοις μὲν οὖν οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν ὡς
εἰπεῖν κέχρηνται τοῖς εἴδεσιν καὶ γὰρ ὄψεις ἔχει πᾶν καὶ
ἦθος καὶ μῦθον καὶ λέξιν καὶ μέλος καὶ διάνοιαν ὡσαύτως.
μέγιστον δὲ τούτων ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν πραγμάτων σύστασις·
ἡ γὰρ τραγῳδία μίμησίς ἐστιν οὐκ ἀνθρώπων ἀλλὰ πράξεως
καὶ βίου καὶ εὐδαιμονίας καὶ ἡ κακοδαιμονία
ἐν πράξει ἐστίν, καὶ τὸ τέλος πρᾶξίς τις ἐστίν, οὐ ποιότης·
εἰσὶν δὲ κατὰ μὲν τὰ ἤθη ποιοί τινες, κατὰ δὲ τὰς
πράξεις εὐδαίμονες ἢ τοὐναντίον.
οὔκουν ὅπως τὰ ἤθη μιμήσωνται
πράττουσιν, ἀλλὰ τὰ ἤθη συμπεριλαμβάνουσιν
διὰ τὰς πράξεις· ὥστε τὰ πράγματα καὶ ὁ μῦθος τέλος
τῆς τραγῳδίας, τὸ δὲ τέλος μέγιστον ἁπάντων.
ἔτι ἄνευ
μὲν πράξεως οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο τραγῳδία, ἄνευ δὲ ἠθῶν γένοιτ᾽
ἄν.
αἱ γὰρ τῶν νέων τῶν πλείστων ἀήθεις τραγῳδίαι
εἰσίν, καὶ ὅλως ποιηταὶ πολλοὶ τοιοῦτοι, οἷον καὶ τῶν γραφέων
Ζεῦξις πρὸς Πολύγνωτον πέπονθεν· ὁ μὲν γὰρ Πολύγνωτος
ἀγαθὸς ἠθογράφος, ἡ δὲ Ζεύξιδος γραφὴ οὐδὲν
ἔχει ἦθος.
ἔτι ἐὰν τις ἐφεξῆς θῇ ῥήσεις ἠθικὰς καὶ λέξει
καὶ διανοίᾳ εὖ πεποιημένας, οὔπω ποιήσει ὃ ἦν τῆς τραγῳδίας
ἔργον, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον ἡ καταδεεστέροις τούτοις
κεχρημένη τραγῳδία, ἔχουσα δὲ μῦθον καὶ σύστασιν πραγμάτων.
καὶ διανοίᾳ εὖ πεποιημένας, οὔπω ποιήσει ὃ ἦν τῆς τραγῳδίας
ἔργον, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον ἡ καταδεεστέροις τούτοις
κεχρημένη τραγῳδία, ἔχουσα δὲ μῦθον καὶ σύστασιν πραγμάτων.
πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ μέγιστα οἷς ψυχαγωγεῖ ἡ
τραγῳδία τοῦ μύθου μέρη ἐστίν, αἵ τε περιπέτειαι καὶ ἀναγνωρίσεις.
ἔτι σημεῖον ὅτι καὶ οἱ ἐγχειροῦντες ποιεῖν πρότερον
δύνανται τῇ λέξει καὶ τοῖς ἤθεσιν ἀκριβοῦν ἢ τὰ
πράγματα συνίστασθαι, οἷον καὶ οἱ πρῶτοι ποιηταὶ σχεδὸν
ἅπαντες.
ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἷον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας,
δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη
(παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ
ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς· εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις
φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας
εἰκόνα)·
ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς· εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις
φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας
εἰκόνα)·
ἔστιν τε μίμησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην
μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων.
μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων.
τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια· τοῦτο δέ
ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα,
ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ ῥητορικῆς ἔργον
ἐστίν·
οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ
δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς.
δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς.
ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ
τὴν προαίρεσιν, ὁποῖά τις ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἢ προαιρεῖται
ἢ φεύγει· διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν
οἷς μηδ᾽ ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων·
διάνοια δὲ ἐν οἷς ἀποδεικνύουσί τι ὡς ἔστιν ἢ ὡς οὐκ ἔστιν
ἢ καθόλου τι ἀποφαίνονται.
τέταρτον δὲ τῶν ἐν λόγῳ ἡ
λέξις· λέγω δέ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρηται, λέξιν εἶναι τὴν
διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίας ἑρμηνείαν, ὃ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ
ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν.
τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν
πέντε ἡ μελοποιία μέγιστον τῶν ἡδυσμάτων,
ἡ δὲ ὄψις
ψυχαγωγικὸν μέν, ἀτεχνότατον δὲ καὶ ἥκιστα οἰκεῖον τῆς
ποιητικῆς· ἡ γὰρ τῆς τραγῳδίας δύναμις καὶ ἄνευ ἀγῶνος
καὶ ὑποκριτῶν ἔστιν, ἔτι δὲ κυριωτέρα περὶ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν
τῶν ὄψεων ἡ τοῦ σκευοποιοῦ τέχνη τῆς τῶν ποιητῶν ἐστιν.
ψυχαγωγικὸν μέν, ἀτεχνότατον δὲ καὶ ἥκιστα οἰκεῖον τῆς
ποιητικῆς· ἡ γὰρ τῆς τραγῳδίας δύναμις καὶ ἄνευ ἀγῶνος
καὶ ὑποκριτῶν ἔστιν, ἔτι δὲ κυριωτέρα περὶ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν
τῶν ὄψεων ἡ τοῦ σκευοποιοῦ τέχνη τῆς τῶν ποιητῶν ἐστιν.
Poetics, Greek text (Franz Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's 1839 Greek edition, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 6 focus
Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς ἐν ἑξαμέτροις μιμητικῆς καὶ περὶ κωμῳδίας ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν, περὶ δὲ τραγῳδίας λέγωμεν, ἀπολαβόντες αὐτῆς ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων τὸν γινόμενον ὅρον τῆς ουσίας.
ἔστιν οὖν τραγῳδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας καὶ τελείας, μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ, χωρὶς ἑκάστου τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι' ἀπαγγελίας, δι᾽ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων παθημάτων κάθαρσιν.
λέγω δὲ ἡδυσμένον μὲν λόγον τὸν ἔχοντα ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν καὶ μέλος,
τὸ δὲ χωρὶς τοῖς εἴδεσι τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα διὰ μέλους.
ἐπεὶ δὲ πράττοντες ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν, πρῶτον μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἂν εἴη τι μόριον τραγῳδίας ὁ τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος, εἶτα μελοποιία καὶ λέξις· ἐν τούτοις γὰρ ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν.
λέγω δὲ λέξιν μὲν αὐτὴν τὴν τῶν μέτρων σύνθεσιν, μελοποιίαν δὲ ὃ τὴν δύναμιν φανερὰν ἔχει πᾶσαν.
ἐπεὶ δὲ πράξεως ἐστι μίμησις, πράττεται δὲ ὑπό τινων πραττόντων, οὓς ἀνάγκη ποιούς τινας εἶναι κατά τε τὸ ἦθος καὶ τὴν διάνοιαν (διὰ γὰρ τού
1
των καὶ τὰς πράξεις εἶναί φαμεν ποιάς τινας), πέφυκεν αἴτια δύο τῶν πράξεων εἶναι, διάνοια καὶ ἦθος, καὶ κατὰ ταύτας καὶ τυγχάνουσι καὶ ἀποτυγχάνουσι πάντες.
ἔστι δὲ τῆς μὲν πράξεως ὁ μῦθος ἡ μίμησις· λέγω γὰρ μῦθον τοῦτον τὴν σύνθεσιν τῶν παργμάτων, τὰ δὲ ἤθη, καθ᾽ ἃ ποιούς τινας εἶναί φαμεν τοὺς πράττοντας, διάνοιαν δέ, ἐν ὅσοις λέγοντες ἀποδεικνύασί τι ἢ καὶ ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην.
ἀνάγκης οὖν πάσης τραγῳδίας μέρη εἶναι ἕξ, καθ᾽ ἃ ποιά τις ἐστὶν ἡ τραγῳδία· ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶ μῦθος καὶ ἤθη καὶ λέξις καὶ διάνοια καὶ ὄψις καὶ μελοποιία,
οἷς μὲν γὰρ μιμοῦνται, δύο μέρη ἐστίν, ὡς δὲ μιμοῦνται, ἕν, ἃ δὲ μιμοῦνται, τρία, καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐδέν. [
τούτοις μὲν οὖν οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν ὡς εἰπεῖν κέχρηνται τοῖς εἴδεσιν· καὶ γὰρ ὄψεις ἔχει πᾶν καὶ ἦθος καὶ μύθον καὶ λέξιν καὶ μέλος͵ καὶ διάνοιαν ὡσαύτως.]
