Aristote Poetics 24.16

The next point is that there must be the same varieties of epic as of tragedy ¹ : an epic must be simple or complex, ² or else turn on character or on calamity.

The constituent parts, too, are the same with the exception of song and spectacle. Epic needs reversals and discoveries and calamities, and the thought and diction too must be good.

All these were used by Homer for the first time, and used well. Of his poems he made the one, the Iliad, a simple story turning on calamity, and the Odyssey a complex story—it is full of discoveries—turning on character. Besides this they surpass all other poems in diction and thought.

Epic differs from tragedy in the length of the composition and in metre.

The limit of length already given ³ will suffice—it must be possible to embrace the beginning and the end in one view, 20 which would be the case if the compositions were shorter than the ancient epics but reached to the length of the tragedies presented at a single entertainment. ⁴

Epic has a special advantage which enables the length to be increased, because in tragedy it is not possible to represent several parts of the story as going on simultaneously, but only to show what is on the stage, that part of the story which the actors are performing; whereas, in the epic, because it is narrative, several parts can be portrayed as being enacted at the same time.

If these incidents are relevant, they increase the bulk of the poem, and this increase gives the epic a great advantage in richness as well as the variety due to the diverse incidents; for it is monotony which, soon satiating the audience, makes tragedies fail.

Experience has shown that the heroic hexameter is the right metre. Were anyone to write a narrative poem in any other metre or in several metres, the effect would be wrong.

The hexameter is the most sedate and stately of all metres and therefore admits of rare words and metaphors more than others, and narrative poetry is itself elaborate above all others.

The iambic and the trochaic tetrameter are lively, the latter suits dancing and the former suits real life.

1460a 1 Still more unsuitable is it to use several metres as Chaeremon did.

So no one has composed a long poem in any metre other than the heroic hexameter. As we said above, Nature shows that this is the right metre to choose.

Homer deserves praise for many things and especially for this, that alone of all poets he does not fail to understand what he ought to do himself.

The poet should speak as seldom as possible in his own character, since he is not representing the story in that sense. ⁵ Now the other poets play a part themselves throughout the poem and only occasionally represent a few things dramatically, but Homer after a brief prelude at once brings in a man or a woman or some other character, never without character, but all having character of their own.

Now the marvellous should certainly be portrayed in tragedy, but epic affords greater scope for the inexplicable(which is the chief element in what is marvellous), because we do not actually see the persons of the story.

The incident of Hector’s pursuit ⁶ would look ridiculous on the stage, the people standing still and not pursuing and Achilles waving them back, but in epic that is not noticed.

But that the marvellous causes pleasure is shown by the fact that people always tell a piece of news with additions by way of being agreeable.

Above all, Homer has taught the others the proper way of telling lies, 20 that is, by using a fallacy. When B is true if A is true, or B happens if A happens, people think that if B is true A must be true or happen. But that is false. Consequently if A be untrue but there be something else, B, which is necessarily true or happens if A is true, the proper thing to do is to posit B, for, knowing B to be true, our mind falsely infers that A is true also. This is an example from the Washing. ⁷

What is convincing though impossible should always be preferred to what is possible and unconvincing.

Stories should not be made up of inexplicable details; so far as possible there should be nothing inexplicable, or, if there is, it should lie outside the story—as, for instance, Oedipus not knowing how Laius died—and not in the play; for example, in the Electra the news of the Pythian games, ⁸ or in the Mysians the man who came from Tegea to Mysia without speaking. ⁹

To say that the plot would otherwise have been ruined is ridiculous. One should not in the first instance construct such a plot, and if a poet does write thus, and there seems to be a more reasonable way of treating the incident, then it is positively absurd.

Even in the Odyssey the inexplicable elements in the story of his landing ¹⁰ would obviously have been intolerable, had they been written by an inferior poet. 1460b 1 As it is, Homer conceals the absurdity by the charm of all his other merits.

The diction should be elaborated only in the idle parts which do not reveal character or thought. ¹¹ Too brilliant diction frustrates its own object by diverting attention from the portrayal of character and thought.

Again, Epic poetry must have as many kinds as
Tragedy: it must be simple, or complex, or 'ethical,'
or 'pathetic.'

The parts also, with the exception of
song and spectacle, are the same;
for it requires
Reversals of the Situation, Recognitions, and Scenes of
Suffering.

Moreover, the thoughts and the diction must
be artistic.
In all these respects Homer is our earliest
and sufficient model. Indeed each of his poems has a
twofold character.
The Iliad is at once simple and
'pathetic,' and the Odyssey complex (for Recognition
scenes run through it), and at the same time 'ethical.'
Moreover, in diction and thought they are supreme.

Epic poetry differs from Tragedy in the scale on
which it is constructed, and in its metre.

As regards
scale or length, we have already laid down an adequate
limit: the beginning and the end must be capable of
being brought within a single view.
This condition
will be satisfied by poems on a smaller scale than the
old epics, and answering in length to the group of
tragedies presented at a single sitting.

Epic poetry has, however, a great—a special—
capacity for enlarging its dimensions, and we can see the
reason.
In Tragedy we cannot imitate several lines of
actions carried on at one and the same time; we must
confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part
taken by the players.
But in Epic poetry, owing to the
narrative form, many events simultaneously transacted
can be presented;
and these, if relevant to the subject,
add mass and dignity to the poem.

