A third difference in these arts is the manner in which one may represent each of these objects.

20 For in representing the same objects by the same means it is possible to proceed either partly by narrative and partly by assuming a character other than your own—this is Homer’s method—or by remaining yourself without any such change, or else to represent the characters as carrying out the whole action themselves.

These, as we said above, are the three differences which form the several species of the art of representation, the means, the objects, and the manner.

It follows that in one respect Sophocles would be the same kind of artist as Homer, for both represent good men, and in another respect he would resemble Aristophanes, for they both represent men in action and doing things. And that according to some is the reason why they are called dramas, because they present people as doing ¹ things.

And for this reason the Dorians claim as their own both tragedy and comedy—comedy is claimed both by the Megarians here in Greece , who say that it originated in the days of their democracy, and by the Megarians in Sicily , ² for it was from there the poet Epicharmus ³ came, who was much earlier than Chionides and Magnes; and tragedy some of the Peloponnesians claim. Their evidence is the two names.

Their name, they say, for suburb villages is κῶμαι—the Athenians call them Demes—and comedians are so called not from κωμάζειν, to revel, but because they were turned out of the towns and went strolling round the villages( κῶμαι). 1448b 1 Their word for action, they add, is δρᾶν, whereas the Athenian word is πράττειν.

TSo much then for the differences, their number, and their nature.

There is still a third difference—the manner in which
each of these objects may be imitated.

For the medium being the same, and the objects the same,
the poet may imitate by narration—in which case he can
either take another personality as Homer does, or speak in
his own person, unchanged—or he may present all his
characters as living and moving before us.

These, then, as we said at the beginning, are the three
differences which distinguish artistic imitation,—the
medium, the objects, and the manner.

So that from one point of view, Sophocles is an imitator
of the same kind as Homer—for both imitate higher types
of character; from another point of view, of the same kind
as Aristophanes—for both imitate persons acting and
doing.

Hence, some say, the name of 'drama' is given to such
poems, as representing action. For the same reason the
Dorians claim the invention both of Tragedy and Comedy.
The claim to Comedy is put forward by the Megarians, not
only by those of Greece proper, who allege that it
originated under their democracy, but also by the
Megarians of Sicily, for the poet Epicharmus, who is much
earlier than Chionides and Magnes, belonged to that
country. Tragedy too is claimed by certain Dorians of the
Peloponnese. In each case they appeal to the evidence of
language.

The outlying villages, they say, are by them called κῶμαι,
by the Athenians δήμοι: and they assume that Comedians
were so named not from κωμάζειν, 'to revel,' but because
they wandered from village to village (κατὰ κώμας), being
excluded contemptuously from the city. They add also
that the Dorian word for 'doing' is δρᾶν, and the
Athenian, πράττειν.

About the differences, then, of imitation, their number
and nature, let this suffice.

23.1 WITH respect to that species of Poetry which imitates by NARRATION, and in hexameter verse, it is obvious, that the fable ought to be dramatically constructed, like that of Tragedy ¹ ; and that it should have for its subject one entire and perfect action, having a beginning, a middle, and an end; so that, forming, like an animal, a complete whole, it may afford its proper pleasure: 23.2 widely differing, in its construction, from history, which necessarily treats, not of one action, but of one time ² ; and of all the events that happened, to one person, or to many, during that time; events, the relation of which, to each other, is merely casual ³ . 23.3 For, as the naval action at Salamis, and the battle with the Carthaginians in Sicily, were events of the same time, unconnected by any relation to a common end, or purpose; so also, in successive events, we sometimes see one thing follow another, without being connected to it by such relation. 23.4 And this is the practice of the generality of Poets.

23.5 Even in this, therefore, as we have before observed ⁴ , the superiority of HOMER's genius is apparent, that he did not attempt to bring the whole war, though an entire action with beginning and end, into his Poem. It would have been too vast an object, and not easily comprehended in one view ⁵ : or had he forced it into a moderate compass, it would have been perplexed by its variety ⁶ . Instead of this, selecting one part only of the war, he has, from the rest, introduced many Episodes-such as the catalogue of the ships, and others-by which he has diversified his Poem.