μέγιστον δὲ τούτων ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν πραγμάτων σύστασις· ἡ γὰρ τραγῳδία μίμησίς ἐστιν οὐκ ἀνθρώπων ἀλλὰ πράξεως
2
[καὶ βίου καὶ εὐδαιμονίας· καὶ ἡ κακοδαιμονία ἐν πράξει ἐστί, καὶ τὸ τέλος πρᾶξις τις ἐστίν, οὐ ποιότης]. εἰσὶ δὲ κατὰ μὲν τὰ ἤθη ποιοί τινες, κατὰ δὲ τὰς πράξεις εὐδαίμονες ἢ τοὐναντίον.
οὔκουν ὅπως τὰ ἤθη μιμήσωνται πράττουσιν, ἀλλὰ τὰ ἤθη συμπεριλαμβάνουσι διὰ τὰς πράξεις. ὥστε τὰ πράγματα καὶ ὁ μῦθος τέλος τῆς τραγῳδίας· τὸ δὲ τέλος μέγιστον ἁπάντων.
ἔτι ἄνευ μὲν πράξεως οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο τραγῳδία, ἄνευ δὲ ἠθῶν γένοιτ᾽ ἄν.
αἱ γὰρ τῶν νέων τῶν πλείστων ἀήθεις τραγῳδίαι εἰσί, καὶ ὅλως ποιηταὶ πολλοὶ τοιοῦτοι, οἷον καὶ τῶν γραφέων Ζεῦξις πρὸς Πολύγνωτον πέπονθεν· ὁ μὲν γὰρ Πολύγνωτος ἀγαθὸς ἠθογράφος, ἡ δὲ Ζεύξιδος γραφὴ οὐδὲν ἔχει ἦθος.
ἔτι ἐάν τις ἐφεξῆς θῇ ῥήσεις ἠθικὰς καὶ λέξεις καὶ διανοίας εὖ πεποιημένας, οὐ ποιήσει ὃ ἦν τῆς τραγῳδίας ἔργον, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον ἡ κατ
3
αδεεστέροις τούτοις κεχρημένη τραγῳδία, ἔχουσα δὲ μῦθον καὶ σύστασιν πραγμάτων.
πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ μέγιστα οἷς ψυχαγωγεῖ ἡ τραγῳδία, τοῦ μύθου μέρη ἐστίν, αἵ τε περιπέτειαι καὶ ἀναγνωρίσεις.
ἔτι σημεῖον ὅτι καὶ οἱ ἐγχειροῦντες ποιεῖν πρότερον δύνανται τῇ λέξει καὶ τοῖς ἤθεσιν ἀκριβοῦν ἢ τὰ πράγματα συνίστασθαι, οἷον καὶ οἱ πρῶτοι ποιηταὶ σχεδὸν ἅπαντες.
ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἷον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη. [
παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστι καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς· εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας εἰκόνα.
ἔστι τε μίμησις πράξεως, καὶ διὰ ταύτην μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων.
τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια. τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶ τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα, ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν·
οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς.
ἔστι δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν τη ὁποία τις· διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν οἷς μηδ'
4
ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων·
διανοια δέ, ἐν οἷς ἀποδεικνύουσί τι ὡς ἔστιν ἢ ὡς οὐκ ἔστιν, ἢ καθόλου τι ἀποφαίνονται.
τέταρτον δὲ τῶν μὲν λόγων ἡ λέξις· λέγω δέ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρηται, λέξιν εἶναι τὴν διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίας ἑρμηνείαν, ὃ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν.
τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν πέντε ἡ μελοποιία μέγιστον τῶν ἡδυσμάτων.
ἡ δὲ ὄψις ψυχαγωγικὸν μέν, ἀτεχνότατον δὲ καὶ ἥκιστα οἰκεῖον τῆς ποιητικῆς· ἡ γὰρ τῆς τραγῳδίας δύναμις καὶ ἄνευ ἀγῶνος καὶ ὑποκριτῶν ἐστίν. ἔτι δὲ κυριωτέρα περὶ τὴν ἀπεργασίαν τῶν ὄψεων ἡ τοῦτο σκευοποιοῦ τέχνη τῆς τῶν ποιητῶν ἐστίν.]
Translations (13)
Poetics (W. H. Fyfe) (OCR draft) Perseus (William Hamilton Fyfe's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, Loeb Classical Library, 1939 printing.) — 6 focus
20
With the representation of life in hexameter verse
1
and with comedy we will deal later. We must now treat of tragedy after first gathering up the definition of its nature which results from what we have said already.
Tragedy is, then, a representation of an action
2
that is heroic and complete and of a certain magnitude—by means of language enriched with all kinds of ornament, each used separately in the different parts of the play: it represents men in action and does not use narrative, and through pity and fear it effects relief to these and similar emotions.
3
By
language enriched I mean that which has rhythm and tune, i.e., song,
and by
the kinds separately I mean that some effects are produced by verse alone and some again by song.
Since the representation is performed by living persons, it follows at once that one essential part of a tragedy is the spectacular effect, and, besides that, song-making and diction. For these are the means of the representation.
By
diction I mean here the metrical arrangement of the words; and
song making I use in the full, obvious sense of the word.
And since tragedy represents action and is acted by living persons, who must of necessity have certain qualities of character and thought—for it is these which determine the quality of an action;
1450a
1
indeed thought and character are the natural causes of any action and it is in virtue of these that all men succeed or fail—
it follows then that it is the plot which represents the action. By
plot I mean here the arrangement of the incidents:
character is that which determines the quality of the agents, and
thought appears wherever in the dialogue they put forward an argument or deliver an opinion.
Necessarily then every tragedy has six constituent parts, and on these its quality depends. These are plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle, and song.
Two of these are the means of representation: one is the manner: three are the objects represented.
4
This list is exhaustive, and practically all the poets employ these elements, for every drama includes alike spectacle and character and plot and diction and song and thought.
The most important of these is the arrangement of the incidents,
5
for tragedy is not a representation of men but of a piece of action, of life, of happiness and unhappiness, which come under the head of action, and the end aimed at is the representation not of qualities of character but of some action; and while character makes men what they are,
20
it’s their actions and experiences that make them happy or the opposite.
They do not therefore act to represent character, but character-study is included for the sake of the action. It follows that the incidents and the plot are the end at which tragedy aims, and in everything the end aimed at is of prime importance.
Moreover, you could not have a tragedy without action, but you can have one with out character-study.
Indeed the tragedies of most modern poets are without this, and, speaking generally, there are many such writers, whose case is like that of Zeuxis compared with Polygnotus.
6
The latter was good at depicting character, but there is nothing of this in Zeuxis’s painting.
A further argument is that if a man writes a series of speeches full of character and excellent in point of diction and thought, he will not achieve the proper function of tragedy nearly so well as a tragedy which, while inferior in these qualities, has a plot or arrangement of incidents.
And furthermore, two of the most important elements in the emotional effect of tragedy,
reversals and
discoveries,
7
are parts of the plot.
And here is further proof: those who try to write tragedy are much sooner successful in language and character-study than in arranging the incidents. It is the same with almost all the earliest poets.
The plot then is the first principle and as it were the soul of tragedy: character comes second.
It is much the same also in painting;
1450b
1
if a man smeared a canvas with the loveliest colors at random, it would not give as much pleasure as an outline in black and white.
8
And it is mainly because a play is a representation of action that it also for that reason represents people.
Third comes
thought. This means the ability to say what is possible and appropriate. It comes in the dialogue and is the function of the statesman’s or the rhetorician’s art.
9
The old writers made their characters talk like statesmen,
10
the moderns like rhetoricians.
Character is that which reveals choice
11
, shows what sort of thing a man chooses or avoids in circumstances where the choice is not obvious, so those speeches convey no character in which there is nothing whatever which the speaker chooses or avoids.
Thought you find in speeches which contain an argument that something is or is not, or a general expression of opinion.
The fourth of the literary elements is the language. By this I mean, as we said above, the expression of meaning in words,
12
and this is essentially the same in verse and in prose.
Of the other elements which
enrich
13
tragedy the most important is song-making.
Spectacle, while highly effective, is yet quite foreign to the art and has nothing to do with poetry. Indeed the effect of tragedy does not depend on its performance by actors, and, moreover,
20
for achieving the spectacular effects the art of the costumier is more authoritative than that of the poet.