The Epic has here
an advantage, and one that conduces to grandeur of
effect, to diverting the mind of the hearer, and relieving
the story with varying episodes.
For sameness of
incident soon produces satiety, and makes tragedies fail
on the stage.

As for the metre, the heroic measure has proved its
fitness by the test of experience.
If a narrative poem
in any other metre or in many metres were now com-
posed, it would be found incongruous.

For of all
measures the heroic is the stateliest and the most
massive;
and hence it most readily admits rare words
and metaphors, which is another point in which the
narrative form of imitation stands alone.

On the other
hand, the iambic and the trochaic tetrameter are stirring
measures, the latter being akin to dancing, the former
expressive of action.

Still more absurd would it be to
mix together different metres, as was done by Chaeremon.

Hence no one has ever composed a poem on a great scale
in any other than heroic verse.
Nature herself, as we
have said, teaches the choice of the proper measure.

Homer, admirable in all respects, has the special merit
of being the only poet who rightly appreciates the part
he should take himself.

The poet should speak as little
as possible in his own person, for it is not this that makes
him an imitator.
Other poets appear themselves upon
the scene throughout, and imitate but little and rarely.
Homer, after a few prefatory words, at once brings in
a man, or woman, or other personage;
none of them
wanting in characteristic qualities, but each with a
character of his own.

The element of the wonderful is required in Tragedy.
The irrational, on which the wonderful depends for its
chief effects, has wider scope in Epic poetry, because there
the person acting is not seen.

Thus, the pursuit of
Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage—the
Greeks standing still and not joining in the pursuit, and
Achilles waving them back.
But in the Epic poem the
absurdity passes unnoticed.

Now the wonderful is
pleasing: as may be inferred from the fact that every
one tells a story with some addition of his own,
knowing that his hearers like it.

It is Homer who
has chiefly taught other poets the art of telling lies
skilfully.
The secret of it lies in a fallacy. For,
assuming that if one thing is or becomes, a second is
or becomes, men imagine that, if the second is, the first
likewise is or becomes.
But this is a false inference.
Hence, where the first thing is untrue, it is quite un-
necessary, provided the second be true, to add that the
first is or has become.
For the mind, knowing the
second to be true, falsely infers the truth of the first.

There is an example of this in the Bath Scene of the
Odyssey.
Accordingly, the poet should prefer probable im-
possibilities to improbable possibilities.

The tragic plot
must not be composed of irrational parts. Everything
irrational should, if possible, be excluded; or, at all
events, it should lie outside the action of the play (as,
in the Oedipus, the hero's ignorance as to the manner
of Laius' death);
not within the drama, -as in the
Electra, the messenger's account of the Pythian games;
or, as in the Mysians, the man who has come from Tegea
to Mysia and is still speechless.

The plea that otherwise
the plot would have been ruined, is ridiculous;
such a
plot should not in the first instance be constructed.

But once the irrational has been introduced and an air
of likelihood imparted to it, we must accept it in spite of
the absurdity.
Take even the irrational incidents in the
Odyssey, where Odysseus is left upon the shore of Ithaca.
How intolerable even these might have been would be
apparent if an inferior poet were to treat the subject.
As it is, the absurdity is veiled by the poetic charm
with which the poet invests it.

The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of
the action, where there is no expression of character
or thought.
For, conversely, character and thought are
merely obscured by a diction that is over brilliant.

II. Besides this, Epic poetry must divide into the same
species as Tragedy;
it must be either simple or complex,
a story of character or one of suffering.

Its parts, too,
with the exception of Song and Spectacle, must be the
same, as it requires Peripeties, Discoveries, and scenes of
suffering just like Tragedy.
Lastly, the Thought and Diction
in it must be good in their way.

All these elements appear
in Homer first; and he has made due use of them. His
two poems are each examples of construction, the Iliad
simple and a story of suffering, the Odyssey complex (there
is Discovery throughout it) and a story of character. And
they are more than this, since in Diction and Thought too
they surpass all other poems.

There is, however, a difference in the Epic as compared
with Tragedy, (1) in its length, and (2) in its metre.

(1) As
to its length, the limit already suggested will suffice: it must
be possible for the beginning and end of the work to be
taken in in one view—a condition which will be fulfilled
if the poem be shorter than the old epics, and about as
long as the series of tragedies offered for one hearing.

For the extension of its length epic poetry has a special
advantage, of which it makes large use. In a play one
cannot represent an action with a number of parts going
on simultaneously; one is limited to the part on the stage
and connected with the actors. Whereas in epic poetry
the narrative form makes it possible for one to describe
a number of simultaneous incidents; and these, if germane
to the subject, increase the body of the poem.

This then
is a gain to the Epic, tending to give it grandeur, and also
variety of interest and room for episodes of diverse kinds.
Uniformity of incident by the satiety it soon creates is apt
to ruin tragedies on the stage.

(2) As for its metre, the
heroic has been assigned it from experience;
were any one
to attempt a narrative poem in some one, or in several, of
the other metres, the incongruity of the thing would be
apparent.

The heroic in fact is the gravest and weightiest
of metres—which is what makes it more tolerant than the
rest of strange words and metaphors, that also being a point
in which the narrative form of poetry goes beyond all others.

