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PART 1

Since feeling and voluntary motion are peculiar to animals, whilst growth and nutrition are common to plants as well, we may look on the former as effects¹of the soul² and the latter as effects of the nature³. And if there be anyone who allows a share in soul to plants as well, and separates the two kinds of soul, naming the kind in question vegetative, and the other sensory, this person is not saying anything else, although his language is somewhat unusual. We, however, for our part, are convinced that the chief merit of language is clearness, and we know that nothing detracts so much from this as do unfamiliar terms; accordingly we employ those terms which the bulk of people are accustomed to use, and we say that animals are governed at once by their soul and by their nature, and plants by their nature alone, and that growth and nutrition are the effects of nature, not of soul.

PART 2

Thus we shall enquire, in the course of this treatise, from what faculties these effects themselves, as well as any other effects of nature which there may be, take their origin.

First, however, we must distinguish and explain clearly the various terms which we are going to use in this treatise, and to what things we apply them; and this will prove to be not merely an explanation of terms but at the same time a demonstration of the effects of nature.

When, therefore, such and such a body undergoes no change from its existing state, we say that it is at rest; but, notwithstanding, if it departs from this in any respect we then say that in this respect it undergoes motion.⁴ Accordingly, when it departs in various ways from its preexisting state, it will be said to undergo various kinds of motion. Thus, if that which is white becomes black, or what is black becomes white, it undergoes motion in respect to colour; or if what was previously sweet now becomes bitter, or, conversely, from being bitter now becomes sweet, it will be said to undergo motion in respect to flavour; to both of these instances, as well as to those previously mentioned, we shall apply the term qualitative motion. And further, it is not only things which are altered in regard to colour and flavour which, we say, undergo motion; when a warm thing becomes cold, and a cold warm, here too we speak of its undergoing motion; similarly also when anything moist becomes dry, or dry moist. Now, the common term which we apply to all these cases is alteration.

This is one kind of motion. But there is another kind which occurs in bodies which change their position, or as we say, pass from one place to another; the name of this is transference.⁵

These two kinds of motion, then, are simple and primary, while compounded from them we have growth and decay,⁶ as when a small thing becomes bigger, or a big thing smaller, each retaining at the same time its particular form. And two other kinds of motion are genesis and destruction,⁷ genesis being a coming into existence,⁸ and destruction being the opposite.

Now, common to all kinds of motion is change from the preexisting state, while common to all conditions of rest is retention of the preexisting state. The Sophists, however, while allowing that bread in turning into blood becomes changed as regards sight, taste, and touch, will not agree that this change occurs in reality. Thus some of them hold that all such phenomena are tricks and illusions of our senses; the senses, they say, are affected now in one way, now in another, whereas the underlying substance does not admit of any of these changes to which the names are given. Others (such as Anaxagoras)⁹ will have it that the qualities do exist in it, but that they are unchangeable and immutable from eternity to eternity, and that these apparent alterations are brought about by separation and combination.

Now, if I were to go out of my way to confute these people, my subsidiary task would be greater than my main one. Thus, if they do not know all that has been written, On Complete Alteration of Substance¹⁰ by Aristotle, and after him by Chrysippus,¹¹ I must beg of them to make themselves familiar with these men's writings. If, however, they know these, and yet willingly prefer the worse views to the better, they will doubtless consider my arguments foolish also. I have shown elsewhere that these opinions were shared by Hippocrates, who lived much earlier than Aristotle. In fact, all those known to us who have been both physicians and philosophers Hippocrates was the first who took in hand to demonstrate that there are, in all, four mutually interacting qualities, and that to the operation of these is due the genesis and destruction of all things that come into and pass out of being. Nay, more; Hippocrates was also the first to recognise that all these qualities undergo an intimate mingling with one another; and at least the beginnings of the proofs to which Aristotle later set his hand are to be found first in the writings of Hippocrates.

As to whether we are to suppose that the substances as well as their qualities undergo this intimate mingling, as Zeno of Citium afterwards declared, I do not think it necessary to go further into this question in the present treatise;¹² for immediate purposes we only need to recognize the complete alteration of substance. In this way, nobody will suppose that bread represents a kind of meeting-place¹³ for bone, flesh, nerve, and all the other parts, and that each of these subsequently becomes separated in the body and goes to join its own kind;¹⁴ before any separation takes place, the whole of the bread obviously becomes blood; (at any rate, if a man takes no other food for a prolonged period, he will have blood enclosed in his veins all the same).¹⁵ And clearly this disproves the view of those who consider the elements¹⁶unchangeable, as also, for that matter, does the oil which is entirely used up in the flame of the lamp, or the faggots which, in a somewhat longer time, turn into fire.

I said, however, that I was not going to enter into an argument with these people, and it was only because the example was drawn from the subject-matter of medicine, and because I need it for the present treatise, that I have mentioned it. We shall then, as I said, renounce our controversy with them, since those who wish may get a good grasp of the views of the ancients from our own personal investigations into these matters.

The discussion which follows we shall devote entirely, as we originally proposed, to an enquiry into the number and character of the faculties of Nature, and what is the effect which each naturally produces. Now, of course, I mean by an effect¹⁷ that which has already come into existence and has been completed by the activity¹⁸ of these faculties — for example, blood, flesh, or nerve. And activity is the name I give to the active change or motion, and the cause of this I call a faculty. Thus, when food turns into blood, the motion of the food is passive, and that of the vein active. Similarly, when the limbs have their position altered, it is the muscle which produces, and the bones which undergo the motion. In these cases I call the motion of the vein and of the muscle an activity, and that of the food and the bones a symptom or affection¹⁹, since the first group undergoes alteration and the second group is merely transported. One might, therefore, also speak of the activity as an effect of Nature²⁰ — for example, digestion, absorption,²¹ blood-production; one could not, however, in every case call the effect an activity; thus flesh is an effect of Nature, but it is, of course, not an activity. It is, therefore, clear that one of these terms is used in two senses, but not the other.

PART 3

It appears to me, then, that the vein, as well as each of the other parts, functions in such and such a way according to the manner in which the four qualities²² are mixed. There are, however, a considerable number of not undistinguished men — philosophers and physicians — who refer action to the Warm and the Cold, and who subordinate to these, as passive, the Dry and the Moist; Aristotle, in fact, was the first who attempted to bring back the causes of the various special activities to these principles, and he was followed later by the Stoic school. These latter, of course, could logically make active principles of the Warm and Cold, since they refer the change of the elements themselves into one another to certain diffusions and condensations²³. This does not hold of Aristotle, however; seeing that he employed the four qualities to explain the genesis of the elements, he ought properly to have also referred the causes of all the special activities to these. How is it that he uses the four qualities in his book On Genesis and Destruction, whilst in his Meteorology, his Problems, and many other works he uses the uses the two only? Of course, if anyone were to maintain that in the case of animals and plants the Warm and Cold are more active, the Dry and Moist less so, he might perhaps have even Hippocrates on his side; but if he were to say that this happens in all cases, he would, I imagine, lack support, not merely from Hippocrates, but even from Aristotle himself — if, at least, Aristotle chose to remember what he himself taught us in his work On Genesis and Destruction, not as a matter of simple statement, but with an accompanying demonstration. I have, however, also investigated these questions, in so far as they are of value to a physician, in my work On Temperaments.

PART 4

The so-called blood-making²⁴ faculty in the veins, then, as well as all the other faculties, fall within the category of relative concepts; primarily because the faculty is the cause of the activity, but also, accidentally, because it is the cause of the effect. But, if the cause is relative to something — for it is the cause of what results from it, and of nothing else — it is obvious that the faculty also falls into the category of the relative; and so long as we are ignorant of the true essence of the cause which is operating, we call it a faculty. Thus we say that there exists in the veins a blood-making faculty, as also a digestive²⁵ faculty in the stomach, a pulsatile²⁶ faculty in the heart, and in each of the other parts a special faculty corresponding to the function or activity of that part. If, therefore, we are to investigate methodically the number and kinds of faculties, we must begin with the effects; for each of these effects comes from a certain activity, and each of these again is preceded by a cause.

PART 5

The effects of Nature, then, while the animal is still being formed in the womb, are all the different parts of its body; and after it has been born, an effect in which all parts share is the progress of each to its full size, and thereafter its maintenance of itself as long as possible.