Arabic Poetics (Badawī edition, 1953) (OCR draft) (The ancient Arabic translation of Aristotle's Poetics in ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Badawī's 1953 edition.) — 6 focus
〈تعريف المأساة وعناصرها〉
وأما التشبيه والمحاكاة الكائنة بالأوزان السداسية، فنحن قائلون 〈فيها〉 بالأخرة، وكذلك فى صناعة الهجاء بعقب لذلك 〈ولنتكلم عن المأساة مبتدئين〉 مما قيل الحد الدال على الجهة.
فصناعة المديح هى تشبيه ومحاكاة للعمل الإرادى الحريص والكامل التى لها عظم ومدار فى القول النافع ما خلا كل واحد واحد من الأنواع التى هى فاعلة فى الأجزاء لا بالمواعيد. وتعد ل الانفعالات والتأثيرات بالرحمة والخوف؛ وتنقى وتنظف الذين ينفعلون. ويعمل: أما لهذا فقول النافع له لحن وايقاع وصوت ونغمة، وأما لهذا فنجعله أن تستتم الأجزاء من غير الأنواع التى يسبب الأوزان. وأيضاً عندما يعدون أجزاء التى تكون بالصوت والنغمة يأتون بتشبيه ومحاكاة الأمور.
فليكن أولا من الاضطرار جزء ما من صناعة المديح فى صفة جمال وحسن الوجه. وأيضاً ففى هذه عمل الصوت والنغمة والمقولة؛ وبهذين يفعلون التشبيه والمحاكاة. وأعنى بالمقولة تركيب الأوزان نفسه. وأما عمل الصوت والنغمة للقوة الظاهرة التى هى معنية بجميعه من قبل أنه تشبيه ومحاكاة للعمل ونقيضها من قوم يقتضون التى تدعو الضرورة إليها، مثل أى أناس يكونوا فى غاياتهم واعتقاداتهم (وذلك أن بهذه نقول إن الأحاديث تكون، وكم هى، وكيف حالها). وعلل الأحاديث والقصص اثنتان: هما العادات والآراء، وأن بحسب توجد الأحاديث والقصص من حيث تستقيم كلها بهذين وتزل بهما. وخرافة الحديث والقصص هى تشبيه ومحاكاة، وأعنى بالخرافة وحكاية الحديث تركيب الأمور. وأما العادات فبحسب ما عليه ويقال المحدثين والقصاص الذين يرون كيف هم، أو كيف هى فى آرائهم، ويرون كيف هم فى أدائهم.
وقد يجب ضرورةً أن تكون جميع أجزاء صناعة المديح ستة أجزاء بحسب أى شىء كانت هذه الصناعة؛ وهذه الأجزاء هى: الخرافات، والعادات والمقولة، والاعتقاد، والنظر، والنغمة الصوت. والأجزاء هى الذين يشبهون أيضاً ويحاكون اثنان فيما يشبهون به ويحاكونه، وفى آخر ما يشبهون به ثلاثة، ومن هذا 〈وهذه〉 التى يستعملها فانه يستعمل أنواع هذه كيف جرت الأحوال، وذلك 〈أنك حكيت〉 كل عادة وخرافة ومقولة وقنية والرأى هذه حالها.
وأعظم من قوام الأمور من قبل أن صناعة المديح هى تشبيه وحكاية لا للناس، لكن بأعمال، والحياة 〈والسعادة〉 هى فى العمل، وهى أمر هو كمال ما وعمل ما. وهم إما بحسب العادات فيشبهون كيف كانوا، واما بحسب الأعمال فالفائزين، أو بالعكس. وإنما يقصون ويتحدثون لكيما يشبهون بعاداتهم ويحاكونها؛ غير أن العادات يقتصونها بسبب أعمالهم حتى تكون الأمور و[الأمور] والخرافات آخر صناعة المديح؛ والكمال نفسه هو أعظمها جميعاً.
وأيضاً من غير العمل لا تكون صناعة المديح؛ وأما بلا عادة فقد تكون، من قبل أن مديحات الصبيان أكثرها بلا عادة، وبالحملة الشعراء الأخر هم بهذه الحال، كالحال فيما كان عن زوكسيدس المكتب عندما دونه إلى فولجنوطس من قبل أن ذاك رجل قد كان يثبت عادات جياداً خيرة؛ وأما ما دونه زوكسيدس فليس فيه عادة ما.
وأيضاً إن وضع إنسان كلاماً ما فى الاعتقاد والمقولة والذهن ومما تركيبه تركيباً حسناً، فانه ليس يلحق ألبتة أن يفعل ما كان. فما تقدم فعلى صناعة المديح لكى يكون التركيب الذى يؤتى فى هذا الوقت أقل من التركيب الذى كان يكون إذ داك بكثير. فهكذا كان استعمال صناعة المديح، أعنى أنه قد كان لها الخرافة وقوام الأمر. وقد كان مع هذين لما كان منها عظيم الشأن. تعزية ما وتقوية للنفس، غير أن أجزاء الخرافة: الدوران، والاستدلال.
وأيضاً الدليل على أن الذين يبتدئون بالعمل هم أولاً يقتدرون على الاستقصاء فى العمل أكثر من تقويم الأمور.
كما أن الشعراء المتقدمين مثلا المبدأ والدليل لهم على ما فى النفس هما الخرافة التى فى صناعة المديح، والثانية العادات. وذلك أن بالقرب هكذا هى التى فى الرسوم والصورة، وذلك أنه 〈مثل〉 دهن إنسان الأصباغ الحياد التى تعد للتصوير يدهن مكلف فانه 〈لا يسر بها كما〉 يسر ببهاء الأصنام والصور التى نعملها. كما تنفع وتلذ حكاية عمل الذى تشبيه يرون الذين يحدثون ويقصون جميع الأخبار والأمور.
والثالثة الاعتقاد. وهذا هو القدرة على الأخبار أيما هى الموجودة والموافقة كما هو فعل السياسة والخطابة؛ 〈فان الشعراء〉 الأوائل كانوا يعملون غير ما يقولون على مجرى السياسة، 〈أما〉 الذين فى هذا الوقت فعلى مجرى الخطابة.
والعادة التى هذه هى حالها هى التى تدل على الإرادة مثل أى شىء هى، ولذلك أنه ليس من عادتهم ذلك فى الكلام الذى يخبر به الانسان شىء ما، ويختار أيضاً أو يهرب الذى يتكلم الاعتقاد والتى بها يرون 〈ما〉 يكون كما هو موجوداً وكما ليس هو موجوداً، وكما يرون 〈الأمورالكلية〉.
والرابعة هى أن الكلام هو المقول، وأعنى بذلك ما قيل أولاً والمقولة التى بالتسمية هى تفسير للكلام الموزون وغير الموزون الذى قوته قوة واحدة.
وأما الذى لهذه الباقية فصنعة الصوت هى أعظم من جميع المنافع. وأما المنظر فهو مغر للنفس، غير أنه بلا صناعة، وليس ألبتة مناسباً لصناعة الشعراء، من قبل أنه قوة صناعة المديح وبغير الجهاد وهى من المنافقين. وأيضاً بما فى عمل صناعة الأوثان هى أولى بالتحقيق عند البصر من صناعة الشعراء.
Poetics (S. H. Butcher, 1911) (OCR draft) Experimental (S. H. Butcher's English translation from Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, fourth edition, 1911.) — 6 focus
Of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse, and
of Comedy, we will speak hereafter. Let us now discuss
Tragedy, resuming its formal definition, as resulting from what has been already said.
Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is
serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in
language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament,
the several kinds being found in separate parts of the
play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.
By
'language embellished,' I mean language into which rhythm, 'harmony,' and song enter.
By 'the several kinds
in separate parts,' I mean, that some parts are rendered
through the medium of verse alone, others again with the aid of song.
Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it neces-
sarily follows, in the first place, that Spectacular equip-
ment will be a part of Tragedy. Next, Song and Diction,
for these are the medium of imitation.
By 'Diction'
I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the words:
as for 'Song,' it is a term whose sense every one understands.
Again, Tragedy is the imitation of an action; and an
action implies personal agents, who necessarily possess
certain distinctive qualities both of character and thought;
for it is by these that we qualify actions themselves,
and these—thought and character—are the two natural
causes from which actions spring, and on actions again all success or failure depends.
Hence, the Plot is the
imitation of the action—for by plot I here mean the
arrangement of the incidents. By Character I mean
that in virtue of which we ascribe certain qualities to
the agents. Thought is required wherever a statement is proved, or, it may be, a general truth enunciated.
Every Tragedy, therefore, must have six parts, which
parts determine its quality—namely, Plot, Character,
Diction, Thought, Spectacle, Song.