The iambic and trochaic, on the other hand, are metres of
movement, the one representing that of life and action,
the other that of the dance.

Still more unnatural would it
appear, if one were to write an epic in a medley of metres,
as Chaeremon did.

Hence it is that no one has ever written
a long story in any but heroic verse; nature herself, as we
have said, teaches us to select the metre appropriate to such
a story.

Homer, admirable as he is in every other respect, is
especially so in this, that he alone among epic poets is not
unaware of the part to be played by the poet himself in
the poem.

The poet should say very little in propria persona,
as he is no imitator when doing that. Whereas the other
poets are perpetually coming forward in person, and say but
little, and that only here and there, as imitators, Homer after
a brief preface brings in forthwith a man, a woman, or some
other Character—no one of them characterless, but each
with distinctive characteristics.

The marvellous is certainly required in Tragedy. The
Epic, however, affords more opening for the improbable,
the chief factor in the marvellous, because in it the agents
are not visibly before one.

The scene of the pursuit of
Hector would be ridiculous on the stage—the Greeks halting
instead of pursuing him, and Achilles shaking his head to
stop them; but in the poem the absurdity is overlooked.

The marvellous, however, is a cause of pleasure, as is shown
by the fact that we all tell a story with additions, in the
belief that we are doing our hearers a pleasure.

Homer more than any other has taught the rest of us the
art of framing lies in the right way. I mean the use of
paralogism. Whenever, if A is or happens, a consequent, B,
is or happens, men's notion is that, if the B is, the A also is
—but that is a false conclusion. Accordingly, if A is untrue,
but there is something else, B, that on the assumption of its
truth follows as its consequent, the right thing then is to add
on the B. Just because we know the truth of the conse-
quent, we are in our own minds led on to the erroneous
inference of the truth of the antecedent. Here is an instance,
from the Bath-story in the Odyssey.

A likely impossibility is always preferable to an uncon-
vincing possibility.

The story should never be made up of
improbable incidents; there should be nothing of the sort
in it. If, however, such incidents are unavoidable, they
should be outside the piece, like the hero's ignorance in
Oedipus of the circumstances of Laius' death; not within it,
like the report of the Pythian games in Electra, or the man's
having come to Mysia from Tegea without uttering a word
on the way, in The Mysians.

So that it is ridiculous to say
that one's Plot would have been spoilt without them, since
it is fundamentally wrong to make up such Plots. If the
poet has taken such a Plot, however, and one sees that he
might have put it in a more probable form, he is guilty of
absurdity as well as a fault of art.

Even in the Odyssey
the improbabilities in the setting-ashore of Ulysses would be
clearly intolerable in the hands of an inferior poet. As it
is, the poet conceals them, his other excellences veiling
their absurdity.

Elaborate Diction, however, is required
only in places where there is no action, and no Character
or Thought to be revealed. Where there is Character or
Thought, on the other hand, an over-ornate Diction tends to
obscure them.

Porro formas easdem habere epopoeia debet quas tragoedia [: nam aut simplex aut implicata aut moralis aut pathetica.],

ac partes easdem exceptis melopoeia et spectaculo: nam et peripetiis opus est et agnitionibus et perpessionibus; praeterea sententias et dictionem bene conforma tam habere debet.

quibus omnibus Homerus usus est et primus et satis. etenim ex poematis utrumvis conformatum est et Ilias quidem simplex ac patheticum, Odyssea autem implicatum agnitio enim fere est atque moralis.

ad haec dictione et sententia omnes superavit. differt autem compositionis ambitu epopoeia et metro.

ambitus definitio sufficit quae posita est: scilicet animo oportet comprehendi posse initium et finem. [fiat hoc fere, si antiquis minores compositiones sint, sed ad multitudinem tragoediarum, quae in unam auditionem committuntur,

accedant.] habet autem ad extendendam maguitudinem multa propria epopoeia, propterea ​ quod in tragoedia non licet multas partes quae simul aguntur imitari, sed illam in scena et histrionum partem solam: in epopoeia autem, quia narratio est, licet multas partes quae simul peraguntur tractare, quibus, si ad rem pertinent, augetur poematis abundantia.

quare hoc habet commodi ad magnificentiam, ut et mutet [audientem] et dissimilia episodia interiiciat: quod enim simile est celeriter satietatem afferendo facit ut exigantur tragoediae.

metrum autem beroum ab experientia aptum visum est. nam si quis alio quodam metro narrativam imitationem faceret vel multis, ineptum id videretur:

heroum enim maxime inter metra stabile et plenum est [, quamobrem etiam glossas et translationes potissimum recipit: abundantior enim etiam narrativa poesis est ceteris.], iambicum autem et tetrametrum motoria,

hoc saltatorium, illud aptum rebus agendis.

magis etiam ineptum si quis misceret illa, ut Chaeremo.

itaque nemo longam compositionem in alio fecit quam heroo, sed ut diximus, ipsa natura docet quid aptum sibi sit discernere.