The activities corresponding to the three effects mentioned are necessarily three—one to each— namely, Genesis, Growth, and Nutrition. Genesis, however, is not a simple activity of Nature, but is compounded of alteration and of shaping.²⁷ That is to say, in order that bone, nerve, veins, and all other [tissues] may come into existence, the underlying substance from which the animal springs must be altered; and in order that the substance so altered may acquire its appropriate shape and position, its cavities, outgrowths, attachments, and so forth, it has to undergo a shaping or formative process.²⁸ One would be justified in calling this substance which undergoes alteration the material of the animal, just as wood is the material of a ship, and wax of an image. Growth is an increase and expansion in length, breadth, and thickness of the solid parts of the animal (those which have been subjected to the moulding or shaping process). Nutrition is an addition to these, without expansion.

PART 6

Let us speak then, in the first place, of Genesis, which, as we have said, results from alteration together with shaping.

The seed having been cast into the womb or into the earth (for there is no difference),²⁹ then, after a certain definite period, a great number of parts become constituted in the substance which is being generated; these differ as regards moisture, dryness, coldness and warmth,³⁰ and in all the other qualities which naturally derive therefrom.³¹ These derivative qualities, you are acquainted with, if you have given any sort of scientific consideration to the question of genesis and destruction. For, first and foremost after the qualities mentioned come the other so-called tangible distinctions, and after them those which appeal to taste, smell, and sight. Now, tangible distinctions are hardness and softness, viscosity, friability, lightness, heaviness, density, rarity, smoothness, roughness, thickness and thinness; all of these have been duly mentioned by Aristotle.³² And of course you know those which appeal to taste, smell, and sight. Therefore, if you wish to know which alterative faculties are primary and elementary, they are moisture, dryness, coldness, and warmth, and if you wish to know which ones arise from the combination of these, they will be found to be in each animal of a number corresponding to its sensible elements. The name sensible elements is given to all the homogeneous³³ parts of the body, and these are to be detected not by any system, but by personal observation of dissections.³⁴

Now Nature constructs bone, cartilage, nerve, membrane, ligament, vein, and so forth, at the first stage of the animal's genesis³⁵, employing at this task a faculty which is, in general terms, generative and alterative, and, in more detail, warming, chilling, drying, or moistening; or such as spring from the blending of these, for example, the bone-producing, nerve-producing, and cartilage-producing faculties³⁶ (since for the sake of clearness these names must be used as well).

Now the peculiar³⁷ flesh of the liver is of this kind as well, also that of the spleen, that of the kidneys, that of the lungs, and that of the heart; so also the proper substance of the brain, stomach, gullet, intestines, and uterus is a sensible element, of similar parts all through, simple, and uncompounded. That is to say, if you remove from each of the organs mentioned its arteries, veins, and nerves,³⁸ the substance remaining in each organ is, from the point of view of the senses, simple and elementary. As regards those organs consisting of two dissimilar coats³⁹, of which each is simple, of these organs the coats are the are the elements — for example, the coats of the stomach, oesophagus, intestines, and arteries; each of these two coats has an alterative faculty peculiar to it, which has engendered it from the menstrual blood of the mother. Thus the special alterative faculties in each animal are of the same number as the elementary parts⁴⁰; and further, the activities must necessarily correspond each to one of the special parts, just as each part has its special use — for example, those ducts which extend from the kidneys into the bladder, and which are called ureters; for these are not arteries, since they do not pulsate nor do they consist of two coats; and they are not veins, since they neither contain blood, nor do their coats in any way resemble those of veins; from nerves they differ still more than from the structures mentioned.

What, then, are they? someone asks — as though every part must necessarily be either an artery, a vein, a nerve, or a complex of these,⁴¹ and as though the truth were not what I am now stating, namely, that every one of the various organs has its own particular substance. For in fact the two bladders — that which receives the urine, and that which receives the yellow bile — not only differ from all other organs, but also from one another. Further, the ducts which spring out like kinds of conduits from the gall-bladder and which pass into the liver have no resemblance either to arteries, veins or nerves. But these parts have been treated at a greater length in my work On the Anatomy of Hippocrates, as well as elsewhere.

As for the actual substance of the coats of the stomach, intestine, and uterus, each of these has been rendered what it is by a special alterative faculty of Nature; while the bringing of these together,⁴² the therewith of the structures which are inserted into them, the outgrowth into the intestine,⁴³ the shape of the inner cavities, and the like, have all been determined by a faculty which we call the shaping or formative faculty⁴⁴; this faculty we also state to be artistic — nay, the best and highest art — doing everything for some purpose, so that there is nothing ineffective or superfluous, or capable of being better disposed. This, however, I shall demonstrate in my work On the Use of Parts.

PART 7

Passing now to the faculty of Growth⁴⁵ let us first mention that this, too, is present in the foetus in utero as is also the nutritive faculty, but that at that stage these two faculties are, as it were, handmaids to those already mentioned⁴⁶, and do not possess in themselves supreme authority. When, however, the animal⁴⁷ has attained its complete size, then, during the whole period following its birth and until the acme is reached, the faculty of growth is predominant, while the alterative and nutritive faculties are accessory — in fact, act as its handmaids. What, then, is the property of this faculty of growth? To extend in every direction that which has already come into existence — that is to say, the solid parts of the body, the arteries, veins, nerves, bones, cartilages, membranes, ligaments, and the various coats which we have just called elementary, homogeneous, and simple. And I shall state in what way they gain this extension in every direction, first giving an illustration for the sake of clearness.

Children take the bladders of pigs, fill them with air, and then rub them on ashes near the fire, so as to warm, but not to injure them. This is a common game in the district of Ionia, and among not a few other nations. As they rub, they sing songs, to a certain measure, time, and rhythm, and all their words are an exhortation to the bladder to increase in size. When it appears to them fairly well distended, they again blow air into it and expand it further; then they rub it again. This they do several times, until the bladder seems to them to have become large enough. Now, clearly, in these doings of the children, the more the interior cavity of the bladder increases in size, the thinner, necessarily, does its substance become. But, if the children were able to bring nourishment to this thin part, then they would make the bladder big in the same way that Nature does. As it is, however, they cannot do what Nature does, for to imitate this is beyond the power not only of children, but of any one soever; it is a property of Nature alone.

It will now, therefore, be clear to you that nutrition is a necessity for growing things. For if such bodies were distended, but not at the same time nourished, they would take on a false appearance of growth, not a true growth. And further, to be distended in all directions belongs only to bodies whose growth is directed by Nature; for those which are distended by us undergo this distension in one direction but grow less in the others; it is impossible to find a body which will remain entire and not be torn through whilst we stretch it in the three dimensions. Thus Nature alone has the power to expand a body in all directions so that it remains unruptured and preserves completely its previous form.

Such then is growth, and it cannot occur without the nutriment which flows to the part and is worked up into it.

PART 8

We have, then, it seems, arrived at the subject of Nutrition, which is the third and remaining consideration which we proposed at the outset. For, when the matter which flows to each part of the body in the form of nutriment is being worked up into it, this activity is nutrition, and its cause is the nutritive faculty. Of course, the kind of activity here involved is also an alteration, but not an alteration like that occurring at the stage of genesis.⁴⁸ For in the latter case something comes into existence which did not exist previously, while in nutrition the inflowing material becomes assimilated to that which has already come into existence. Therefore, the former kind of alteration has with reason been termed genesis, and the latter, assimilation.

PART 9

Now, since the three faculties of Nature have been exhaustively dealt with, and the animal would appear not to need any others (being possessed of the means for growing, for attaining completion, and for maintaining itself as long a time as possible), this treatise might seem to be already complete, and to constitute an exposition of all the faculties of Nature. If, however, one considers that it has not yet touched upon any of the parts of the animal (I mean the stomach, intestines, liver, and the like), and that it has not dealt with the faculties resident in these, it will seem as though merely a kind of introduction had been given to the practical parts of our teaching. For the whole matter is as follows: Genesis, growth, and nutrition are the first, and, so to say, the principal effects of Nature; similarly also the faculties which produce these effects — the first faculties — are three in number, and are the most dominating of all. But as has already been shown, these need the service both of each other, and of yet different faculties. Now, these which the faculties of generation and growth require have been stated. I shall now say what ones the nutritive faculty requires.