23.6 Other Poets take for their subject the actions of one person ⁷ , or of one period of time, or an action which, though one, is composed of too many parts. Thus, the author of the Cypriacs ⁸ , and of the Little Iliad ⁹ . 23.7 Hence it is, that the ILIAD, and the ODYSSEY, each of them, furnish matter for one Tragedy, or two, at most; but from the Cypriacs many may be taken, and from the Little Iliad, more than eight; as, The Contest for the Armour ¹⁰ , Philoctetes ¹¹ , Neoptolemus, Eurypylus, The Vagrant ¹² , The Spartan Women, The Fall of Troy, The Return of the Fleet ¹³ , Sinon ¹⁴ , and The Trojan Women ¹⁵ .

24.1 Again-the Epic Poem must also agree with the Tragic, as to its kinds: it must be simple, or complicated, moral, or disastrous ¹⁶ . 24.2 Its parts, also, setting aside Music and Decoration, are the same ¹⁷ ; for it requires Revolutions, Discoveries, and Disasters; and it must be furnished with proper sentiments and diction: 24.3 of all which HOMER gave both the first, and the most perfect, example. Thus, of his two Poems, the Iliad is of the simple and disastrous kind; the Odyssey, complicated, (for it abounds throughout with discoveries ¹⁸ ,) and moral. Add to this, that in language and sentiments he has surpassed all Poets.

24.4 The Epic Poem differs from Tragedy, in the length of its plan, and in its metre.

24.5 With respect to length, a sufficient measure has already been assigned ¹⁹ . It should be such, as to admit of our comprehending at one view the beginning and the end: and this would be the case, if the Epic Poem were reduced from its antient length, so as not to exceed that of such a number of Tragedies, as are performed successively at one hearing ²⁰ . 24.6 But there is a circumstance in the nature of Epic Poetry which affords it peculiar latitude in the extension of its plan. It is not in the power of Tragedy to imitate several different actions performed at the same time; it can imitate only that one which occupies the stage, and in which the actors are employed. But, the Epic imitation, being narrative, admits of many such simultaneous incidents, properly related to the subject, which swell the Poem to a considerable size. 24.7 And this gives it a great advantage, both in point of magnificence, and, also, as it enables the Poet to relieve his hearer, and diversify his work, by a variety of dissimilar Episodes: for it is to the satiety naturally arising from similarity that Tragedies frequently owe their ill success.

24.8 With respect to metre, the heroic is established by experience as the most proper; so that, should any one compose a narrative Poem in any other, or in a variety of metres, he would be thought guilty of a great impropriety. 24.9 For the heroic is the gravest and most majestic of all measures; and hence it is, that it peculiarly admits the use of foreign and metaphorical expressions; for in this respect also, the narrative imitation is abundant and various beyond the rest. 24.10 But the Iambic and Trochaic have more motion; the latter being adapted to dance, the other to action and business. 24.11 To mix these different metres, as Chaeremon has done, would be still more absurd. 24.12 No one, therefore, has ever attempted to compose a Poem of an extended plan in any other than heroic verse; nature itself, as we before observed ²¹ , pointing out the proper choice.

24.13 Among the many just claims of HOMER to our praise, this is one-that he is the only Poet who seems to have understood what part in his Poem it was proper for him to take himself. 24.14 The Poet, in his own person, should speak as little as possible; for he is not then the imitator ²² . But other Poets, ambitious to figure throughout, themselves ²³ , imitate but little, and seldom. HOMER, after a few preparatory lines, immediately introduces a man, a woman, or some other character ²⁴ ; for all have their character-no where are the manners neglected.

24.15 The surprising is necessary in Tragedy ²⁵ ; but the Epic Poem goes farther, and admits even the improbable and incredible, from which the highest degree of the surprising results, because, there, the action is not seen ²⁶ . 24.16 The circumstances, for example, of the pursuit of Hector by Achilles, are such, as, upon the stage, would appear ridiculous;-the Grecian army standing still, and taking no part in the pursuit, and Achilles making signs to them, by the motion of his head, not to interfere ²⁷ . But in the Epic Poem this escapes our notice. 24.17 Now the wonderful always pleases; as is evident from the additions which men always make in relating any thing, in order to gratify the hearers.