Homerus vero cum ob alia multa laude dignus, tum quod unus ex poetis non ignorat quid deceat facere ipsum. ipsum enim decet poetam paucissima loqui: non enim est secundum haec imitator.

ceteri igitur ipsi ubique agunt, imitantur autem pauca et paucis locis: ille autem pauca praefatus statim inducit virum vel mulierem vel aliud quid moribus praeditum, ac nihil moribus destitutum [, sed habentia mores].

decet quidem in tragoediis effingere quod mirabile, magis autem admitti potest in epopoeia quod ratione caret (inde maxime nascitur quod mirabile), propterea quod non conspicimus eum qui agit, quandoquidem illa circa Hectoris

persecutionem in scena posita ridicula viderentur, hi stantes et non persequentes, ille autem renuens: sed in epicis latent.

mirabile autem iucundum est: signum quod omnes dum narrant augent ut gratum facturi. docuit autem potissimum Homerus etiam ceteros quomodo mendacia loqui deceat.

est vero hoc falsa ratiocinatio. opinantur enim homines, cum, si hoc est, illud sit, vel si hoc fit, illud fiat, ubi posterius est, etiam prius esse vel fieri. sed hoc falsum est. [cur vero, si prius falsum, dum alterum hoc verum est, cogimur, ut id aut esse aut factum esse adiiciamus? scilicet quia hoc scimus verum esse, falso concludit anima nostra etiam illud prius esse. exemplum autem hoc ex Niptris.] atque praeferre decet impossibilia

eademque verisimilia potius quam possibilia eademque incredibilia,

neque argumenta componere ex particulis ratione destitutis [, sed potissimum nihil habere a ratione absurdum, sin minus, extra fabulam, ut Oedipus quod nescit quomodo Laius occiderit, sed non in dramate, ut in Electra qui Pythia renuntiant, vel in Mysis ille qui tacens ex Tegea in Mysiam venit];

itaque dicere sublatum iri fabulam ridiculum est: nam ab initio non oportet componere tales: sed si quis posuerit, idque probabilius videatur, etiam quod a ratione,

absurdum non reprobare, quandoquidem etiam illa in Odyssea circa expositionem absurda quam non ferenda essent manifestum foret, si illa malus poeta fecisset: nunc vero ceteris bonis poeta obscurat condiendo id quod absurdum.

dictione autem decet elaborare in inertibus locis, qui neque moribus neque sententiis instructi sunt: occultat enim rursus nimis splendida dictio et mores et sententias.

ben' differente il conteſto del Poema Heroico per la lunghezza, & per il uerfo.Il termino della ſua lunghezza ſia ſtato da noi determinato à baſtanza, cioè che e' fia quello, doue ſi poſſa à vn'tratto contemplare il principio, & la fine. ¹

Et tal coſa harà egli, ſe il conteſto d'effo Poema ſarà minore di quello de gli antichi;& fe egli abbraccerà piu Tragedie ordinate l'una doppo l'altra per vna fola vditione. Ma il Poema Heroico ha vn certochè di propio per poter crefcere af fai in grandezza.

Ilchè non può conſeguire la Tragedia, conciofia che ella non poſſa imitare ad vn tratto piu attioni ſeguite; ma quelle ſole, che vengono allho ra in Scena: & quelle, che gli Iftrioni rappreſentano. Ma nel Poema Heroico, doue s'uſa appunto la narratione, u'è lecito d'accozzare inſieme piu parti, che ſieno ſeguite;

onde il corpo d'eſſo Poema, vſando quelle, come fue propie, diuenta maggiore, & di qui nafce, ch'à tal Poema conſeguita vn cómodo grade, che e' fa cioè il Poema magnifico, & ch'e rilieua l'animo dell'uditore; potendouiſi vſare gli Epiſodii difsimili; che inuero quello, che è ſimile, ſatia preſto, & è cagione, che la Tragedia non ſia apprezzata.

Et la eſperienza ſteſſa fece apparire, che il verſo Heroico fuſſe à tal forte di Poema conueniente; conciofia che chi faceſſe l'imitatione narratiua in altra forte di verſo, ò in verſi, che fuſsino di piu fatte, farebbe apparire il Poema indecoro.

Et la ragione è, che il verſo Heroico infra tutti gli altri hà lo ſtabile, & il gonfiato; onde nafce, che e' riceue attamente la varietà delle lingue, & le Metafore.

Che inuero l'imitatione narratiua è ſopra di tutte l'altre eccellente, & l'andare de verſi Iambi, & de verſi di otto piedi hà del leggieri.

Ma l'uno è atto alle faltationi, & l'altro è attiuo.

Anchora è coſa maggiormente diſconueneuole, ſe vn' Poeta meſcolaſſe inſieme tutte queſte ſorti diuerſi, come fece Chieremone. Onde nef ſuno è, che habbia mai fatto conteſto lungo in altro verfo, che nell'Heroico, & certamente la natura ſteſſa (ſicome io hò detto innanzi) ci inſegna tal verſo effere a tal Poema conueniente;

& Homero ſteſſo in que fſto anchora (ſicome in tutte l'altre coſe) è degno di molta lode, ilquale ſolo infra tutti Poeti non è ignorante di quello, che ſe li conuenga di fare.

Et certo che al Poeta non è cóueniente dire molte coſe in perſona propiasperchè in tal modo e' viene à no eſſere imitatore. Gli altri Poeti adúche per tutto il Poema in lor' per fona parlando, vengono perciò ad imitare poche coſe, & in pochi luoghi. Homero all'incontro fubito che egli ha proemiato, hora introduce vn' huomo,& hora vna donna à parlare, & hora introduce qualche coſtu me; ne mai mette innanzi nulla, che di coſtume fia manco: ma che ſempre ne fia ripieno.