PART 10

For I believe that I shall prove that the organs which have to do with the disposal of the nutriment, as also their faculties, exist for the sake of this nutritive faculty. For since the action of this faculty⁴⁹ is assimilation, and it is impossible for anything to be assimilated by, and to change into anything else unless they already possess a certain community and affinity in their qualities,⁵⁰ therefore, in the first place, any animal cannot naturally derive nourishment from any kind of food, and secondly, even in the case of those from which it can do so, it cannot do this at once. Therefore, by reason of this law,⁵¹ every animal needs several organs for altering the nutriment. For in order that the yellow may become red, and the red yellow, one simple process of alteration is required, but in order that the white may become black, and the black white, all the intermediate stages are needed.⁵² So also, a thing which is very soft cannot all at once become very hard, nor vice versa; nor, similarly can anything which has a very bad smell suddenly become quite fragrant, nor again, can the converse happen.

How, then, could blood ever turn into bone, without having first become, as far as possible, thickened and white? And how could bread turn into blood without having gradually parted with its whiteness and gradually acquired redness? Thus it is quite easy for blood to become flesh; for, if Nature thicken it to such an extent that it acquires a certain consistency and ceases to be fluid, it thus becomes original newly-formed flesh; but in order that blood may turn into bone, much time is needed and much elaboration and transformation of the blood. Further, it is quite clear that bread, and, more particularly lettuce, beet, and the like, require a great deal of alteration, in order to become blood.

This, then, is one reason why there are so many organs concerned in the alteration of food. A second reason is the nature of the superfluities.⁵³ For, as we are unable to draw any nourishment from grass, although this is possible for cattle, similarly we can derive nourishment from radishes, albeit not to the same extent as from meat; for almost the whole of the latter is mastered by our natures⁵⁴; it is transformed and altered and constituted useful blood; but, not withstanding, in the radish, what is appropriate⁵⁵ and capable of being altered (and that only with difficulty, and with much labour) is the very smallest part; almost the whole of it is surplus matter, and passes through the digestive organs, only a very little being taken up into the veins as blood — nor is this itself entirely utilisable blood. Nature, therefore, had need of a second process of separation for the superfluities in the veins. Moreover, these superfluities need, on the one hand, certain fresh routes to conduct them to the outlets, so that they may not spoil the useful substances, and they also need certain reservoirs, as it were, in which they are collected till they reach a sufficient quantity, and are then discharged.

Thus, then, you have discovered bodily parts of a second kind, consecrated in this case to the [removal of the] superfluities of the food. There is, however, also a third kind, for carrying the pabulum in every direction; these are like a number of roads intersecting the whole body.

Thus there is one entrance — that through the mouth — for all the various articles of food. What receives nourishment, however, is not one single part, but a great many parts, and these widely separated; do not be surprised, therefore, at the abundance of organs which Nature has created for the purpose of nutrition. For those of them which have to do with alteration prepare the nutriment suitable for each part; others separate out the superfluities; some pass these along, others store them up, others excrete them; some, again, are paths for the transit⁵⁶ in all directions of the utilisable juices. So, if you wish to gain a thorough acquaintance with all the faculties of Nature,⁵⁷ you will have consider each one of these organs.

Now in giving an account of these we must begin with those effects of Nature, together with their corresponding parts and faculties, which are closely connected with the purpose to be achieved.⁵⁸

PART 11

Let us once more, then, recall the actual purpose for which Nature has constructed all these parts. Its name, as previously stated, is nutrition, and the definition corresponding to the name is: an assimilation of that which nourishes to that which receives nourishment.⁵⁹ And in order that this may come about, we must assume a preliminary process of adhesion,⁶⁰ and for that, again, one of presentation.⁶¹ For whenever the juice which is destined to nourish any of the parts of the animal is emitted from the vessels, it is in the first place dispersed all through this part, next it is presented, and next it adheres, and becomes completely assimilated.

The so-called white [leprosy] shows the difference between assimilation and adhesion, in the same way that the kind of dropsy which some people call anasarca clearly distinguishes presentation from adhesion. For, of course, the genesis of such a dropsy does not come about as do some of the conditions of atrophy and wasting,⁶² from an insufficient supply of moisture; the flesh is obviously moist enough, — in fact it is thoroughly saturated, — and each of the solid parts of the body is in a similar condition. While, however, the nutriment conveyed to the part does undergo presentation, it is still too watery, and is not properly transformed into a juice,⁶³ nor has it acquired that viscous and agglutinative quality which results from the operation of innate heat;⁶⁴ therefore, adhesion cannot come about, since, owing to this abundance of thin, crude liquid, the pabulum runs off and easily slips away from the solid parts of the body. In white [leprosy], again, there is adhesion of the nutriment but no real assimilation. From this it is clear that what I have just said is correct, namely, that in that part which is to be nourished there must first occur presentation, next adhesion, and finally assimilation proper.

Strictly speaking, then, nutriment is that which is actually nourishing, while the quasi-nutriment which is not yet nourishing (e.g. matter which is undergoing adhesion or presentation) is not, strictly speaking, nutriment, but is so called only by an equivocation. Also, that which is still contained in the veins, and still more, that which is in the stomach, from the fact that it is destined to nourish if properly elaborated, has been called nutriment. Similarly we call the various kinds of food nutriment, not because they are already nourishing the animal, nor because they exist in the same state as the material which actually is nourishing it, but because they are able and destined to nourish it if they be properly elaborated.

This was also what Hippocrates said, viz., Nutriment is what is engaged in nourishing, as also is quasi-nutriment, and what is destined to be nutriment. For to that which is already being assimilated he gave the name of nutriment; to the similar material which is being presented or becoming adherent, the name of quasi-nutriment; and to everything else — that is, contained in the stomach and veins — the name of destined nutriment.

PART 12

It is quite clear, therefore, that nutrition must necessarily be a process of assimilation of that which is nourishing to that which is being nourished. Some, however, say that this assimilation does not occur in reality, but is merely apparent; these are the people who think that Nature is not artistic, that she does not show forethought for the animal's welfare, and that she has absolutely no native powers whereby she alters some substances, attracts others, and discharges others.

Now, speaking generally, there have arisen the following two sects in medicine and philosophy among those who have made any definite pronouncement regarding Nature. I speak, of course, of such of them as know what they are talking about, and who realize the logical sequence of their hypotheses, and stand by them; as for those who cannot understand even this, but who simply talk any nonsense that comes to their tongues, and who do not remain definitely attached either to one sect or the other — such people are not even worth mentioning.

What, then, are these sects, and what are the logical consequences of their hypotheses?⁶⁵ The one class supposes that all substance which is subject to genesis and destruction is at once continuous⁶⁶ and susceptible of alteration. The other school assumes substance to be unchangeable, unalterable, and subdivided into fine particles, which are separated from one another by empty spaces.

All people, therefore, who can appreciate the logical sequence of an hypothesis hold that, according to the second teaching, there does not exist any substance or faculty peculiar either to Nature or to Soul,⁶⁷ but that these result from the way in which the primary corpuscles,⁶⁸ which are unaffected by change, come together. According to the first-mentioned teaching, on the other hand, Nature is not posterior to the corpuscles, but is a long way prior to them and older than they; and therefore in their view it is Nature which puts together the bodies both of plants and animals; and this she does by virtue of certain faculties which she possesses — these being, on the one hand, attractive and assimilative of what is appropriate, and, on the other, explusive of what is foreign. Further, she skilfully moulds everything during the stage of genesis; and she also provides for the creatures after birth, employing here other faculties again, namely, one of affection and forethought for offspring, and one of sociability and friendship for kindred. According to the other school, none of these things exist in the natures [of living things], nor is there in the soul any original innate idea, whether of agreement or difference, of separation or synthesis, of justice or injustice, of the beautiful or ugly; all such things, they say, arise in us from sensation and through sensation, and animals are steered by certain images and memories.

Some of these people have even expressly declared that the soul possesses no reasoning faculty, but that we are led like cattle by the impression of our senses, and are unable to refuse or dissent from anything. In their view, obviously, courage, wisdom, temperance, and self-control are all mere nonsense, we do not love either each other or our offspring, nor do the gods care anything for us. This school also despises dreams, birds, omens, and the whole of astrology, subjects with which we have dealt at greater length in another work,⁶⁹ in which we discuss the views of Asclepiades the physician.⁷⁰ Those who wish to do so may familiarize themselves with these arguments, and they may also consider at this point which of the two roads lying before us is the better one to take. Hippocrates took the first-mentioned. According to this teaching, substance is one and is subject to alteration; there is a consensus in the movements of air and fluid throughout the whole body;⁷¹ Nature acts throughout in an artistic and equitable manner, having certain faculties, by virtue of which each part of the body draws to itself the juice which is proper to it, and, having done so, attaches it to every portion of itself, and completely assimilates it; while such part of the juice as has not been mastered,⁷² and is not capable of undergoing complete alteration and being assimilated to the part which is being nourished, is got rid of by yet another (an expulsive) faculty.