24.18 It is from HOMER principally, that other Poets have learned the art of feigning well. It consists in a sort of sophism. When one thing is observed to be constantly accompanied, or followed, by another, men are apt to conclude, that, if the latter is, or has happened, the former must also be, or must have happened. But this is an error. * * For, knowing the latter to be true, the mind is betrayed into the false inference, that the first is true also ²⁸ .

24.19 The Poet should prefer impossibilities which appear probable, to such things as, though possible, appear improbable ²⁹ . 24.20 Far from producing a plan ³⁰ made up of improbable incidents, he should, if possible, admit no one circumstance of that kind; or, if he does, it should be exterior to the action itself, like the ignorance of Oedipus concerning the manner in which Laius died ³¹ ; not within the drama, like the narrative of what happened at the Pythian games, in the Electra ³² ; or, in The Mysians, the man who travels from Tegea to Mysia without speaking ³³ . 24.21 To say, that without these circumstances the fable would have been destroyed, is a ridiculous excuse: the Poet should take care, from the first, not to construct his fable in that manner. If, however, any thing of this kind has been admitted, and yet is made to pass under some colour of probability, it may be allowed, though even, in itself, absurd. 24.22 Thus in the Odyssey ³⁴ , the improbable account of the manner in which Ulysses was landed upon the shore of Ithaca, is such, as in the hands of an ordinary Poet, would evidently have been intolerable: but here, the absurdity is concealed under the various beauties, of other kinds, with which the Poet has embellished it.

24.23 The Diction should be most laboured in the idle parts of the Poem-those, in which neither manners, nor sentiments prevail ³⁵ ; for the manners and the sentiments are only obscured by too splendid a diction ³⁶ .

[1] ¹ 3.1 THERE is also a third difference of these, consisting in the manner in which one may imitate each of ^{2 3 4 5} them. For by the same instruments the same things may be imitated, the poet sometimes himself narrating, and sometimes assuming another person [as Homer does]1 ; 3.2 or speaking as the same person without any change; or as all imitate [who do so] by deed and action. 3.3 But imitation consists in these ⁶ three differences, as we said in the beginning; viz. in the means, the objects, or the manner. 3.4 Hence, Sophocles will in one respect be the same imitator as Homer, for both of them imitate elevated characters ; and in another the same as Aristophanes, for both of them imitate persons engaged in acting; ⁷ [2 whence also it is said that certain persons call their works dramas, because they imitate those who are engaged in doing something. On this account the Dorians lay claim to the invention of tragedy and comedy; of comedy indeed the Megarians, as well those who are natives of Greece, as being invented by them at the time when their government was a democracy, as those of Sicily. 3.5 For thence was the poet Epicharmus, who was much prior to Chonides and Magnes. But some of those Dorians who inhabit Peloponnesus lay claim to tragedy, making names an evidence. For they allege that they call their villages komai, 3.6 but the Athenians demo;; as if comedians were not so denominated from komazein, [i. e. to revel,] but from their wandering through villages, being ignominiously expelled from the cities. The verb poiein also, or to make, is by the Dorians denominated dran, 3.7 but by the Athenians prattein.] ⁸ And thus much concerning the differences of imitation, as to their number and quality. ^{9 10}

Etiam tertia horum differentia quomodo singula horum imitetur aliquis.

nam eisdem et eadem imitari licet nunc quidem renuntiando sive aliam personam induit [sicut Homerus facit] sive idem manet neque mutat, aut ita ut omnes agendo et operando imitentur.

tribus igitur his differentiis imitatio obnoxia est, ut ab initio diximus, per quae et quae et quomodo.

quamobrem ab una idem imitator Sophocles est qui Homerus, quippe ambo graves imitantur, ab altera qui Aristophanes: agentes enim et operantes ambo imitantur.