Two of the parts con-
stitute the medium of imitation, one the manner, and three
the objects of imitation. And these complete the list.
These elements have been employed, we may say, by the
poets to a man; in fact, every play contains Spectacular
elements as well as Character, Plot, Diction, Song, and Thought.
But most important of all is the structure of the
incidents. For Tragedy is an imitation, not of men, but
of an action and of life, and life consists in action,
and its end is a mode of action, not a quality. Now character determines men's qualities, but it is by their actions that they are happy or the reverse.
Dramatic action, therefore, is not with a view to the
representation of character: character comes in as
subsidiary to the actions. Hence the incidents and
the plot are the end of a tragedy; and the end is the chief thing of all.
Again, without action there cannot be a tragedy;
there may be without character.
The tragedies of most of our
modern poets fail in the rendering of character; and
of poets in general this is often true. It is the same
in painting; and here lies the difference between Zeuxis
and Polygnotus. Polygnotus delineates character well: the style of Zeuxis is devoid of ethical quality.
Again, if you string
together a set of speeches expressive of character, and
well finished in point of diction and thought, you will
not produce the essential tragic effect nearly so well as
with a play which, however deficient in these respects, yet has a plot and artistically constructed incidents.
Besides which, the most powerful elements of emotional
interest in Tragedy—Peripeteia or Reversal of the
Situation, and Recognition scenes—are parts of the plot.
A further proof is, that novices in the art attain to finish
of diction and precision of portraiture before they can
construct the plot. It is the same with almost all the early poets.
The Plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were,
the soul of a tragedy: Character holds the second place.
A
similar fact is seen in painting. The most beautiful
colours, laid on confusedly, will not give as much
pleasure as the chalk outline of a portrait.
Thus Tragedy is the
imitation of an action, and of the agents mainly with a view to the action.
Third in order is Thought, that is, the
faculty of saying what is possible and pertinent in
given circumstances. In the case of oratory, this is the
function of the political art and of the art of rhetoric: and so indeed the older poets make their characters speak the language of civic life;
the
poets of our time, the language of the rhetoricians.
Character is that which reveals moral
purpose, showing what kind of things a man chooses or
avoids. Speeches, therefore, which do not make this
manifest, or in which the speaker does not choose or avoid anything whatever, are not expressive of character.
Thought, on the other hand, is found where something is
proved to be or not to be, or a general maxim is
enunciated.
Fourth among the elements enumerated comes
Diction; by which I mean, as has been already said, the
expression of the meaning in words; and its essence is
the same both in verse and prose.
Of the remaining elements
Song holds the chief place among the embellishments.
The
Spectacle has, indeed, an emotional attraction of its
own, but, of all the parts, it is the least artistic, and
connected least with the art of poetry. For the power
of Tragedy, we may be sure, is felt even apart from representation and actors. Besides, the production of spectacular effects depends more on the art of the stage machinist than on that of the poet.
Aristotle on the Art of Poetry (Ingram Bywater, 1909) (OCR draft) Experimental (Ingram Bywater's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1909.) — 6 focus
Reserving hexameter poetry and Comedy for consideration
hereafter, let us proceed now to the discussion of Tragedy;
before doing so, however, we must gather up the definition
resulting from what has been said.
A tragedy, then, is the
imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having
magnitude, complete in itself;
in a dramatic, not in a narrative form; with
incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish
its catharsis of such emotions.
Here by 'language with
pleasurable accessories' I mean that with rhythm and
harmony or song superadded;
and by 'the kinds separately'
I mean that some portions are worked out with verse only,
and others in turn with song.
I. As they act the stories, it follows that in the first place
the Spectacle (or stage-appearance of the actors) must be
some part of the whole;
and in the second Melody and
Diction, these two being the means of their imitation.
Here by 'Diction' I mean merely this, the composition of
the verses; and by 'Melody,' what is too completely un-
derstood to require explanation.
But further: the subject
represented also is an action; and the action involves
agents, who must necessarily have their distinctive qualities
both of character and thought, since it is from these that we
ascribe certain qualities to their actions.
There are in the
natural order of things, therefore, two causes, Character and
Thought, of their actions, and consequently of their success
or failure in their lives.
Now the action (that which was
done) is represented in the play by the Fable or Plot.
The Fable, in our present sense of the term, is simply this, the
combination of the incidents, or things done in the story;
whereas Character is what makes us ascribe certain moral
qualities to the agents; and Thought is shown in all they
say when proving a particular point or, it may be, enunci-
ating a general truth.
There are six parts consequently of
every tragedy, as a whole, that is, of such or such quality,
viz. a Fable or Plot, Characters, Diction, Thought, Spectacle
and Melody;
two of them arising from the means, one from
the manner, and three from the objects of the dramatic
imitation; and there is nothing else besides these six.
Of
these, its formative elements, then, not a few of the drama-
tists have made due use, as every play, one may say, admits of
Spectacle, Character, Fable, Diction, Melody, and Thought.
II. The most important of the six is the combination of
the incidents of the story. Tragedy is essentially an imita-
tion not of persons but of action and life, of happiness
and misery. All human happiness or misery takes the form
of action; the end for which we live is a certain kind of
activity, not a quality.
Character gives us qualities, but it
is in our actions-what we do that we are happy or the
reverse. In a play accordingly they do not act in order to
portray the Characters; they include the Characters for
the sake of the action. So that it is the action in it,
i. e. its Fable or Plot, that is the end and purpose of the
tragedy; and the end is everywhere the chief thing.
Besides
this, a tragedy is impossible without action, but there may
be one without Character.
The tragedies of most of the
moderns are characterless-a defect common among poets
of all kinds, and with its counterpart in painting in Zeuxis
as compared with Polygnotus; for whereas the latter is
strong in character, the work of Zeuxis is devoid of it.
And
again: one may string together a series of characteristic
speeches of the utmost finish as regards Diction and Thought,
and yet fail to produce the true tragic effect; but one will have
much better success with a tragedy which, however inferior in
these respects, has a Plot, a combination of incidents, in it.
And again: the most powerful elements of attraction in
Tragedy, the Peripeties and Discoveries, are parts of the
Plot.
A further proof is in the fact that beginners succeed
earlier with the Diction and Characters than with the con-
struction of a story; and the same may be said of nearly
all the early dramatists.
We maintain, therefore, that the
first essential, the life and soul, so to speak, of Tragedy
is the Plot; and that the Characters come second-
compare
the parallel in painting, where the most beautiful colours
laid on without order will not give one the same pleasure
as a simple black-and-white sketch of a portrait.
We main-
tain that Tragedy is primarily an imitation of action, and
that it is mainly for the sake of the action that it imitates
the personal agents.
Third comes the element of Thought,
i. e. the power of saying whatever can be said, or what is
appropriate to the occasion.
This is what, in the speeches
in Tragedy, falls under the arts of Politics and Rhetoric;
for the older poets make their personages discourse like
statesmen, and the moderns like rhetoricians.
One must
not confuse it with Character. Character in a play is that
which reveals the moral purpose of the agents, i. e. the sort
of thing they seek or avoid, where that is not obvious-
hence there is no room for Character in a speech on a purely
indifferent subject.
Thought, on the other hand, is shown
in all they say when proving or disproving some particular
point, or enunciating some universal proposition.
Fourth
among the literary elements is the Diction of the personages,
i. e. as before explained, the expression of their thoughts
in words, which is practically the same thing with verse as
with prose.
As for the two remaining parts, the Melody
is the greatest of the pleasurable accessories of Tragedy.
The
Spectacle, though an attraction, is the least artistic of all
the parts, and has least to do with the art of poetry. The
tragic effect is quite possible without a public performance
and actors; and besides, the getting-up of the Spectacle is
more a matter for the costumier than the poet.