PART 13

Now the extent of exactitude and truth in the doctrines of Hippocrates may be gauged, not merely from the way in which his opponents are at variance with obvious facts, but also from the various subjects of natural research themselves — the functions of animals, and the rest. For those people who do not believe that there exists in any part of the animal a faculty for attracting its own special quality⁷³ are compelled repeatedly to deny obvious facts.⁷⁴ For instance, Asclepiades, the physician,⁷⁵ did this in the case of the kidneys. That these are organs for secreting [separating out] the urine, was the belief not only of Hippocrates, Diocles, Erasistratus, Praxagoras,⁷⁶ and all other physicians of eminence, but practically every butcher is aware of this, from the fact that he daily observes both the position of the kidneys and the duct (termed the ureter) which runs from each kidney into the bladder, and from this arrangement he infers their characteristic use and faculty. But, even leaving the butchers aside, all people who suffer either from frequent dysuria or from retention of urine call themselves nephritics,⁷⁷ when they feel pain in the loins and pass sandy matter in their water.

I do not suppose that Asclepiades ever saw a stone which had been passed by one of these sufferers, or observed that this was preceded by a sharp pain in the region between kidneys and bladder as the stone traversed the ureter, or that, when the stone was passed, both the pain and the retention at once ceased. It is worth while, then, learning how his theory accounts for the presence of urine in the bladder, and one is forced to marvel at the ingenuity of a man who puts aside these broad, clearly visible routes,⁷⁸ and postulates others which are narrow, invisible — indeed, entirely imperceptible. His view, in fact, is that the fluid which we drink passes into the bladder by being resolved into vapours, and that, when these have been again condensed, it thus regains its previous form, and turns from vapour into fluid. He simply looks upon the bladder as a sponge or a piece of wool, and not as the perfectly compact and impervious body that it is, with two very strong coats. For if we say that the vapours pass through these coats, why should they not pass through the peritoneum⁷⁹ and the diaphragm, thus filling the whole abdominal cavity and thorax with water? But, says he, of course the peritoneal coat is more impervious than the bladder, and this is why it keeps out the vapours, while the bladder admits them. Yet if he had ever practised anatomy, he might have known that the outer coat of the bladder springs from the peritoneum and is essentially the same as it, and that the inner coat, which is peculiar to the bladder, is more than twice as thick as the former.

Perhaps, however, it is not the thickness or thinness of the coats, but the situation of the bladder, which is the reason for the vapours being carried into it? On the contrary, even if it were probable for every other reason that the vapours accumulate there, yet the situation of the bladder would be enough in itself to prevent this. For the bladder is situated below, whereas vapours have a natural tendency to rise upwards; thus they would fill all the region of the thorax and lungs long before they came to the bladder.

But why do I mention the situation of the bladder, peritoneum, and thorax? For surely, when the vapours have passed through the coats of the stomach and intestines, it is in the space between these and the peritoneum⁸⁰that they will collect and become liquefied (just as in dropsical subjects it is in this region that most of the water gathers).⁸¹ Otherwise the vapours must necessarily pass straight forward through everything which in any way comes in contact with them, and will never come to a standstill. But, if this be assumed, then they will traverse not merely the peritoneum but also the epigastrium, and will become dispersed into the surrounding air; otherwise they will certainly collect under the skin.

Even these considerations, however, our present-day Asclepiadeans attempt to answer, despite the fact that they always get soundly laughed at by all who happen to be present at their disputations on these subjects — so difficult an evil to get rid of is this sectarian partizanship, so excessively resistant to all cleansing processes, harder to heal than any itch!

Thus, one of our Sophists who is a thoroughly hardened disputer and as skilful a master of language as there ever was, once got into a discussion with me on this subject; so far from being put out of countenance by any of the above-mentioned considerations, he even expressed his surprise that I should try to overturn obvious facts by ridiculous arguments! For, said he, one may clearly observe any day in the case of any bladder, that, if one fills it with water or air and then ties up its neck and squeezes it all round, it does not let anything out at any point, but accurately retains all its contents. And surely, said he, if there were any large and perceptible channels coming into it from the kidneys the liquid would run out through these when the bladder was squeezed, in the same way that it entered?⁸²Having abruptly made these and similar remarks in precise and clear tones, he concluded by jumping up and departing — leaving me as though I were quite incapable of finding any plausible answer!

The fact is that those who are enslaved to their sects are not merely devoid of all sound knowledge, but they will not even stop to learn! Instead of listening, as they ought, to the reason why liquid can enter the bladder through the ureters, but is unable to go back again the same way, — instead of admiring Nature's artistic skil,⁸³ — they refuse to learn; they even go so far as to scoff, and maintain that the kidneys, as well as many other things, have been made by Nature for no purpose!⁸⁴ And some of them who had allowed themselves to be shown the ureters coming from the kidneys and becoming implanted in the bladder, even had the audacity to say that these also existed for no purpose; and others said that they were spermatic ducts, and that this was why they were inserted into the neck of the bladder and not into its cavity. When, therefore, we had demonstrated to them the real spermatic ducts⁸⁵ entering the neck of the bladder lower down than the ureters, we supposed that, if we had not done so before, we would now at least draw them away from their false assumptions, and convert them forthwith to the opposite view. But even this they presumed to dispute, and said that it was not to be wondered at that the semen should remain longer in these latter ducts, these being more constricted, and that it should flow quickly down the ducts which came from the kidneys, seeing that these were well dilated. We were, therefore, further compelled to show them in a still living animal, the urine plainly running out through the ureters into the bladder; even thus we hardly hoped to check their nonsensical talk.

Now the method of demonstration is as follows. One has to divide the peritoneum in front of the ureters, then secure these with ligatures, and next, having bandaged up the animal, let him go (for he will not continue to urinate). After this one loosens the external bandages and shows the bladder empty and the ureters quite full and distended — in fact almost on the point of rupturing; on removing the ligature from them, one then plainly sees the bladder becoming filled with urine.

When this has been made quite clear, then, before the animal urinates, one has to tie a ligature round his penis and then to squeeze the bladder all over; still nothing goes back through the ureters to the kidneys. Here, then, it becomes obvious that not only in a dead animal, but in one which is still living, the ureters are prevented from receiving back the urine from the bladder. These observations having been made, one now loosens the ligature from the animal's penis and allows him to urinate, then again ligatures one of the ureters and leaves the other to discharge into the bladder. Allowing, then, some time to elapse, one now demonstrates that the ureter which was ligatured is obviously full and distended on the side next to the kidneys, while the other one — that from which the ligature had been taken — is itself flaccid, but has filled the bladder with urine. Then, again, one must divide the full ureter, and demonstrate how the urine spurts out of it, like blood in the operation of vene-section; and after this one cuts through the other also, and both being thus divided, one bandages up the animal externally. Then when enough time seems to have elapsed, one takes off the bandages; the bladder will now be found empty, and the whole region between the intestines and the peritoneum full of urine, as if the animal were suffering from dropsy. Now, if anyone will but test this for himself on an animal, I think he will strongly condemn the rashness of Asclepiades, and if he also learns the reason why nothing regurgitates from the bladder into the ureters, I think he will be persuaded by this also of the forethought and art shown by Nature in relation to animals.⁸⁶

Now Hippocrates, who was the first known to us of all those who have been both physicians and philosophers in as much as he was the first to recognize what Nature effects, expresses his admiration of her, and is constantly singing her praises and calling her just. Alone, he says, she suffices for the animal in every respect, performing of her own accord and without any teaching all that is required. Being such, she has, as he supposes, certain faculties, one attractive of what is appropriate,⁸⁷ and another eliminative of what is foreign, and she nourishes the animal, makes it grow, and expels its diseases by crisis.⁸⁸ Therefore he says that there is in our bodies a concordance in the movements of air and fluid, and that everything is in sympathy. According to Asclepiades, however, nothing is naturally in sy mpathy with anything else, all substance being divided and broken up into inharmonious elements and absurd molecules. Necessarily, then, besides making countless other statements in opposition to plain fact, he was ignorant of Nature's faculties, both that attracting what is appropriate, and that expelling what is foreign. Thus he invented some wretched nonsense to explain blood-production and anadosis,⁸⁹ and, being utterly unable to find anything to say regarding the clearing-out⁹⁰ of superfluities, he did not hesitate to join issue with obvious facts, and, in this matter of urinary secretion, to deprive both the kidneys and the ureters of their activity, by assuming that there were certain invisible channels opening into the bladder. It was, of course, a grand and impressive thing to do, to mistrust the obvious, and to pin one's faith in things which could not be seen!