[unde etiam δράματα appellari ea quidam dicunt, quod imitantur δρῶντας. ideo etiam tragoediam et comoediam sibi vindicant Dorienses, comoediam quidem Megarenses, tum qui hic, quo scilicet tempore populare imperium apud eos fuerit, tum qui ex Sicilia (inde enim erat Epicharmus poeta, multo prior Chonide et Magnete), et tragoediam nonnulli eorum qui in Peloponneso, ex nominibus indicium facientes.

hi enim xouas pagos se vocare dicunt, Athenienses autem δήμους; quippe comoedos non a κωμάζειν dictos esse, sed quod per κώμας vagarentur ab urbanis contempti; et ποιεῖν ipsos appellare δρᾶν,

Athenienses autem πράττειν.] iam de differentiis, quot et quae in imitando sint, haec dicta sunto.

3.1 La troiſième difference conſiſte en la maniére dont on fait des imitations, 3.2 car avec les mêmes choſes, on peut imiter les mêmes ſujets, & les rendre pourtant trés-differens par la maniére, ſoit en faiſant un recit, ou en joüant ſoy-meſme quelqu'autre perſonnage, comme Homere l'a pratiqué heureuſement; ſoit ſans changer de perſonnage, en demeurant toûjours le même, ſoit enfin en faiſant toûjours agir ceux qu'on imite.

2. 3.3 Tout ce qui s'appelle imitation ne peut recevoir, comme je l'ay dit au commencement, que les trois differences dont j'ay parlé & que j'expliqueray par ces trois mots avec quoy, quoy, & comment. 3.4 De ſorte qu'au ſecond égard Sophocle reſſemble à Homere dans ſon imitation, car ils imitent tous deux les gens les plus conſiderables; & au troifiéme il reſſemble à Ariſtophane, parce que comme luy il imite des perſonnages, & qu'il les imite en agiſſant. C'eſt de là meſme qu'on a ſoûtenu que les pieces de Theatre devoient eſtre appellées dramatiques, du mot drame, qui ſignifie action. 3.5 Ce qui a donné lieu aux Doriens, de s'attribuer l'invention de la Tragedie & de la Comedie. Car les Megariens de ce pays ont pris la Comedie pour leur partage, ſoûtenant qu'elle eſt née dans leur état populaire. Les Megariens de Sicile l'ont auſſi revendiquée, parce que le Poëte Epicharmus, plus ancien que Chionides, & que Magnes, étoit Sicilien. Et quelques Doriens du Peloponeſe ſe ſont attribuez l'une & l'autre, & ont fondé leurs prétentions ſur les noms mêmes. 3.6 Premierement pour ce qui eſt de la Comedie, ils ſoûtiennent que les bourgs, que les Atheniens appellent Demoi, ſont appellez chez eux Comai, ce qui prouve, diſent-ils, que la Comedie n'a pas été ainſi appellée du mot Comazein, comme le prétendent les Atheniens pour s'en faire honneur, mais de celuy de Comé, bourg, parce que les premiers Comediens n'étant pas receus dans la Ville, alloient joüer dans les bourgs. 3.7 Ils ſoûtiennent auſſi qu'au lieu que les Atheniens diſent prattein, pour dire faire, ils diſent chez eux dran, d'où eſt tiré le nom qu'on donne à toutes les pieces de Theatre qui ſont appellées dramata, des Drames, c'est-à-dire, des actions. Cela ſuffit pour les differences de l'imitation, leur nombre, & leur nature.

Aggiungeciſi anchora vna terza differenza, & queſta conſiſte nel modo dello imitare; perchè dalli medefimi, ſi poſſono imitare le medeſime coſe.

Alcunauolta imitando vno che racconti, ò che ſi veſta la perſona d'altri; come vſa Homero. O' uero imi tando vn medefimo, & che non ſi ſcambi con altri. Ο' veramente faccendo l'imitatione tutta con gli agenti, & co' negotianti. Sta adunche l'imitatione, ficome nel principio dicémo, in tre differenze, cioè, Con che, Che cofe, & In che modo.

Onde conſeguita per vna ragione, che Sofocle ſia il medefimo imitatore, ch'è Homero;perchè amendue imitano huomini ſaggi. Et per vna altra fia il medesimo, che Ariſtofane; perchè amendue imitano agenti, & negotiati.