Nella Tragedia certamente ſta bene farui apparire il marauiglioſo, ma vie più ſta bene fare apparire nel Poema Heroico quello, che gli corriſponda; & però à tale fi confà propiamente la marauiglia:

perchè in tal Poema e non fi riguarda allo agente.Concioſia che chi metteſſe in Sce na i caſi ſeguiti circa la perfecutione d'Hettore, gli farebbe apparire ridiculi; perchè e' vi ſi vedrebbe quegli ftar' fermi, & quell'altro non voler fare: ilchè in eſsi verfie naſcoſto.

Ma che il marauiglioſo porga diletto fiamene inditio, che gli huomini nel raccontare vna coſa nuoua, ſempre la vano amplificado; come quegli, che penſano di fare coſa grata agli uditori.

Et Homero inſegnò agli altri beniſsimo in che modo ſteſſe bene à proferire la bugia, & queſto è per via del Silogiſmo falſo; perchè gli huomini ſi ſtimano, che quado e' ſegue vna coſa, lamedeſima ſia in eſſere, o ſia ſtata fatta, et che fe'e' ſegue quello, che viene doppo, anchorche e'debba eſſere quello, che vien prima: ò che e'debba eſſere fatto. Et ciò nó è vero, ma per tal coſa certamete il primo è bugia; perche eſſendo in eſſere vnaltra coſa; la medeſima è di neceſsità che ſia, ò che ſia ſtata fatta. Et fappiendoſi certamente, che queſto è vero l'anima noſtra con falſo diſcorſo conchiude, che il primo debba anchora eſſer' vero. L'eſempio della qual coſa ſi può trarre della Tragedia chiamata Nittre.

Debbefianchora nel Poema eleggere piu toſto di fingeruile coſe LA PO ETICA impoſsibili, & verifimili, che le pofsibili, & che non fie no uerifimili.

Et i parlari non ſi debbono conſtituire tali, che manchino di ragione, anzi in eſsi non debbe effer' parte alcuna, che no ne ſia piena; & fe pure altrimenti: ſieno almanco fuori della Fauola, come è in eſempio Edippo, del non hauer' ſaputo in che modo Laio fuſſe ſtato morto. Ma non fi debbono mettere ne gli atti, ſicome è nello Elettra; quegli, che l'auuiſarono degli Oracoli Pitii, & come è nella Tragedia detta Miſe il Mutolo da Tegea, che andò in Miſiajonde il vo lerſi ſcufare Che facendo altrimenti la Fauola rouinerebbe è ſcuſa ridicola.

Perche e' Non fi debbono da principio tai Fauole conſtituire in tal modo, ma ſe elle ſono ſtate già poſte, & accettate; egli è più ragioneuol coſa à riceuere queſto inconueniente, che à torlo via: conciofia, che anchora nell'Odiſſea ciò che u'è detto intorno all'eſpoſitione d'Vliffe manchi di ragione.

La qual coſa in modo alcuno non farebbe da comportare ſe ella non fuſſe ſtata detta da vn Poeta buono, ma egli con begli artificii illuſtrando queſto diſconueneuole lo fa per tal conto apparir' piaceuole.

Quando e'ſi tratta parti otiofe debbe allhora il Poeta affaticarſi molto nella Locutione. L'oppofito debbe vſare doue in eſſe parti appariſcono coſtumi, o ſentenze; perchè la Locu tione troppo luminoſa ſuole adombrare le ſentenze, & i coſtumi.

Praeterea vero epopoeiam oportet habere formas easdem cum tragoedia:

aut enim simplicem ant aut implexam aut moratam aut affectam oportet esse.

et partes extra melopoeiam et apparatum easdem:

etenim ei opus est peripetiis et agnitionibus et affectibus. praeterea sententias et elocutionem recte habere. quibns quibus omnibus Homerus usus est primus et satis: etenim poëmatum utrumque constitutum est,

Ilias quidem simplex et affectam, Odyssea vero implexum: agnitio enim per totum et moralis est. ad haec dictione et sententia omnes superavit. differt autem epopoeia et constitutionis longitudine et metro.

ac longitudinis quidem terminus sufhciens dictus est: debet enim esse eiusmodi ut simul conspici et principium et finis possit. id sane esset, si priscis minores constitu- tiones constitutiones essent, et pervenirent ad multitudinem tragoediarum quae in unam ponerentur auditionem.

habet vero multum quiddam epopoeia, et quidem proprium, ut extendere magnitudinem possit, propterea quod non contingit in tragoedia imitari multas partes, quae eodem tempore geruntur, sed eam solam quae geritur in scena et histrionum est.

at in epopoeia, quia narratio est, licet efficere at simul multae partes ad finem perducantur, quae cum propriae sint, augent poëmatis molem.

quare hoc habet, quod bonum est ad magnificentiam et ad mutationem audientis et ad incrementum, quod fit dissimilibus episodiis: simile enim, quod cito satietatem affert, eſſicit ut tragoediae displiceant. metrum autem heroicum ex experientia quadravit:

nam si quis aliquo alio metro narrativam imitationem efficeret aut multis, indecorum certe appareret.