Also, in the matter of the yellow bile, he makes an even grander and more spirited venture; for he says this is actually generated in the bile-ducts, not merely separated out.

How comes it, then, that in cases of jaundice two things happen at the same time — that the dejections contain absolutely no bile, and that the whole body becomes full of it? He is forced here again to talk nonsense, just as he did in regard to the urine. He also talks no less nonsense about the black bile and the spleen, not understanding what was said by Hippocrates; and he attempts in stupid — I might say insane — language, to contradict what he knowsnothing about.

And what profit did he derive from these opinions from the point of view of treatment? He neither was able to cure a kidney ailment, nor jaundice, nor a disease of black bile, nor would he agree with the view held not merely by Hippocrates but by all men regarding drugs — that some of them purge away yellow bile, and others black, some again phlegm, and others the thin and watery superfluity;⁹¹ he held that all the substances evacuated⁹² were produced by the drugs themselves, just as yellow bile is produced by the biliary passages! It matters nothing, according to this extraordinary man, whether we give a hydragogue or a cholagogue in a case of dropsy, for these all equally purge and dissolve the body, and produce a solution having such and such an appearance, which did not exist as such before!⁹³

Must we not, therefore, suppose he was either mad, or entirely unacquainted with practical medicine? For who does not know that if a drug for attracting phlegm be given in a case of jaundice it will not even evacuate four cyathi⁹⁴ of phlegm? Similarly also if one of the hydragogues be given. A cholagogue, on the other hand, clears away a great quantity of bile, and the skin of patients so treated at once becomes clear. I myself have, in many cases, after treating the liver condition, then removed the disease by means of a single purgation; whereas, if one had employed a drug for removing phlegm one would have done no good.

Nor is Hippocrates the only one who knows this to be so, whilst those who take experience alone as their starting-point⁹⁵ know otherwise; they, as well as all physicians who are engaged in the practice of medicine, are of this opinion. Asclepiades, however, is an exception; he would hold it a betrayal of his assumed elements⁹⁶ to confess the truth about such matters. For if a single drug were to be discovered which attracted such and such a humour only, there would obviously be danger of the opinion gaining ground that there is in every body⁹⁷ a faculty which attracts its own particular quality. He therefore says that safflower,⁹⁸ the Cnidian berry,⁹⁹ and Hippophaes,¹⁰⁰ do not draw phlegm from the body, but actually make it. Moreover, he holds that the flower and scales of bronze, and burnt bronze itself, and germander,¹⁰¹ and wild mastich¹⁰² dissolve the body into water, and that dropsical patients derive benefit from these substances, not because they are purged by them, but because they are rid of substances which actually help to increase the disease; for, if the medicine does not evacuate¹⁰³ the dropsical fluid contained in the body, but generates it, it aggravates the condition further. Moreover, scammony, according to the Asclepiadean argument, not only fails to evacuate the bile from the bodies of jaundiced subjects, but actually turns the useful blood into bile, and dissolves the body; in fact it does all manner of evil and increases the disease.

And yet this drug may be clearly seen to do good to numbers of people! Yes, says he, they derive benefit certainly, but merely in proportion to the evacuation.... But if you give these cases a drug which draws off phlegm they will not be benefited. This is so obvious that even those who make experience alone their starting-point¹⁰⁴ are aware of it; and these people make it a cardinal point of their teaching to trust to no arguments, but only to what can be clearly seen. In this, then, they show good sense; whereas Asclepiades goes far astray in bidding us distrust our senses where obvious facts plainly overturn his hypotheses. Much better would it have been for him not to assail obvious facts, but rather to devote himself entirely to these.

Is it, then, these facts only which are plainly irreconcilable with the views of Asclepiades? Is not also the fact that in summer yellow bile is evacuated in greater quantity by the same drugs, and in winter phlegm, and that in a young man more bile is evacuated, and in an old man more phlegm? Obviously each drug attracts something which already exists, and does not generate something previously non-existent. Thus if you give in the summer season a drug which attracts phlegm to a young man of a lean and warm habit, who has lived neither idly nor too luxuriously, you will with great difficulty evacuate a very small quantity of this humour, and you will do the man the utmost harm. On the other hand, if you give him a cholagogue, you will produce an abundant evacuation and not injure him at all.

Do we still, then, disbelieve that each drug attracts that humour which is proper to it ?¹⁰⁵ Possibly the adherents of Asclepiades will assent to this — or rather, they will — not possibly, but certainly — declare that they disbelieve it, lest they should betray their darling prejudices. (1)The ureters. (2) About 4 oz., or one-third of a pint.

PART 14

Let us pass on, then, again to another piece of nonsense; for the sophists do not allow one to engage in enquiries that are of any worth, albeit there are many such; they compel one to spend one's time in dissipating the fallacious arguments which they bring forward.

What, then, is this piece of nonsense? It has to do with the famous and far-renowned stone which draws iron [the lodestone]. It might be thought that this would draw¹⁰⁶ their minds to a belief that there are in all bodies certain faculties by which they attract their own proper qualities.

Now Epicurus, despite the fact that he employs in his Physics¹⁰⁷ elements similar to those of Asclepiades,¹⁰⁸ yet allows that iron is attracted by the lodestone,¹⁰⁹ and chaff by amber. He even tries to give the cause of the phenomenon. His view is that the atoms which flow from the stone are related in shape to those flowing from the iron, and so they become easily interlocked with one another; thus it is that, after colliding with each of the two compact masses (the stone and the iron) they then rebound into the middle and so become entangled with each other, and draw the iron after them. So far, then, as his hypotheses regarding causation¹¹⁰ go, he is perfectly unconvincing; nevertheless, he does grant that there is an attraction. Further, he says that it is on similar principles that there occur in the bodies of animals the dispersal of nutriment¹¹¹ and the discharge of waste matters, as also the actions of cathartic drugs.

Asclepiades, however, who viewed with suspicion the incredible character of the cause mentioned, and who saw no other credible cause on the basis of his supposed elements, shamelessly had recourse to the statement that nothing is in any way attracted by anything else. Now, if he was dissatisfied with what Epicurus said, and had nothing better to say himself, he ought to have refrained from making hypotheses, and should have said that Nature is a constructive artist and that the substance of things is always tending towards unity and also towards alteration because its own parts act upon and are acted upon by one another.¹¹² For, if he had assumed this, it would not have been difficult to allow that this constructive Nature has powers which attract appropriate and expel alien matter. For in no other way could she be constructive, preservative of the animal, and eliminative of its diseases,¹¹³ unless it be allowed that she conserves what is appropriate and discharges what is foreign.

But in this matter, too, Asclepiades realized the logical sequence of the principles he had assumed; he showed no scruples, however, in opposing plain fact; he joins issue in this matter also, not merely with all physicians, but with everyone else, and maintains that there is no such thing as a crisis, or critical day,¹¹⁴ and that Nature does absolutely nothing for the preservation of the animal. For his constant aim is to follow out logical consequences and to upset obvious fact, in this respect being opposed to Epicurus; for the latter always stated the observed fact, although he gives an ineffective explanation of it. For, that these small corpuscles belonging to the lodestone rebound, and become entangled with other similar particles of the iron, and that then, by means of this entanglement (which cannot be seen anywhere) such a heavy substance as iron is attracted — I fail to understand how anybody could believe this. Even if we admit this, the same principle will not explain the fact that, when the iron has another piece brought in contact with it, this becomes attached to it.

For what are we to say? That, forsooth, some of the particles that flow from the lodestone collide with the iron and then rebound back, and that it is by these that the iron becomes suspended? that others penetrate into it, and rapidly pass through it by way of its empty channels?¹¹⁵ that these then collide with the second piece of iron and are not able to penetrate it although they penetrated the first piece? and that they then course back to the first piece, and produce entanglements like the former ones?