Onde alcuni fono, che ta li ſpetie di poeſie chiamano Atti, che in Greco fon det τι πράματα. Perchè e'vi s'imita gli agéti, che in greco fon detti Αρῶν ασ. Di qui naſce ancora, che i Dorienfi s'attribuiſcono il poema della Tragedia, et della Comedia, Quello della Comedia s'attribuiſcono quegli di Mega ra; fi li nati, dico, quiui nel tempo, ch'egli haueuono il popolare ſtato: Et ſi quegli, che vennero di Sicilia.

Onde fu Epicarmo Poeta, che viſſe molto innanzi à Con nide, & à Magnete. Et quello della Tragedia s'attribui ſcono certi, che habitano nelle Moree. Et che ciò ſia vero, ne traggono queſto inditio dal nome; Conciofia che e' dichino, che appreſſo di loro i borghi ſi chiamaſ fero κώμαι. Et appreſſo degli Athenieſi ſi chiamaſſero δήμοι: come ſe i Comedi non fuſsin'detti da κωμάζει, che vuol dire laſciuire;ma fuſsin'detti dall'andar vagabon di pe borghi.

I quai borghi eran' detti κώμαι, per eſſere hauuti in difpregio nelle Città. Dipiù eſsi chiamauano queſto nome di Fare col vocabolo greco dậy. Et gli Athenieſi col vocabolo πράττειν. Delle differenze adun che, che appartengono alla imitatione, & quante;

& di che natura elle ſieno, baſtine quello, che è detto infin' qui.

Praeterea vero in his tertia differentia est, ut singula haec imitaretur aliquis.

etenim in iisdem et eadem imitari licet interdum quidem exponentem vel aliud quippiam factum, ut Homerus facit, vel ut eundem et non se immutantem; vel omnes ut agentes et molientes aliquid, quos imitantur. iam vero in tribus his differentiisimitatio est, ut dicebamus in principio, tum in quibus, tum quae, tum quomodo.

quare in una quadam parte idem erit imitator cum Homero Sophocles, imitantur enim ambo bonos, in altera vero cum Aristophane, molientes enim aliquid et agentes ambo imitantur.

quamobrem sibi vindicant eo tragoediam et comoediam Dorienses, comoediam quidem Megarenses, et qui hic sunt, tanquam in ipsorum democratia natam, et qui sunt ex Sicilia:

inde enim Epicharmus poëta multo prius quam Chonnides et Magnetes. et tragoediam aliqui eorum qui sunt in Peloponneso, ducentes a nominibus signum: hi enim comas pagos appellare se dicunt, Athenienses vero demos, quasi comoedi non a xwμdev dicti sint, sed nominati ab errore per pagos ex urbe.

et facere ipsi quidem ostendunt se dicere Spav, Athenienses vero páτTv. ac de differentiis quidem imitationis,

et quot et quae sint, tam multa dicta sint.

Adhuc autem horum tertia differentia per quomodo singula horum imitetur utique aliquis.

Et enim in eisdem et eadem imitari est aliquando quidem enuntiantem aut alterum aliquid gerentem sicut Homerus facit, aut ut eundem et non transmutantem, aut omnes ut actitantes et operantes imitantes. —

In tribus itaque hiis differentiis imitatio est, ut diximus secundum principia, in quibusque et quomodo. —

Quare hac quidem idem utique erit imitator Homero Sophocles, imitantur enim ambo studiosos; hac autem Aristofani, agentes enim imitantur et actitantes ambo.

Unde et dramata (idest actitamina) vocari ipsa quidam aiunt quia imitantur actitantes. — Propter quod et contrafaciunt tragodiamque et komodiam Doriees (komodiam quidem enim Megarei et qui hic ut in ea que apud ipsos democratia facta, et qui ex Sicilia; inde enim fuit Epikharmus poeta multo prius ens Khonido et Magnite, et tragodiam quidam eorum qui in Peloponiso) facientes nomina.

Signum autem: isti quidem enim 'komas' perioikidas (idest ambulatoria circa domos) vocare aiunt, Athenienses autem 'demos', ut komodos non a 'komazare' dictos, sed ea que per komas (idest vicos) seductione dehonoratos ex municipio, et poein ipsi quidem 'dran' (idest actitare), Athenienses autem 'prattin' (idest agere) appellant.