heroicum enim firmissimum et tumidissimum est metrorum;

quamobrem et linguas et translationes maxime recipit. supervacanea enim est narrativa motio aliorum. iambicum vero et tetrametrum mobilia sunt, hoc quidem ad saltationem accommodatum, illud vero rebus agendis idoneum. praeterea vero absurdius fit, si quis ipsa misceat ut Chaeremon. quamobrem nemo fecit longam constitutionem alio nisi heroo.

sed ut dicimus, ipsa docet natura ut illud ipsum partiamur quod congruit. Homerus autem et in aliis multis dignus est qui laudetur, et in hoc etiam, quod solus inter poētas id non ignorat quod ipsum facere oportet.

ipsi enim poëtae quam paucissima dicenda sunt: etenim ipse non est secundum haec imitator. ac alii quidem ipsi per totum in actione versantur, et pauca imitantur ac paucis in locis: at hic cum pauca praefatus sit, statim inducit virum so aut mulierem aut aliquos alios mores, et nihil morum expers, sed habens mores.

ac oportet quidem in tragoediis efficere id quod admirabile est: sed magis in epopoeia contingit id quod ratione vacat.

quamobrem contingit maxime id quod admirabile est, quia non spectant in agentem, quoniam quae evenerunt circa Hectoris insectationem, in scena certe apparerent ridicula, hi quidem stantes et non insectantes,

hic vero rennens: at in epicis latent. iam admirabile iucundum est. ac signum est, quod omnes addentes nuntiant, tanquam gratificantes.

et docuit maxime Homerus alios falsa dicere ut oportet. atque hoc naturam habet paralogismi: existimant enim homines, quando, dum unum est aut factum est, alterum fit, si posterius est, etiam prius esse vel fieri; hoc autem mendacium est. iccirco primum iam certe mendacium est. sed necesse non est, dum unum est, ut alterum sit vel fiat vel apponatur. nam quia scit hoc verum esse, falso ratiocinatur animus noster etiam primum, tanquam id quod sit.

eligenda autem sunt quae fieri non possunt et verisimilia sunt, magis quam quae heri possunt et parum apposita sunt ad persuadendum.

ac sermones non constituendi ex partibus carentibus ratione, sed maxime quidem, ut nihil habeant quod careat ratione, si vero non sint tales, at certe habeant extra faculam, ut Oedipus illud habet quod nesciat quomodo Lains mortuus sit. non autem in dramate, ut in Electra,

qui Pythia nuntiant, ant aut in Mysis, qui sinc voce ex Tegea in Mysiam venit. quare ridiculum est dicere fabulam interituram, quia a principio non oportet constituere tales.

quodsi quis constituerit et apparuerit magis consentaneum recipere, erit etiam absurdum, quoniam et quae sunt in Odyssea sine ratione, nempe quae circa expositionem, nullo modo tolerabilia esse manifestum foret, si ipsa malus poëta faceret.

nunc autem aliis bonis poëta obscurat, iucundum reddens absurdum. dictione autem oportet laborare in partibus otiosis et non moratis neque sententiarum pleuis: contra enim occultat dictio valde splendida tum mores tum sententias.

Adhuc autem species easdem oportet habere epopoiiam tragodie (aut enim simplicem aut complexam aut moralem aut passionalem)

et partes extra melopoiiam (idest melodie factionem) et visum easdem. Et enim peripetiis indiget et anagnorisibus et passionibus, adhuc dianoias (idest ratiocinationes) et locutionem habere bene.

Quibus omnibus Homerus usus est et primus et sufficienter. Et enim laborum utrumque constituit, Ilias quidem simplex et passionale, Odysseia autem complexum. Anagnorisis enim per totum et moralis. Cum hiis enim locutione et dianola omnia superiecit.

Differt autem secundum consistentie longitudinem epopoia et metrum.

Longitudinis quidem igitur terminus sufficiens qui dictus est; posse enim conspici principium et finem. Erit autem utique hoc, si antiquis quidem minores consistentie aut priorem multitudinem tragodiarum in unam auditionem positarum pretermittat. —

Habet autem ad superextendi magnitudinem aliquam epopoia proprium, propterea quod in tragodia quidem non contingit simul actas multas partes imitari, sed quod in skene et ypocritis pars solam ; in epopoia autem propterea quod narratio est, est multas partes simul poetizare terminatas, a quibus, convenientibus entibus, excrescit poematis moles.

Quare hoc habet bonum ad magnificentiam et ad transmutari audientem et episodizare dissimilibus episodiis ; simile enim cito replens excidere facit tragodias. —

Metrum autem quod eroicum ab experientia congruit. Si enim aliquis in aliquo alio metro narrativam imitationem faciat aut in multis, indecens utique apparebit ;

quod enim eroicum stabilissimum et maxime molis metrorum est (propter quod et linguas et metaforas suscipit maxime ; superfluus enim et narrativus motus aliorum),

quod autem iambiale et tetrametrum motiva hoc quidem saltativum hoc autem activum. —

Adhuc autem inconvenientius, si misceat quis ipsa, sicut Chairemon.

Propter quod nullus magnam consistentiam in alio poetizavit quam eroico, sed, sicut diximus, ipsa natura docet quod congruum ipsi eligere.

Homerus autem alias in multis dignus laudari, et etiam quia solus poetarum non ignorat quod oportet poetizare ipsum.