The hypothesis here becomes clearly refuted by its absurdity. As a matter of fact, I have seen five writing-stylets of iron attached to one another in a line, only the first one being in contact with the lodestone, and the power¹¹⁶ being transmitted through it to the others. Moreover, it cannot be said that if you bring a second stylet into contact with the lower end of the first, it becomes held, attached, and suspended, whereas, if you apply it to any other part of the side it does not become attached. For the power of the lodestone is distributed in all directions; it merely needs to be in contact with the first stylet at any point; from this stylet again the power flows, as quick as a thought, all through the second, and from that again to the third. Now, if you imagine a small lodestone hanging in a house, and in contact with it all round a large number of pieces of iron, from them again others, from these others, and so on, — all these pieces of iron must surely become filled with the corpuscles which emanate from the stone; therefore, this first little stone is likely to become dissipated by disintegrating into these emanations.¹¹⁷ Further, even if there be no iron in contact with it, it still disperses into the air, particularly if this be also warm.

Yes, says Epicurus, but these corpuscles must be looked on as exceedingly small, so that some of them are a ten-thousandth part of the size of the very smallest particles carried in the air. Then do you venture to say that so great a weight of iron can be suspended by such small bodies? If each of them is a ten-thousandth part as large as the dust particles which are borne in the atmosphere, how big must we suppose the hook-like extremities by which they interlock with each other¹¹⁸ to be? For of course this is quite the smallest portion of the whole particle.

Then, again, when a small body becomes entangled with another small body, or when a body in motion becomes entangled with another also in motion, they do not rebound at once. For, further, there will of course be others which break in upon them from above, from below, from front and rear, from right and left, and which shake and agitate them and never let them rest. Moreover, we must perforce suppose that each of these small bodies has a large number of these hook-like extremities. For by one it attaches itself to its neighbours, by another — the topmost one — to the lodestone, and by the bottom one to the iron. For if it were attached to the stone above and not interlocked with the iron below, this would be of no use.¹¹⁹ Thus, the upper part of the superior extremity must hang from the lodestone, and the iron must be attached to the lower end of the inferior extremity; and, since they interlock with each other by their sides as well, they must, of course, have hooks there too. Keep in mind also, above everything, what small bodies these are which possess all these different kinds of outgrowths. Still more, remember how, in order that the second piece of iron may become attached to the first, the third to the second, and to that the fourth, these absurd little particles must both penetrate the passages in the first piece of iron and at the same time rebound from the piece coming next in the series, although this second piece is naturally in every way similar to the first.

Such an hypothesis, once again, is certainly not lacking in audacity; in fact, to tell the truth, it is far more shameless than the previous ones; according to it, when five similar pieces of iron are arranged in a line, the particles of the lodestone which easily traverse the first piece of iron rebound from the second, and do not pass readily through it in the same way. Indeed, it is nonsense, whichever alternative is adopted. For, if they do rebound, how then do they pass through into the third piece? And if they do not rebound, how does the second piece become suspended to the first? For Epicurus himself looked on the rebound as the active agent in attraction.

But, as I have said, one is driven to talk nonsense whenever one gets into discussion with such men. Having, therefore, given a concise and summary statement of the matter, I wish to be done with it. For if one diligently familiarizes oneself with the writings of Asclepiades, one will see clearly their logical dependence on his first principles, but also their disagreement with observed facts. Thus, Epicurus, in his desire to adhere to the facts, cuts an awkward figure by aspiring to show that these agree with his principles, whereas Asclepiades safeguards the sequence of principles, but pays no attention to the obvious fact. Whoever, therefore, wishes to expose the absurdity of their hypotheses, must, if the argument be in answer to Asclepiades, keep in mind his disagreement with observed fact; or if in answer to Epicurus, his discordance with his principles. Almost all the other sects depending on similar principles are now entirely extinct, while these alone maintain a respectable existence still. Yet the tenets of Asclepiades have been unanswerably confuted by Menodotus the Empiricist, who draws his attention to their opposition to phenomena and to each other; and, again, those of Epicurus have been confuted by Asclepiades, who adhered always to logical sequence, about which Epicurus evidently cares little.

Now people of the present day do not begin by getting a clear comprehension of these sects, as well as of the better ones, thereafter devoting a long time to judging and testing the true and false in each of them; despite their ignorance, they style themselves, some physicians and others philosophers. No wonder, then, that they honour the false equally with the true. For everyone becomes like the first teacher that he comes across, without waiting to learn anything from anybody else. And there are some of them, who, even if they meet with more than one teacher, are yet so unintelligent and slow-witted that even by the time they have reached old age they are still incapable of understanding the steps of an argument.... In the old days such people used to be set to menial tasks.... What will be the end of it God knows!

Now, we usually refrain from arguing with people whose principles are wrong from the outset. Still, having been compelled by the natural course of events to enter into some kind of a discussion with them, we must add this further to what was said — that it is not only cathartic drugs which naturally attract their special qualities,¹²⁰ but also those which remove thorns and the points of arrows such as sometimes become deeply embedded in the flesh. Those drugs also which draw out animal poisons or poisons applied to arrows all show the same faculty as does the lodestone. Thus, I myself have seen a thorn which was embedded in a young man's foot fail to come out when we exerted forcible traction with our fingers, and yet come away painlessly and rapidly on the application of a medicament. Yet even to this some people will object, asserting that when the inflammation is dispersed from the part the thorn comes away of itself, without being pulled out by anything. But these people seem, in the first place, to be unaware that there are certain drugs for drawing out inflammation and different ones for drawing out embedded substances; and surely if it was on the cessation of an inflammation that the abnormal matters were expelled, then all drugs which disperse inflammations ought ipso facto; to possess the power of extracting these substances as well.¹²¹

And secondly, these people seem to be unaware of a still more surprising fact, namely, that not merely do certain medicaments draw out thorns and others poisons, but that of the latter there are some which attract the poison of the viper, others that of the sting-ray,¹²² and others that of some other animal; we can, in fact, plainly observe these poisons deposited on the medicaments. Here, then, we must praise Epicurus for the respect he shows towards obvious facts, but find fault with his views as to causation. For how can it be otherwise than extremely foolish to suppose that a thorn which we failed to remove by digital traction could be drawn out by these minute particles?

Have we now, therefore, convinced ourselves that everything which exists¹²³ possesses a faculty by which it attracts its proper quality, and that some things do this more, and some less?

Or shall we also furnish our argument with the illustration afforded by corn?¹²⁴ For those who refuse to admit that anything is attracted by anything else, will, I imagine, be here proved more ignorant regarding Nature than the very peasants. When, for my own part, I first learned of what happens, I was surprised, and felt anxious to see it with my own eyes. Afterwards, when experience also had confirmed its truth, I sought long among the various sects for an explanation, and, with the exception of that which gave the first place to attraction, I could find none which even approached plausibility, all the others being ridiculous and obviously quite untenable.

What happens, then, is the following. When our peasants are bringing corn from the country into the city in wagons, and wish to filch some away without being detected, they fill earthen jars with water and stand them among the corn; the corn then draws the moisture into itself through the jar and acquires additional bulk and weight, but the fact is never detected by the onlookers unless someone who knew about the trick before makes a more careful inspection. Yet, if you care to set down the same vessel in the very hot sun, you will find the daily loss to be very little indeed. Thus corn has a greater power than extreme solar heat of drawing to itself the moisture in its neighbourhood.¹²⁵ Thus the theory that the water is carried towards the rarefied part of the air surrounding us¹²⁶ (particularly when that is distinctly warm) is utter nonsense; for although it is much more rarefied there than it is amongst the corn, yet it does not take up a tenth part of the moisture which the corn does.

PART 15

Since, then, we have talked sufficient nonsense — not willingly, but because we were forced, as the proverb says, to behave madly among madmen — let us return again to the subject of urinary secretion. Here let us forget the absurdities of Asclepiades, and, in company with those who are persuaded that the urine does pass through the kidneys, let us consider what is the character of this function. For, most assuredly, either the urine is conveyed by its own motion to the kidneys, considering this the better course (as do we when we go off to market!¹²⁷), or, if this be impossible, then some other reason for its conveyance must be found. What, then, is this? If we are not going to grant the kidneys a faculty for attracting this particular quality,¹²⁸ as Hippocrates held, we shall discover no other reason. For, surely everyone sees that either the kidneys must attract the urine, or the veins must propel it — if, that is, it does not move of itself. But if the veins did exert a propulsive action when they contract, they would squeeze out into the kidneys not merely the urine, but along with it the whole of the blood which they contain.¹²⁹ And if this is impossible, as we shall show, the remaining explanation is that the kidneys do exert traction.