Poetics (Thomas Twining, 1789) (OCR draft) Experimental (Thomas Twining's English translation of Aristotle's Poetics, published in 1789 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 6.19 focus
The fable, then, is the principal part, the soul, as it were, of Tragedy; and the MANNERS are next in rank:
The Poetic of Aristotle (Henry James Pye, revised 1792) (OCR draft) Experimental (Henry James Pye's revised 1792 English translation, corrected against the 1788 first edition, aligned to the Kassel reference edition, and supplied with a selective apparatus of substantive 1788 readings.) — 6.19 focus
The professed end of tragedy is to imitate an action
The Poetic of Aristotle (Theodore Alois Buckley) (OCR draft) Experimental (Theodore Alois Buckley's English translation, first published in 1850 and represented from the Henry G. Bohn 1857 printing; corrected against a second OCR and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 6.19 focus
Tragedy also is an imitation of action,
Poetica Latine conversa (Franciscus Ritter, 1839) (OCR draft) Experimental (Franz Ritter's Latin translation, corrected against OCR of the represented copy and aligned to the conventional Perseus chapter-and-subchapter sequence.) — 6 focus
Itaque de imitatione per hexametros et de comoedia post disseremus, de tragoedia autem dicamus, colligentes eius ex ante dictis consectariam definitionem ingenii.
est igitur tragoedia imitatio actionis gravis et absolutae, magnitudinem habentis, condito sermone, haud coniunctis quibusque formis in partibus, agentium nec per narrationem, miseratione ac metu perficiens talium perturbationum purgationem.
dico autem conditum sermonem qui numerum habet et modulationem cantumque,
illud autem separatum secundum formas quod nonnulla solis metris absolvuntur et alia rursus per cantum.
sed quoniam agentes imitationem faciunt, primum necessario erit quaedam pars tragoediae ornatus spectaculi, deinde modorum confectio et dictio: his enim faciunt imitationem.
dico autem dictionem ipsam metrorum compositionem; modorum confectionem cuius omnis vis in aperto est,
sed quoniam actionis est imitatio, agitur autem a quibusdam agentibus, quos qualitatis cuiusdam esse oportet pro morali habitu et animi sententia (nam ob haec etiam actiones qualitatis cuiusdam esse dicimus), duas consentaneum est actionum causas esse, sententiam et moralem habitum, et secundum haec omnes finem et attingunt et ab eo aberrant.
est autem fabula actionis imitatio: dico enim fabulam hanc compositionem factorum, mores autem, secun– dum quos qualitatis cuiusdam esse agentes dicimus, sententiam autem, ubi dicentes aliquid demonstrant aut etiam quid existiment declarant.
itaque necesse est, ut cuiusque tram goediae partes sint sex, quibus qualitatem quandam nanciscitur tragoedia: hae autem sunt fabula et mores et dictio et sententia et spectaculum et melopoeia.
quibus enim imitantur, duae partes sunt, quomodo imitantur, una, quae imitantur, tres, et praeter haec nulla.
[his igitur non pauci eorum, ut ita dicam, usi sunt formis: namque spectacula habet quodcumque et mores et fabulam et dictionem et
cantum et sententiam eodem modo.] summum vero ex his faetorum compositio: tragoedia enim imitatio est non hominum sed actionis [et vitae et felicitatis: etiam infelicitas actione continetur, et finis actio est aliqua, non qualitas]. sunt autem pro moribus qualitate quadam praediti, pro actionibus felices aut contra.
non igitur ut mores imitentur agunt, scd mores una complectuntur propter actiones. itaque facta et fabula finis tragoediae: finis autem omnium summum est.
praeterea sine actione non fiat tragoedia, sed sine moribus fiat: nam tragoediae recentiorum plerorumque moribus carent, et omnino poetae multi tales, quod etiam ex pictoribus Zeuxidi ad Polygnotum comparato accidit: Polygnotus enim bonus morum pictor, sed Zeuxidis pictura nullos habet mores.
porro si quis deinceps ponat sermones moratos et dictiones et sententias bene factas, non faciet quod tragoediae officium erat, sed multo magis ea tragoedia quae his parcius usa fabulam tamen habet et compositionem factorum.
accedit quod quibus maxime animos tenet tragoedia, fabulae partes sunt, peripetiae et agnitiones.
etiam hoc signum est quod qui poesin adgrediuntur prius dictioni et moribus iuste possunt respondere quam facta componere, quemadmodum etiam primi poetae fere omnes.
principium igitur et quasi anima tragoediae est fabula, proxime autem sequuntur mores.
[
simile enim quoddam evenit etiam in arte pingendi: nam si quis illeverit pulcherrimis pigmentis fuse, non perinde delectaverit quam imagine alba delineata.
estque imitatio actionis atque per hanc potissimum agentium.
tertium sententia.
id autem est dicere posse quae rei insunt quaeque apta sunt, id quod in orationibus artis politicae et rhetoricae negotium est: nam antiqui politice dicentes faciebant, hodierni rhetorice.
morale autem est id quod declarat studium quale sit;
quapropter non habent morale orationum in quibus plane non est quod expetat aut fugiat qui loquitur: sententia autem, in quibus demonstrant aliquid quale sit aut non sit, aut generatim quid declarant.
quartum est orationum elocutio: dico autem, ut ante monitum est, dictionem esse per vocabula elocutionem, id quod et in metricis et in orationibus eandem vim habet.
ex relicuis autem quinque melopocia summum est condimentorum.
spectaculum autem animos quidem tenet, sed artis maxime expers et minime proprium poeticae: tragoediae enim vis etiam sine certamine et histrionibus est. praeterea circa confectionem spectaculorum opificis ars potius versatur quam poetarum.]
Poetica d'Aristotile (Bernardo Segni, 1549) (OCR draft) Experimental (Bernardo Segni's 1549 Florentine Italian translation, aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 6 focus
Ma della imitatione He roica, & della Commedia diremo più di ſotto. Et della Tragedia diremo hora dando la diffinitione della ſua natura, che per le coſe dette fi dimoſtra...
Adunche la Tragedia vna imitatione d'attione virtuoſa perfetta, & che habbia grandezza con parlar ſuaue ſeparatamente in ciaſcheduna ſua ſpetie nelle parti di coloro, che van negociando; conducendo l'eſpurgatione degli affetti, non per via di narratione, ma per via di mifericordia, & di timore.
1
Io chia mo parlar ſuaue quello, che ha numero, armonia, & dolcezza.
Et per ſeparatamente in ciaſcuna ſua ſpetie intendo il conduruiſi à fine certe coſe ſolamente per via del Verſo; & certe altre anchora per via della Mu fica.
Et concioſia che l'Imitation ſi faccia dagli agenti, però di neceſsità fia l'apparato vna principale parte d'eſ ſa Tragedia; dappoi la Muſica & la Locutione: perchè có queſte parti ſi fa l'imitatione.
Io chiamo locutione eſſa cópofitura deuerſi. Et muſica chiamo quella parte, che ha tutta quella forza, che è ad ogni huomo manife ſta.
Ma perchè queſto Poema imita l'attioni, le quali da gli agéti ſi mettono in atto; che per neceſsità debbon'eſ ſere di queſta, et di quella forte:ſecondo che egli hanno il coſtume, ò'l diſcorſo. Che inuero l'attioni ſon'tali ſecondo le due coſe dette.
Però conſeguita, che il diſcor fo, & il coſtume ſien' due cagioni delle attioni humane, & che mediante queſte due coſe ciaſcun' confeguiſca,ò non conſeguiſca i ſuoi defiderii. Et la Fauola quella, che il fatto ci rappreſenta. Chiamo Fauola lo intrecciamento di quel negotio. Coſtume quello, che dà qualità, & nome agli agenti. Diſcorſo tutto quello, onde chi parla dimoſtra; ò non dimoſtra qualche fentenza.
Onde è di neceſsità, che da ſei parti fia tutta la Tragedia compreſa; mediante le quali ella ſi chiami, ò buona,ò cattiua.
Et queſte ſono la Fauola, Il Coſtume, La Locutione, Il Diſcorſo, L'Apparato, Et la Muſica.
Delle quali parti due ne fono, con che ſi fa l'imitatione. Vna ferue folamente al modo dell'imitare; le tre altre feruono alle coſe, che s'imitano: & fuori di queſte altre non ſi ritrouano.
Tali parti adunche vſan' affai i Poeti Tragici (per dir'coſi) nella Tragedia; conciofia che l'Apparato contenga il tutto:cioè il coſtume, la fauola, la locutione, la muſica, & il diſcorſo. Ma l'importanza di tutte queſte parti è la conſtitutione delle coſe, che vi ſi trattano; perchè la Tragedia imita non gli huomini, ma l'attioni, & le vite : & la felicità, & la infelicità. La qual'felicità conſiſte nell'attione. Et il fine è vna certa attione, & non qualità.
Bene è vero, che da coſtumi s'acquiſta la qualità. Et dall' attioni la felicità; ò il ſuo cótrario. Non ſi fanno adunche l'attioni per ca gione d'imitare i coſtumi;ma ſi ben'li coſtumi s'appren don' mediante l'attioni.
Onde auuiene, che l'attioni, & che la fauola ſia il fine inteſo dalla Tragedia.
Et il fine (com'è detto) è infra tutte le coſe il ſupremo. Imperochè e' nő potrebbe eſſere mai Tragedia ſenza attio ne, ma ſi ben ſenza coſtumi; conciofia che la piu parte delle Tragedie moderne ne manchino,& che affai Poe ti ſi ritrouino della maniera medefima: ſicome fra' Dipintori fu Zeuſi diſsimigliante da Polignoto.