De differentiis quidem igitur, et quot et que imitationis, dicta sint hec.

‏وايضا الثالث لهذه الفصول ومنها هو ان تشبه بكل واحد واحد من هذه

‏وذلك ان فى هذه ايضا التشبيهات والحكايات هى هى باعيانها اما احيانا فمن حيث يوعدون التشبه اما بشى اخر يكون كما كان يفعل اوميروس او ان كان مثله الذى لا خلاف فيه ايضا وجميع الذين يعملون ويفعلون الذين يشبهون ويحاكون

‏ياتون بتشبيههم وحكايتهم كما قلنا منذ الابتدا بهذه الفصول والاصناف الثلاثة

‏وبهذه فمن الضرورة حتى يكون اما ذاك فهو مشبه ومحاكى واحد بعينه اما باوميروس سوفقلس وذلك ان كليهما يشبهان ويحاكيان الافاضل واما هذا فيشبهونه ويحاكونه شيعة ارسطوفانس من قبل انهم كانهم ويعملون ويفعلون كاٮٮٮٮهما ومن هاهنا قال قوم ان هذه تلقب ايضا دراماطا من قبل انهم يتشبهون بالذين يعملون

‏ولذلك صار اهل ادرياس هم متمسكون بالمديح والهجا اما بالهجا بحسب ما ظن فهذه التى هاهنا كما انه ما كان قبلهم ولاية الجماعة والتدبير والتى كان الذين من سيقلييا يقولون انها موجود كما كان يفعل افيخارمس الشاعر وهو الذى كان اقدم كثيرا من كيونيدس وماغنس [من حيث كانا اعطيا الرسوم]

‏عند ما كانا يستعملان الاقرار من اسما المديح التى فى فالوفونيهوس وذلك ان [انه] اما ذانك لقبا لقرى قومانس واما ديموسوس فلقب اهل اثينية المهجوين من قبل انهم كانوا ممتهنين مستخف بهم من اهل القرى

‏اما اصناف التشبيه والحكاية وفصولها وكميتها وايما هى فهى هذه التى قيلت

‏وايضا الثالث لهذه الفصول ومنها هو ان تشبه بكل واحد واحد من هذه

‏وذلك ان فى هذه ايضا التشبيهات والحكايات هى هى باعيانها اما احيانا فمن حيث يوعدون التشبه اما بشى اخر يكون كما كان يفعل اوميروس او ان كان مثله الذى لا خلاف فيه ايضا وجميع الذين يعملون ويفعلون الذين يشبهون ويحاكون

‏ياتون بتشبيههم وحكايتهم كما قلنا منذ الابتدا بهذه الفصول والاصناف الثلاثة

‏وبهذه فمن الضرورة حتى يكون اما ذاك فهو مشبه ومحاكى واحد بعينه اما باوميروس سوفقلس وذلك ان كليهما يشبهان ويحاكيان الافاضل واما هذا فيشبهونه ويحاكونه شيعة ارسطوفانس من قبل انهم كانهم ويعملون ويفعلون كاٮٮٮٮهما

‏ومن هاهنا قال قوم ان هذه تلقب ايضا دراماطا من قبل انهم يتشبهون بالذين يعملون

‏ولذلك صار اهل ادرياس هم متمسكون بالمديح والهجا اما بالهجا بحسب ما ظن فهذه التى هاهنا كما انه ما كان قبلهم ولاية الجماعة والتدبير والتى كان الذين من سيقلييا يقولون انها موجود كما كان يفعل افيخارمس الشاعر وهو الذى كان اقدم كثيرا من كيونيدس وماغنس [من حيث كانا اعطيا الرسوم]

‏عند ما كانا يستعملان الاقرار من اسما المديح التى فى فالوفونيهوس وذلك ان [انه] اما ذانك لقبا لقرى قومانس واما ديموسوس فلقب اهل اثينية المهجوين من قبل انهم كانوا ممتهنين مستخف بهم من اهل القرى

‏اما اصناف التشبيه والحكاية وفصولها وكميتها وايما هى فهى هذه التى قيلت