Ipsum enim utique poetam paucissima prologizare. Non enim est secundum hec imitator. Alii quidem igitur ipsi quidem per totum agonizant, imitantur autem pauca et raro ; hic autem pauca prohemizans mox inducit virum aut mulierem aut alium aliquem morem et neque unum morem, sed habentem mores. —

Oportet quidem igitur in tragodiis facere quod mirabile, magis autem contingit in epopoia quod proportionale, propter quod accidit maxime quod mirabile, propter non aspicere ad agentem ;

deinde que circa Hectoris persecutionem in scene entia risilia utique videbuntur, hii quidem stantes et non persequentes, hic autem sursum nuens, in versibus autem latet.

Ouod autem mirabile delectabile; signum autem' omnes apponentes annuntiant ut gratiosi.

Docuit autem maxime Homerus et alios falsa dicere ut . — Est autem hoc paralogismus. Putant enim homines, quando hoc ente aut fiente hoc fit, si quod posterius est, et quod prius esse aut fieri; hoc autem est falsum. Propter quod utique, et si quod primum falsum, sed neque hoc ente necesse esse aut fieri aut apponi. Propter hoc enim scire verum quibus paralogizatur nostra anima et quod primo ens. Exemplum autem huic ex Niptro.

Preelegi hoc inpossibilia signa magis quam possibilia inprobabilia;

sermonesque non consistere ex partibus irrationabilibus, sed maxime quidem nullum habere irrationabile. Si autem non, extra fabulamen, sicut Oidipus non scire qualiter Iolaus mortuus est, sed non in dramate (idest actione), sicut in llectra qui divinamina enuntiantes aut in Mysois qui sine voce ex terra in Mysiam veniens.

Quare dicere quod interimetur utique fabula risile; ex principio enim non oportet consistere tales. S1 autem ponatur et videatur rationabihus, contingere et inconveniens ; quoniam et que in Odysseia irrationabilia que circa expositionem quomodo non utique essent tolerabilia palam utique fiet, si ipsa pravus poeta fecerit

Nunc autem alis bonis poeta occultat delectans quod inconveniens.

Locutioni autem oportet pervigilare in ociosis partibus et neque moralibus neque dianoiticis ; occultat enim iterum que valde fulgida locutio moresque et dianoias.

‏وايضا هذه الالهة صعت الافى فى المديح دايما واما بسيطة واما مركبة واما انفعالية بالاجزا

‏وهذه هى خارجة عن نغمة الصوت والبصر وذلك انه قد ندعوا الحاجة الى *لڡراس والعناية والانفعالات من حيث يكون [لا] للارا والمقولات قوام وبالجملة هذه الٮـ* **ن

‏يستعملها اوميروس اول السمرا وعلى الكفاية وذلك ان شعر كلتيهما هو مركب واما ايليدا فبسيطة وانفعالية واما القصيدة فمركبة وهى الذى تدل بالكلية على العادات ومع هذه هى دالة باللفظ والذهن على كل فعل

‏وصنعة الاسطر والوزن محتلفة فى طول قوامها

‏والحد الكافى للطول هو ذلك الحد الذى قيل وهو الذى فيه الامكان فى الابتدا والاخر وهذا هو الذى جميع تراكيب القدما تقصر وتنقص واما نحو المديحات التى لها موانسة واحدة يوتا بها اكثر

‏ولها ايضا اعنى صنعة الافى المنسوبة الى ايلين وان تمتد فى طولها كثير من قبل انه فى المديح لا يمكن ان يكون غير ما كانت تقتص ويتحدث بها ان تتشبه باجزا كثيرة لكن بذلك الجزو الذى من المسكن وبالجزو الماخوذ من المرايين واما فى صناعة افى فيمكن ذلك من قبل ان المعنى للشعر فيها هو اقتصاص عظيم حتى انه يوجد لها فى عظم التها

‏والاخلق هذا الخير وهو انها تغير السامع وتدخل علل الا شبيه من قبل ان الشبه ٮسڌٮم سريعا وتصير بالمديحات الى ان تقع

‏اما وزن النشيدات فانما وقفت من المٮحربه وذلك ان الانسان ان هو اتى وغير اقتصاص ما والتشبيه الذى بالكثير فانه يرى غير لايق ولا خليق

‏من قبل ان وزن النشيد هو اكبر ارتكازا واكثر له عرارا من جميع الاوزان ولذلك قد يقبل ايضا الالسن والتاديات والانتقالات وجميع الزيادات جدا جدا من قبل ان الشبيه الداخل فى باب الحديث والقصص هو اخر ولا سيا

‏واما الشعر المعروف بايانبو فهو ذو اربعة اوزان ** من الحركات اثنتان اعنى الٮاحسه والعميلة

‏وايضا من القبيح ان لم يعرف بمنزلة خاريمون

‏من قبل ليس يوجد انسان صنع قوام طويل فى وزن اخر غير الوزن الذى فى النشيد لكن كما قلنا ** ان الطبيعة تفيدنا ما هو موافق له فى هذه التى هى بالاختيار

‏واما اوميروس فهو مستحق للمديح والتفريط فى اشيا اخر تفريطا كثيرا اذ كان هو وحده فقط من بين جميع الشعرا ليس يذهب عليه ما ينبغى ان يفعل