And how is propulsion by the veins impossible? The situation of the kidneys is against it. They do not occupy a position beneath the hollow vein [vena cava] as does the sieve-like [ethmoid] passage in the nose and palate in relation to the surplus matter from the brain;¹³⁰ they are situated on both sides of it. Besides, if the kidneys are like sieves, and readily let the thinner serous [whey-like] portion through, and keep out the thicker portion, then the whole of the blood contained in the vena cava must go to them, just as the whole of the wine is thrown into the filters. Further, the example of milk being made into cheese will show clearly what I mean. For this, too, although it is all thrown into the wicker strainers, does not all percolate through; such part of it as is too fine in proportion to the width of the meshes passes downwards, and this is called whey [serum]; the remaining thick portion which is destined to become cheese cannot get down, since the pores of the strainers will not admit it. Thus it is that, if the blood-serum has similarly to percolate through the kidneys, the whole of the blood must come to them, and not merely one part of it.

What, then, is the appearance as found on dissection?

One division of the vena cava is carried upwards¹³¹ to the heart, and the other mounts upon the spine and extends along its whole length as far as the legs; thus one division does not even come near the kidneys, while the other approaches them but is certainly not inserted into them. Now, if the blood were destined to be purified by them as if they were sieves, the whole of it would have to fall into them, the thin part being and the thick part retained above. But, as a matter of fact, this is not so. For the kidneys lie on either side of the vena cava. They therefore do not act like sieves, filtering fluid sent to them by the vena cava, and themselves contributing no force. They obviously exert traction; for this is the only remaining alternative.

How, then, do they exert this traction? If, as Epicurus thinks, all attraction takes place by virtue of the rebounds and entanglements of atoms, it would be certainly better to maintain that the kidneys have no attractive action at all; for his theory, when examined, would be found as it stands to be much more ridiculous even than the theory of the lodestone, mentioned a little while ago. Attraction occurs in the way that Hippocrates laid down; this will be stated more clearly as the discussion proceeds; for the present our task is not to demonstrate this, but to point out that no other cause of the secretion of urine can be given except that of attraction by the kidneys,¹³² and that this attraction does not take place in the way imagined by people who do not allow Nature a faculty of her own.¹³³ For if it be granted that there is any attractive faculty at all in those things which are governed by Nature,¹³⁴ a person who attempted to say anything else about the absorption of nutriment¹³⁵ would be considered a fool.

PART 16

Now, while Erasistratus¹³⁶ for some reason replied at great length to certain other foolish doctrines, he entirely passed over the view held by Hippocrates, not even thinking it worth while to mention it, as he did in his work On Deglutition; in that work, as may be seen, he did go so far as at least to make mention of the word attraction, writing somewhat as follows:

Now, the stomach does not appear to exercise any attraction.¹³⁷ But when he is dealing with anadosis he does not mention the Hippocratic view even to the extent of a single syllable. Yet we should have been satisfied if he had even merely written this: Hippocrates lies in saying 'The flesh¹³⁸ attracts both from the stomach and from without,' for it cannot attract either from the stomach or from without. Or if he had thought it worth while to state that Hippocrates was wrong in criticizing the weakness of the neck of the uterus, seeing that the orifice of the uterus has no power of attracting semen,¹³⁹ or if he [Erasistratus] had thought proper to write any other similar opinion, then we in our turn would have defended ourselves in the following terms:

My good sir, do not run us down in this rhetorical fashion without some proof; state some definite objection to our view, in order that either you may convince us by a brilliant refutation of the ancient doctrine, or that, on the other hand, we may convert you from your ignorance. Yet why do I say rhetorical? For we too are not to suppose that when certain rhetoricians pour ridicule upon that which they are quite incapable of refuting, without any attempt at argument, their words are really thereby constituted rhetoric. For rhetoric proceeds by persuasive reasoning; words without reasoning are buffoonery rather than rhetoric. Therefore, the reply of Erasistratus in his treatise On Deglutition was neither rhetoric nor logic. For what is it that he says? Now, the stomach does not appear to exercise any traction. Let us testify against him in return, and set our argument beside his in the same form. Now, there appears to be no peristalsis¹⁴⁰ of the gullet. And how does this appear? one of his adherents may perchance ask. For is it not indicative of peristalsis that always when the upper parts of the gullet contract the lower parts dilate? Again, then, we say, And in what way does the attraction of the stomach not appear? For is it not indicative of attraction that always when the lower parts of the gullet dilate the upper parts contract? Now, if he would but be sensible and recognize that this phenomenon is not more indicative of the one than of the other view, but that it applies equally to both,¹⁴¹ we should then show him without further delay the proper way to the discovery of truth.

We will, however, speak about the stomach again. And the dispersal of nutriment [anadosis] need not make us have recourse to the theory regarding the natural tendency of a vacuum to become refilled,¹⁴² when once we have granted the attractive faculty of the kidneys. Now, although Erasistratus knew that this faculty most certainly existed, he neither mentioned it nor denied it, nor did he make any statement as to his views on the secretion of urine.

Why did he give notice at the very beginning of his General Principles that he was going to speak about natural activities — firstly what they are, how they take place, and in what situations — and then, in the case of urinary secretion, declared that this took place through the kidneys, but left out its method of occurrence? It must, then, have been for no purpose that he told us how digestion occurs, or spends time upon the secretion of biliary superfluities;¹⁴³ for in these cases also it would have been sufficient to have named the parts through which the function takes place, and to have omitted the method. On the contrary, in these cases he was able to tell us not merely through what organs, but also in what way it occurs — as he also did, I think, in the case of anadosis; for he was not satisfied with saying that this took place through the veins, but he also considered fully the method, which he held to be from the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled. Concerning the secretion of urine, however, he writes that this occurs through the kidneys, but does not add in what way it occurs. I do not think he could say that this was from the tendency of matter to fill a vacuum,¹⁴⁴ for, if this were so, nobody would have ever died of retention of urine, since no more can flow into a vacuum than has run out. For, if no other factor comes into operation¹⁴⁵ save only this tendency by which a vacuum becomes refilled, no more could ever flow in than had been evacuated. Nor, could he suggest any other plausible cause, such, for example, as the of nutriment by the stomach¹⁴⁶ which occurs in the process of anadosis; this had been entirely disproved in the case of blood in the vena cava;¹⁴⁷ it is excluded, not merely owing to the long distance, but also from the fact that the overlying heart, at each diastole, robs the vena cava by violence of a considerable quantity of blood.

In relation to the lower part of the vena cava¹⁴⁸ there would still remain, solitary and abandoned, the specious theory concerning the filling of a vacuum. This, however, is deprived of plausibility by the fact that people die of retention of urine, and also, no less, by the situation of the kidneys. For, if the whole of the blood were carried to the kidneys, one might properly maintain that it all undergoes purification there. But, as a matter of fact, the whole of it does not go to them, but only so much as can be contained in the veins going to the kidneys;¹⁴⁹ this portion only, therefore, will be purified. Further, the thin serous part of this will pass through the kidneys as if through a sieve, while the thick sanguineous portion remaining in the veins will obstruct the blood flowing in from behind; this will first, therefore, have to run back to the vena cava, and so to empty the veins going to the kidneys; these veins will no longer be able to conduct a second quantity of unpurified blood to the kidneys — occupied as they are by the blood which had preceded, there is no passage left. What power have we, then, which will draw back the purified blood from the kidneys? And what power,in the next place, will bid this blood retire to the lower part of the vena cava, and will enjoin on another quantity coming from above not to proceed downwards before turning off into the kidneys?

Now Erasistratus realized that all these ideas were open to many objections, and he could only find one idea which held good in all respects — namely, that of attraction. Since, therefore, he did not wish either to get into difficulties or to mention the view of Hippocrates, he deemed it better to say nothing at all as to the manner in which secretion occurs.

But even if he kept silence, I am not going to do so. For I know that if one passes over the Hippocratic view and makes some other pronouncement about the function of the kidneys, one cannot fall to make oneself utterly ridiculous. It was for this reason that Erasistratus kept silence and Asclepiades lied; they are like slaves who have had plenty to say in the early part of their career, and have managed by excessive rascality to escape many and frequent accusations, but who, later, when caught in the act of thieving, cannot find any excuse; the more modest one then keeps silence, as though thunderstruck, whilst the more shameless continues to hide the missing article beneath his arm and denies on oath that he has ever seen it. For it was in this way also that Asclepiades, when all subtle excuses had failed him and there was no longer any room for nonsense about conveyance towards the rarefied part [of the air],¹⁵⁰ and when it was impossible without incurring the greatest derision to say that this superfluity [ i.e.. the urine] is generated by the kidneys as is bile by the canals in the liver — he, then, I say, clearly lied when he swore that the urine does not reach the kidneys, and maintained that it passes, in the form of vapour, straight from the region of the vena cava,¹⁵¹ to collect in the bladder.