Perchè AP coſtui ritraſſe nella ſua dipintura coſtumi buoni:& l'al tro nella ſua non ve ne fece apparire alcuno. Anchora fe vno nella ſua Tragedia dirà continuatamente parole morali, vſerauui buona locutione, & buon' diſcorſo; non però farà egli il vero vifitio della Tragedia:ma via più lo farà, chi, vſando in eſſa piu parcamente tutte le coſe dette, vi farà apparir' la Fauola, & la conſtitution d'eſſa rettamente ordinata.
Oltradiqueſto quelle coſe, che in eſſa Tragedia ſon' più poſſenti à conciliarſi gli a nimi degli vditori, ſono d'eſſa Fauola parte; come fon le Peripetie:& le Recognitioni.
Segno è di ciò, che que gli, che tentan' di fare il lor Poema eſatto, prima conſeguiſcon' ciò con la locutione, & con i coſtumi; che có la conſtitutione della Fauola. Ilchè auuenne quafi à tutti i Poeti antichi.
E' adunche il principio, & quafi l'anima della Tragedia la Fauola ſteſſa; & nel ſecondo luogo ſono i coſtumi: doue in ciò.appariſce anchora, ch'ell'è ſimile alla dipintura.
Perchè ſe quiui alcuno dipignerà có bellissimi colori vna immagine in varii luo ghi, non porgerà perqueſto tanto diletto à chi la riguardi; quanto harebbe porto chi l'haueſſe tinta diſtintamente à punto col bianco.
E' ella pertanto imitatione d'una attione: & di quella mafsimamente, mediante la quale operano gli agenti.
Nel terzo luogo è il Diſcorſo, Et queſto no importa altro, che poter dir le coſe, che ſono in eſſa caufa;& che ad eſſa conuengono.
Ilche nel parlare ſciolto propiamente s'appartiene alla facultà Ciuile; & alla Rettorica.
Et certo che i Poe ti antichi finſero quei, che parlaſſer' ciuilmente; & li moderni ſi ſon' attenuti piu al parlare Oratorio.Il Coſtume è quella tal coſa, che moſtra qual ſia l'elettione in quelle coſe, doue non appariſce ſe, chi le dice, elegge,o nó elegge di farle. Et diqui naſce, che certi parlari ſi ritroua, i quali non hanno coſtume.
Il Diſcorſo appa rifce in quelle coſe, oue e'ſi dimostra, che la coſa ſia, ò nonfia; è doue ſi pronuntia qualche detto vniuerfalmente.
Il quarto luogo in queſto ordine ha la locutione. Intendo (ficome ho detto innanzi) per la locutione quella coſa, che per uia della pronuncia de' nomi ci va fignificando i concetti; la quale ha la medefima forza ne' verſi, che nella proſa.
Del resto delle altre cinque parti la Muſica le vince tutte nella dolcezza.
Et l'ultima, che è l'Apparato, piglia aſſai gli animi, et maca affai d'artifitio; & non è parte propia della Poetica : perchè la forza della Tragedia ſta & ſenza gli Iſtrioni, & ſenza la Scena, Anchora tale arte, ch'all'apparato appartienfi, è più propia dell'Architettore, ch'ella non è del Poeta. Doppo queſte determinationi diciamo qualmente deb ba effer fatta la conſtitutione del negotio, conciofia che queſta coſa ſia la prima, & la più importante, che nella Tragedia fitruoui. N
De poetica (Antonio Riccobono, 1587) (OCR draft) Experimental (Antonio Riccobono's Latin translation, first published in 1587; text represented from Immanuel Bekker's 1831 edition.) — 6 focus
Ac de imitatione quidem quae fit hexametro, et de comoedia posterius dicemus. de tragoedia vero dicamus, assumentes ipsius definitionem, quae ex iis quae dicta sunt nascitur, unde patet ipsius natura.
est igitur tragoedia imitatio actionis probae et perfectae, magnitudinem habentis, suavi sermone, separatim singulis formis in partibus agentibus, et non per enarrationem, sed per misericordiam et metum inducens talium perturbationum purgationem.
iam dico suavem sermonem habentem numerum et harmoniam et melodiam.
illud autem separatim formis" propterea quod quaedam solum efficiuntur per metra, et rursus alia per melodiam.
quoniam autem agentes faciunt imitationem, primum quidem ex necessitate erit aliqua pars tragoediae apparatus, deinde melopoeia et dictio: in his enim faciunt imitationem.
ac dico dictionem ipsam metrorum
com-. positionem
compositionem, melopoeiam vero id ipsum quod manifestam omnibus vim habet.
et quoniam actionis est imitatio, atque agitur a quibusdam agentibus, quos necesse est cuiusdam modi esse et secundum mores et sententiam (nam propter haec etiam actiones dicimus esse cuiusdam modi),
naturaliter sunt duae causae actionum, sententia et mores. et secundum has tum fortunati tum infortunati sunt omnes. est autem actionis quidem fabula imitatio: dico enim fabulam hanc rerum compositionem, mores vero secundum quos cuiusdam modi esse dicimus agentes, at sententiam ea omnia in quibus dicentes demonstrant aliquid vel etiam enuntiant mentem.
necesse igitur est omnis tragoediae partes esse sex, secundum quas cuiusdammodi est tragoedia;
atque hae sunt fabula, mores et dictio et sententia et apparatus et melopoeia.
quibus enim imitantur, duae partes sunt, quomodo imitantur, una, quas imitantur, tres. etenim apparatus habet omne et mores et fabulam et dictionem et melos et sententiam similiter.
maximum vero horum est rerum compositio. tragoedia enim imitatio est non hominum sed actionum et vitae et felicitatis et infelicitatis. etenim felicitas in actione est, et finis actio quaedam est, non qualitas.
ac sunt quidem secundum mores cuiusdam modi, at secundum actiones felices vel contra. non igitur agunt ut imitentur mores, sed propter actiones mores complectuntur.
quare res et fabula finis est tragoediae,
ac finis maximum omnium est. nam sine actione non fieret tragoedia, at sine moribus fieret. recentium enim plurimorum tragoediae sine moribus sunt; et omnino poëtae multi tales, sicut et ex pictoribus Zeuxis ad Polygnotum se habet:
nam Polygnotus bonus morum descriptor, at Zeuxidis pictura prorsus caret moribus. praeterea si quis ordine posuerit collocutiones moratas et dictiones et sententias benefactas, non efficiet quod est tragoediae opus: sed multo magis efficiet tragoedia, quae his quidem deterioribus usa sit, at habeat fabulam et compositionem rerum bene factam.
ad haec maximae res quibus capit animos tragoedia, sunt fabulae partes, nempe peripetiae et agnitiones.
praeterea signum est, quod et qui conantur rem poëticam agere, prius possunt dictione et moribus res exquisite tractare quam res componere, ut primi poetae ferme omnes.
ac principium quidem et tanquam animus tragoediae fabula est, secundum autem mores.
assimile enim est in pictura: nam si quis illineret pulcherrimis coloribus fusim, non similiter delectaret ac si quis albo describeret imaginem.
est autem imitatio actionis, et per hanc maxime agentium.
tertium vero sententia. id autem est dicere posse insita et convenientia,
quod in orationibus politicae et rhetoricae opus est:
nam prisci politice introducebant dicentes, qui vero nunc sunt, rhetorice. iam mores sunt tale quiddam, quod aperit praeelectionem, qualis sit in illis in quibus non est manifestum utrum dicens eligat aut fugiat.
sententia vero est in illis in quibus demonstrant aliquid aut esse aut non esse, aut enuntiant aliquid in universum.
quartum est sermonum dictio. ac voco, quemadmodum prius dictum est, dictionem per verba interpretationem, quod et in metris et in orationibus eandem vim habet.
reliquarum vero quinque melopoeia est maximum condimentorum.
et apparatus allicit quidem animos, sed maxime est artis expers et minime proprius poeticae: nam tragoediae vis et sine certamine et histrionibus est. praeterea o vero potentior est circa fabricam apparatuum ars illius qui scenam conficit quam ars poetarum.
De arte poetica liber (William of Moerbeke, ca. 1277) (OCR draft) Experimental (William of Moerbeke's medieval Latin translation, represented by the 1953 Aristoteles Latinus edition.) — 6 focus
De ea igitur que in exametris imitativa et de komodia, posterius dicemus. De tragodia autem dicamus sumentes ipsius ex dictis factum terminum substantie.
Est igitur tragodia imitatio actionis studiose et perfecte, magnitudinem habentis, delectante sermone seorsum unaquaque specierum in partibus, actitantium et non per enuntiationem, per misericordiam et timorem concludens talium mathematum purificationem.