‏وقد ينبغى للشاعر ان يكون ما يتكلم به يسيرا قليلا وذلك انه ليس هو فى مشبه محاكى فاما الشعرا الاخر فمنهم من يجاهده جدا ويكون به تشبيه وحكاية فى اشيا ٮسٮٮه واما ذلك فمن حيث انما عمل صدرا يسيرا فهو *** على الحال رجل او امراة او عادة فى حكايته من ساعته من حيث لا ياتى ***لك بشى لم يعتاد لكن ما قد اعتيد

‏وقد يجب ان يعمل فى المديحات ما هو عجيب وهذا ***ں خاصة فى صنعة افى وهى الى الا العجيب فيها يعرض فى تسقيمها من قبل انه لا ينظر نحو العالم

‏ومن بعد هذه يوتا بها نحو هزىمة قطور كما يوتا فى المسكن الاستهزايات والمضحكات من حيث يرى اما بعضها وهو قايم وقف ولا يطلب ويتبع الموتى واما ذاك فمن حيث يخطر واما فى افى فقد يخفى ولا يشعر به

‏واما الامر العجيب فهو من هوا او مٮى او امر

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‏وايضا هذه الالهة صعت الافى فى المديح دايما واما بسيطة واما مركبة واما انفعالية بالاجزا

‏وهذه هى خارجة عن نغمة الصوت والبصر وذلك انه قد ندعوا الحاجة الى *لڡراس والعناية والانفعالات

‏من حيث يكون [لا] للارا والمقولات قوام وبالجملة هذه الٮـ* **ن

‏يستعملها اوميروس اول السمرا وعلى الكفاية

‏وذلك ان شعر كلتيهما هو مركب واما ايليدا فبسيطة وانفعالية واما القصيدة فمركبة وهى الذى تدل بالكلية على العادات

‏ومع هذه هى دالة باللفظ والذهن على كل فعل

‏وصنعة الاسطر والوزن محتلفة فى طول قوامها

‏والحد الكافى للطول هو ذلك الحد الذى قيل وهو الذى فيه الامكان فى الابتدا والاخر

‏وهذا هو الذى جميع تراكيب القدما تقصر وتنقص واما نحو المديحات التى لها موانسة واحدة يوتا بها اكثر

‏ولها ايضا اعنى صنعة الافى المنسوبة الى ايلين وان تمتد فى طولها كثير من قبل انه فى المديح لا يمكن ان يكون غير ما كانت تقتص ويتحدث بها ان تتشبه باجزا كثيرة لكن بذلك الجزو الذى من المسكن وبالجزو الماخوذ من المرايين واما فى صناعة افى فيمكن ذلك من قبل ان المعنى للشعر فيها هو اقتصاص عظيم حتى انه يوجد لها فى عظم التها

‏والاخلق هذا الخير وهو انها تغير السامع وتدخل علل الا شبيه من قبل ان الشبه ٮسڌٮم سريعا وتصير بالمديحات الى ان تقع

‏اما وزن النشيدات فانما وقفت من المٮحربه

‏وذلك ان الانسان ان هو اتى وغير اقتصاص ما والتشبيه الذى بالكثير فانه يرى غير لايق ولا خليق من قبل ان وزن النشيد هو اكبر ارتكازا واكثر له عرارا من جميع الاوزان ولذلك قد يقبل ايضا الالسن والتاديات والانتقالات وجميع الزيادات جدا جدا من قبل ان الشبيه الداخل فى باب الحديث والقصص هو اخر ولا سيا

‏واما الشعر المعروف بايانبو فهو ذو اربعة اوزان ** من الحركات اثنتان اعنى الٮاحسه والعميلة

‏وايضا من القبيح ان لم يعرف بمنزلة خاريمون

‏من قبل ليس يوجد انسان صنع قوام طويل فى وزن اخر غير الوزن الذى فى النشيد لكن كما قلنا ** ان الطبيعة تفيدنا ما هو موافق له فى هذه التى هى بالاختيار

‏واما اوميروس فهو مستحق للمديح والتفريط فى اشيا اخر تفريطا كثيرا اذ كان هو وحده فقط من بين جميع الشعرا ليس يذهب عليه ما ينبغى ان يفعل

‏وقد ينبغى للشاعر ان يكون ما يتكلم به يسيرا قليلا وذلك انه ليس هو فى مشبه محاكى

‏فاما الشعرا الاخر فمنهم من يجاهده جدا ويكون به تشبيه وحكاية فى اشيا ٮسٮٮه واما ذلك فمن حيث انما عمل صدرا يسيرا فهو *** على الحال رجل او امراة او عادة فى حكايته من ساعته من حيث لا ياتى ***لك بشى لم يعتاد لكن ما قد اعتيد

‏وقد يجب ان يعمل فى المديحات ما هو عجيب وهذا ***ں خاصة فى صنعة افى وهى الى الا العجيب

‏فيها يعرض فى تسقيمها من قبل انه لا ينظر نحو العالم ومن بعد هذه يوتا بها نحو هزىمة قطور كما يوتا فى المسكن الاستهزايات والمضحكات من حيث يرى اما بعضها وهو قايم وقف ولا يطلب ويتبع الموتى واما ذاك فمن حيث يخطر واما فى افى فقد يخفى ولا يشعر به

‏واما الامر العجيب فهو من هوا او مٮى او امر

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