Dico autem delectantem quidem sermonem habentem rythmum et armoniam et melodiam,
seorsum autem speciebus per metra solum quedam concludi et iterum altera per melodiam. —
Quoniam autem agentes faciunt imitationem, primo quidem ex necessitate utique erit aliqua pars tragodie visus ornatus. Deinde melodie factio et locutio; in hiis enim faciunt imitationem.
Dico autem locutionem quidem ipsam metrorum compositionem, melodie factionem autem quod potentiam manifestam habet omnem. —
Quoniam autem actio est imitatio, agitur autem ab aliquibus agentibus, quos necesse quales quosdam esse et secundum morem et secundum ratiocinationem (per hec enim et actiones esse dicimus quales quasdam) nate sunt cause due actionum esse, ratiocinatio et mos, et secundum has et sortiuntur et deficiunt omnes. —
Est autem actionis quidem fabula imitatio; dico autem fabulam hanc confictionem rerum, mores autem secundum quos quales quosdam dicimus esse agentes; ratiocinationem autem in quibuscumque dicentes demonstrant aliquid aut etiam negant sententia. —
Necesse igitur omnis tragodie partes esse sex, secundum quod qualis quedam est tragodia ; hee autem sunt fabula et mores et locutio et ratiocinatio et visus et melodie factio.
Quibus quidem enim imitantur due partes sunt, quomodo autem imitantur una, que autem imitantur tres, et preter has nichil. —
Hiis quidem igitur non pauci ipsorum ut est dicere usi sunt speciebus; et enim visus habet omne et morem et fabulam et locutionem et melodiam et ratiocinationem eodem modo.
Maximum autem horum est rerum consistentia ; tragodia enim imitatio est non hominum sed actionis et vite et felicitatis ; et infelicitas in actione est, et finis actio quedam est, non qualitas. Sunt autem secundum mores quidem quales quidam, secundum actiones autem felices aut contrarium.
Igitur quatinus mores imitentur agunt, sed mores simul comprehendunt propter actiones ; quare res et fabula finis tragodie, finis autem maximum omnium. —
Adhuc sine actione quidem non utique fiet tragodia, sine moribus autem fiet utique.
Nam iuvenum plurimorum sine moribus tragodie sunt, et totaliter poete multi tales, quale et scriptorum Zeuxis ad Polygnostum passus est ; Polygnostus quidem enim bonus morum scriptor, scriptura autem Zeuxidis nullum habet morem. —
Adhuc si quis consequenter ponat series morales et locutiones et ratiocinationes factas, poetizabit quod erat tragodie opus, sed multo magis que deterioribus hiis usa tragodia. —
Fabule partes sunt et peripetie et anagnorisees (idest recognitiones). —
Adhuc signum quod et conantes poetizare prius possunt locutione et moribus acrivizare quam res scire, velut et qui primi poete fere omnes. —
Principium quidem igitur et velut anima tragodie fabula, secundum autem mores.
Consimile enim est et in pictura ; si enim aliquis inunxerit pulcherrimis farmacis habundanter, non utique similiter letificabit et albo depingens ymaginem.
Estque imitatio actionis et propter hanc maxime agentium. —
Tertium autem ratiocinatio, scilicet posse dicere inentia et que congruunt, quod quidem in sermonibus politice et rethorice opus est;
antiqui quidem enim politice faciebant dicentes, qui autem nunc rethorice. —
Est autem mos quidem tale quod manifestat electionem, qualis quedam in quibus non est palam si eligit aut fugit; propter quod quidem non habent morem sermonum, in quibus quidem neque totaliter est quod quis eligit aut fugit dicens. —
Ratiocinatio autem in quibus demonstrant aliquid quomodo est aut quomodo non est aut universaliter quid enuntiant. —
Quartum autem sermonum quidem locutio ; dico autem, sicut prius dictum est, locutionem esse eam que per nominationem interpretationem, quod et in metrizatis et in sermonibus habet eandem potentiam. —
Reliquorum autem quinque que melodie factio maximum delectaminum.
Visus autem anime abductivum quidem, inartificiosissimum autem et minime conveniens poetice ; ut enim tragodie potentia et sine agone et ypocritis est, adhuc autem circa elaborationem visuum magis propria ars vasificorum est quam que poetarum.
Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition) (OCR draft) Experimental (The Arabic translation attributed to Abū Bishr Mattā, edited by Jaroslaus Tkatsch in 1928 and aligned to the Kassel reference passage sequence.) — 6 focus
واما التشبيه والمحاكة الكاينة بالاوزان السدسية فنحن قايلون بالاخرة وكذلك فى صناعة الهجا ٮعصب لذلك مما قيل الحد الدال على الجوهر
فصناعة المديح هى تشبيه ومحاكاة للعمل الارادى الحريص والكامل التى لها عظم ومداد فى القول النافع ما خلال كل واحد واحد من الانواع التى هى فاعلة فى الاجزا لا بالمواعيد وتعدل الانفعالات والتاثيرات بالرحمة والخوف وتنقى وتنظف الذين يفعلون ويعمل
اما لهذا فقول النافع له لحن وانواع وصوت ونغمة
واما لهذا ڡٮحعلٮـ ان تستتم الاجزا من غير الانواع التى بسبب الاوزان وايضا عند ما يعدون اخر التى تكون بالصوت والنغمة
ياتون بتشبيه ومحاكاة الامور فليكن اولا من الاضطرار جزو ما من صناعة المديح فى صفة جمال وحسن الوجه وايضا ففى هذه عمل الصوت والنغمة والمقولة وبهذين يفعلون التشبيه والمحاكاة
واعنى بالمقولة تركيب الاوزان نفسه واما عمل الصوت والنغمة للقوة الظاهرة التى هى مقنية بجميعه
من قبل انه تشبيه ومحاكاة للعمل ويعرضها من قوم يعرضون التى تدعوا الضرورة اليها مثل اى اناس يكونوا فى عاٮاتهم واعتقادتهم وذلك ان بهذه نقول ان الاحاديث تكون وكم هى وكيف حالها وعلل الاحاديث والقصص اثنتا وهما العادات والارا وان بحسب توجد الاحاديث والقصص من حيث يستقيم كلها بهذين وتزل بهما
وخرفة الحديث والقصص هى تشبيه ومحاكاة واعنى بالخرافة وحكاية الحديث تركيب الامور واما العادات فبحسب ما عليه ويقال المحدثين والقصاص الذين يرون كيف هم او كيف هى فى اٮراٮهم ويرون كيف هم فى ادلتهم
وقد يجب ضرورة ان يكون جميع اجزا صناعة المديح ستة اجزا بحسب اى شى كانت هذه الصناعة وهذه الاجزا هى هذه الخرافات والعادات والمقولة والاعتقاد والنظر والنغمة الصوت
والاجزا هى الذين يشبهون ايضا ويحاكون اثنان فيما يشبهون به ويحاكونه وفى اخر ما يشبهون به ثلثة ومن هذا
وهذه التى يستعملها فانه يستعمل انواع هذه كيف جرت الاحوال وذلك ا***** وىى كل عادة وخرافة ومقولة وقينة والراى هذه حالها
واعظم من قوام الامور من قبل ان صناعة المديح هى تشبه وحكاية لا للناس لكن ٮاعمال والحياة والـ**** هى فى العمل وهى امر هو كمال ما وعمل ما وهم اما بحسب العدات فيشبهون كيف كانوا واما بحسب الاعمال فالفايزين او بالعكس
وانما يعرضون ويتحدثون لكيما يشبهون بعاداتهم ويحاكونها غير ان العادات يعرضونها بسبب اعمالهم حتى يكون الامور [والامور] والخرافات اخر صناعة المديح والكمال نفسه هو اعظمها جميعا
وايضا من غير العمل لا يكون صناعة المديح واما بلا عادة فقد يكون
من قبل ان مديحات الصبيان اكثرها بلا اعادة وبالجملة الشعرا الاخر هم بهذه الحال كالحال فيما كان عن زوكسيدس المكتت عند ما دونه الى فراغنوطس من قبل ان ذاك رجل قد كان يكتب عادات جياد خيرة واما ما دونه وكسيدس فليس فيه عادة ما
وايضا ان وضع انسان كلام ما فى الاعتقاد والمقولة والذهن ومما تركيبه تركيبا حسنا فانه ليس يلحق البتة ان يفعل ما كان فما تقدم فعلى صناعة المديح لكن يكون التركيب الذى يوتا فى هذا الوقت اقل من التركيب الذى كان يكون اذذاك بكثير
فهكذى كان استعمال صناعت المديح اعنى انه قد كان لها الخرافة وقوام الامر وقد كان مع هذين لما كان منها عظيم الشان تعزية ما وتقوية للنفس غير ان اجزا الخرافة الدوران والاستدلال
وايضا الدليل على ان الذين يفعلون بالعمل هم اولا يقتدرون على الاستقصا فى العمل اكثر مد تقويم الامور كما ان الشعرا المتقدمين
مثلا المبدا والدليل لهم على ما فى النفس هما الخرافة التى فى صناعة المديح والثانية العادات
وذلك ان بالقرب هكذى هى التى فى الرسوم والصورة وذلك انه دهن انسان الاصباغ الجياد التى تعد للتصوير بدهن مكلف فانه **** ٮسر ٮٮها الاصنام والصور التى بعملها
كما تنفع وتلذ حكاية عمل الذى *ىلبه يرون الذين يحدثون ويقصون جميع الاخبار والامور
والثالثة الاعتقاد وهذا هو القدرة على الاخبار ايما هى الموجودة والموافقة كما هو فعل السياسة والخطابة على ****
الاوايل كانوا يعملون غير ما يقولون على مجرى السياسة الذين فى هذا الوقت فعلى مجرى الخطابة
والعادة التى هذه حالها هى التى تدل على الارادة مثل اى شى هى وذلك انه ليس من عادتهم ذلك فى الكلام الذى يخبر به الانسان شى ما ويختار ايضا او يهرب الذى يتكلم
الاعتقاد والتى بها يرون اما ان يكون كما هو موجود او كما ليس هو موجودا وكما يرون
والرابعة هى ان الكلام هى مقول واعنى بذلك ما قيل اولا والمقولة التى بالتسمية هى تفسير للكلام الموزون وغير الموزون الذى قوته قوة واحدة
واما الذى لهذه الباقية فصنعة الصوت هى اعظم من جميع المنافع
واما المنظر فهو معزى للنفس غير انه بلا صناعة وليس البتة مناسب لصناعة الشعرا من قبل انه قوة صناعة المديح وبغير الجهاد وهى من المنافقين وايضا تمام عمل صناعة الاوٮاٮ هى اولى بالتحقيق عند البصر من صناعة الشعرا
Arabic Poetics (Abū Bishr Mattā; Tkatsch edition, unaligned) (OCR draft) Experimental (Tkatsch's edition of the medieval Arabic translation in its original, unaligned segmentation.) — 6 focus
واما التشبيه والمحاكة الكاينة بالاوزان السدسية فنحن قايلون بالاخرة وكذلك فى صناعة الهجا ٮعصب لذلك مما قيل الحد الدال على الجوهر
فصناعة المديح هى تشبيه ومحاكاة للعمل الارادى الحريص والكامل التى لها عظم ومداد فى القول النافع ما خلال كل واحد واحد من الانواع التى هى فاعلة فى الاجزا لا بالمواعيد وتعدل الانفعالات والتاثيرات بالرحمة والخوف وتنقى وتنظف الذين يفعلون ويعمل
اما لهذا فقول النافع له لحن وانواع وصوت ونغمة واما لهذا ڡٮحعلٮـ ان تستتم الاجزا من غير الانواع التى بسبب الاوزان وايضا عند ما يعدون اخر التى تكون بالصوت والنغمة
ياتون بتشبيه ومحاكاة الامور فليكن اولا من الاضطرار جزو ما من صناعة المديح فى صفة جمال وحسن الوجه وايضا ففى هذه عمل الصوت والنغمة والمقولة وبهذين يفعلون التشبيه والمحاكاة
واعنى بالمقولة تركيب الاوزان نفسه واما عمل الصوت والنغمة للقوة الظاهرة التى هى مقنية بجميعه
من قبل انه تشبيه ومحاكاة للعمل ويعرضها من قوم يعرضون التى تدعوا الضرورة اليها مثل اى اناس يكونوا فى عاٮاتهم واعتقادتهم وذلك ان بهذه نقول ان الاحاديث تكون وكم هى وكيف حالها وعلل الاحاديث والقصص اثنتا وهما العادات والارا وان بحسب توجد الاحاديث والقصص من حيث يستقيم كلها بهذين وتزل بهما
وخرفة الحديث والقصص هى تشبيه ومحاكاة واعنى بالخرافة وحكاية الحديث تركيب الامور واما العادات فبحسب ما عليه ويقال المحدثين والقصاص الذين يرون كيف هم او كيف هى فى اٮراٮهم ويرون كيف هم فى ادلتهم
وقد يجب ضرورة ان يكون جميع اجزا صناعة المديح ستة اجزا بحسب اى شى كانت هذه الصناعة وهذه الاجزا هى هذه الخرافات والعادات والمقولة والاعتقاد والنظر والنغمة الصوت
والاجزا هى الذين يشبهون ايضا ويحاكون اثنان فيما يشبهون به ويحاكونه وفى اخر ما يشبهون به ثلثة ومن هذا
وهذه التى يستعملها فانه يستعمل انواع هذه كيف جرت الاحوال وذلك ا***** وىى كل عادة وخرافة ومقولة وقينة والراى هذه حالها
واعظم من قوام الامور من قبل ان صناعة المديح هى تشبه وحكاية لا للناس لكن ٮاعمال والحياة والـ**** هى فى العمل وهى امر هو كمال ما وعمل ما
وهم اما بحسب العدات فيشبهون كيف كانوا واما بحسب الاعمال فالفايزين او بالعكس
وانما يعرضون ويتحدثون لكيما يشبهون بعاداتهم ويحاكونها غير ان العادات يعرضونها بسبب اعمالهم
حتى يكون الامور [والامور] والخرافات اخر صناعة المديح والكمال نفسه هو اعظمها جميعا
وايضا من غير العمل لا يكون صناعة المديح واما بلا عادة فقد يكون
من قبل ان مديحات الصبيان اكثرها بلا اعادة وبالجملة الشعرا الاخر هم بهذه الحال كالحال فيما كان عن زوكسيدس المكتت عند ما دونه الى فراغنوطس من قبل ان ذاك رجل قد كان يكتب عادات جياد خيرة واما ما دونه وكسيدس فليس فيه عادة ما
وايضا ان وضع انسان كلام ما فى الاعتقاد والمقولة والذهن ومما تركيبه تركيبا حسنا فانه ليس يلحق البتة ان يفعل ما كان فما تقدم فعلى صناعة المديح لكن يكون التركيب الذى يوتا فى هذا الوقت اقل من التركيب الذى كان يكون اذذاك بكثير
فهكذى كان استعمال صناعت المديح اعنى انه قد كان لها الخرافة وقوام الامر وقد كان مع هذين لما كان منها عظيم الشان تعزية ما وتقوية للنفس غير ان اجزا الخرافة الدوران والاستدلال
وايضا الدليل على ان الذين يفعلون بالعمل هم اولا يقتدرون على الاستقصا فى العمل اكثر مد تقويم الامور كما ان الشعرا المتقدمين
مثلا المبدا والدليل لهم على ما فى النفس هما الخرافة التى فى صناعة المديح والثانية العادات
وذلك ان بالقرب هكذى هى التى فى الرسوم والصورة وذلك انه دهن انسان الاصباغ الجياد التى تعد للتصوير بدهن مكلف فانه **** ٮسر ٮٮها الاصنام والصور التى بعملها
كما تنفع وتلذ حكاية عمل الذى *ىلبه يرون الذين يحدثون ويقصون جميع الاخبار والامور
والثالثة الاعتقاد
وهذا هو القدرة على الاخبار ايما هى الموجودة والموافقة كما هو فعل السياسة والخطابة على **** الاوايل كانوا يعملون غير ما يقولون على مجرى السياسة الذين فى هذا الوقت فعلى مجرى الخطابة
والعادة التى هذه حالها هى التى تدل على الارادة مثل اى شى هى وذلك انه ليس من عادتهم ذلك فى الكلام الذى يخبر به الانسان شى ما ويختار ايضا او يهرب الذى يتكلم
الاعتقاد والتى بها يرون اما ان يكون كما هو موجود او كما ليس هو موجودا وكما يرون
والرابعة هى ان الكلام هى مقول واعنى بذلك ما قيل اولا والمقولة التى بالتسمية هى تفسير للكلام الموزون وغير الموزون الذى قوته قوة واحدة
واما الذى لهذه الباقية فصنعة الصوت هى اعظم من جميع المنافع
واما المنظر فهو معزى للنفس غير انه بلا صناعة وليس البتة مناسب لصناعة الشعرا من قبل انه قوة صناعة المديح وبغير الجهاد وهى من المنافقين
وايضا تمام عمل صناعة الاوٮاٮ هى اولى بالتحقيق عند البصر من صناعة الشعرا