Like slaves, then, caught in the act of stealing, these two are quite bewildered, and while the one says nothing, the other indulges in shameless lying.

PART 17

Now such of the younger men as have dignified themselves with the names of these two authorities by taking the appellations Erasistrateans or Asclepiadeans are like the Davi and Getae — the slaves introduced by the excellent Menander into his comedies. As these slaves held that they had done nothing fine unless they had cheated their master three times, so also the men I am discussing have taken their time over the construction of impudent sophisms, the one party striving to prevent the lies of Asclepiades from ever being refuted, and the other saying stupidly what Erasistratus had the sense to keep silence about.

But enough about the Asclepiadeans. The Erasistrateans, in attempting to say how the kidneys let the urine through, will do anything or suffer anything or try any shift in order to find some plausible explanation which does not demand the principle of attraction.

Now those near the times of Erasistratus maintain that the parts above the kidneys receive pure blood, whilst the watery residue, being heavy, tends to run downwards; that this, after percolating through the kidneys themselves, is thus rendered serviceable, and is sent, as blood, to all the parts below the kidneys.

For a certain period at least this view also found favour and flourished, and was held to be true; after a time, however, it became suspect to the Erasistrateans themselves, and at last they abandoned it. For apparently the following two points were assumed, neither of which is conceded by anyone, nor is even capable of being proved. The first is the heaviness of the serous fluid, which was said to be produced in the vena cava, and which did not exist, apparently, at the beginning, when this fluid was being carried up from the stomach to the liver. Why, then, did it not at once run downwards when it was in these situations? And if the watery fluid is so heavy, what plausibility can anyone find in the statement that it assists in the process of anadosis ?

In the second place there is this absurdity, that even if it be agreed that all the watery fluid does fall downwards, and only when it is in the vena cava,¹⁵² still it is difficult, or, rather, impossible, to say through what means it is going to fall into the kidneys, seeing that these are not situated below, but on either side of the vena cava, and that the vena cava is not inserted into them, but merely sends a branch¹⁵³into each of them, as it also does into all the other parts.

What doctrine, then, took the place of this one when it was condemned? One which to me seems far more foolish than the first, although it also flourished at one time. For they say, that if oil be mixed with water and poured upon the ground, each will take a different route, the one flowing this way and the other that, and that, therefore, it is not surprising that the watery fluid runs into the kidneys, while the blood falls downwards along the vena cava. Now this doctrine also stands already condemned. For why, of the countless veins which spring from the vena cava, should blood flow into all the others, and the serous fluid be diverted to those going to the kidneys? They have not answered the question which was asked; they merely state what happens and imagine they have thereby assigned the reason.

Once again, then (the third cup to the Saviour!),¹⁵⁴ let us now speak of the worst doctrine of all, lately invented by Lycus of Macedonia,¹⁵⁵ but which is popular owing to its novelty. This Lycus, then, maintains, as though uttering an oracle from the inner sanctuary, that urine is residual matter from the nutrition of the kidneys!¹⁵⁶ Now, the amount of urine passed every day shows clearly that it is the whole of the fluid drunk which becomes urine, except for that which comes away with the dejections or passes off as sweat or insensible perspiration. This is most easily recognized in winter in those who are doing no work but are carousing, especially if the wine be thin and diffusible; these people rapidly pass almost the same quantity as they drink. And that even Erasistratus was aware of this is known to those who have read the first book of his General Principles.¹⁵⁷ Thus Lycus is speaking neither good Erasistratism, nor good Asclepiadism, far less good Hippocratism. He is, therefore, as the saying is, like a white crow, which cannot mix with the genuine crows owing to its colour, nor with the pigeons owing to its size. For all this, however, he is not to be disregarded; he may, perhaps, be stating some wonderful truth, unknown to any of his predecessors.

Now it is agreed that all parts which are undergoing nutrition produce a certain amount of residue, but it is neither agreed nor is it likely, that the kidneys alone, small bodies as they are, could hold four whole congii,¹⁵⁸ and sometimes even more, of residual matter. For this surplus must necessarily be greater in quantity in each of the larger viscera; thus, for example, that of the lung, if it corresponds in amount to the size of the viscus, will obviously be many times more than that in the kidneys, and thus the whole of the thorax will become filled, and the animal will be at once suffocated. But if it be said that the residual matter is equal in amount in each of the other parts, where are the bladders, one may ask, through which it is excreted? For, if the kidneys produce in drinkers three and sometimes four congii of superfluous matter, that of each of the other viscera will be much more, and thus an enormous barrel will be needed to contain the waste products of them all. Yet one often urinates practically the same quantity as one has drunk, which would show that the whole of what one drinks goes to the kidneys.

Thus the author of this third piece of trickery would appear to have achieved nothing, but to have been at once detected, and there still remains the original difficulty which was insoluble by Erasistratus and by all others except Hippocrates. I dwell purposely on this topic, knowing well that nobody else has anything to say about the function of the kidneys, but that either we must prove more foolish than the very butchers¹⁵⁹ if we do not agree that the urine passes through the kidneys; or, if one acknowledges this, that then one cannot possibly give any other reason for the secretion than the principle of attraction.

Now, if the movement of urine does not depend on the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled,¹⁶⁰ it is clear that neither does that of the blood nor that of the bile; or if that of these latter does so, then so also does that of the former. For they must all be accomplished in one and the same way, even according to Erasistratus himself. This matter, however, will be discussed more fully in the book following this.

De naturalibus facultatibus. Galen. Arthur John Brock (Translator). London. 1916.

Funding provided by National Library of Medicine History of Medicine Division.

Current edition Perseus

On the Natural Faculties (English) (Galen. On the Natural Faculties. Brock, Arthur John, translator. London: William Heinemann Ltd.; Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1916.)

Editions (2)

De naturalibus facultatibus First1KGreek (Galen. Claudii Galeni Opera Omnia, Volume 2. Kühn, Karl Gottlob, editor. Leipzig: Knobloch, 1821.) — 1 focus

ΓΑΛΗΝΟΥ ΠΕΡΙ ΔΥΝΑΜΕΩΝ ΦΥΣΙΚΩΝ
ΒΙΒΛΙΟΝ ΠΡΩΤΟΝ.

Ἐπειδὴ τὸ μὲν αἰσθάνεσθαί τε καὶ κινεῖσθαι
κατὰ προαίρεσιν ἴδια τῶν ζώων ἐστὶ, τὸ δ’ αὐξάνεσθαί
τε καὶ τρέφεσθαι κοινὰ καὶ τοῖς φυτοῖς, εἴη ἂν τὰ
μὲν πρότερα τῆς ψυχῆς, τὰ δὲ δεύτερα τῆς φύσεως ἔργα.
εἰ δέ τις καὶ τοῖς φυτοῖς ψυχῆς μεταδίδωσι, καὶ διαιρούμενος
αὐτὰς, ὀνομάζει φυτικὴν μὲν ταύτην, αἰσθητικὴν δὲ
τὴν ἑτέραν, λέγει μὲν οὐδ’ οὗτος ἄλλα, τῇ λέξει δ’ οὐ
πάνυ τῇ συνήθει χρῆται. ἀλλ’ ἡμεῖς γε μεγίστην λέξεως
ἀρετὴν σαφήνειαν εἷναι πεπεισμένοι, καὶ ταύτην εἰδότες ὑπ’ οὐδενὸς οὕτως ὡς ὑπὸ τῶν ἀήθων ὀνομάτων διαφθειρομένην,
ὡς τοῖς πολλοῖς ἔθος, οὕτως ὀνομάζοντες, ὑπὸ μὲν
ψυχῆς τε ἅμα καὶ φύσεως τὰ ζῶα διοικεῖσθαί φαμεν, ὑπὸ
δὲ φύσεως μόνης τὰ φυτά· καὶ τό γ’ αὐξάνεσθαί τε καὶ
τρέφεσθαι φύσεως ἔργα φαμὲν, οὐ ψυχῆς.

9 Καὶ ζητήσομεν κατὰ τόνδε τὸν λόγον, ὑπὸ
τίνων γίνεται δυνάμεων αὐτά γε ταῦτα, καὶ εἰ δή τι ἄλλο
φύσεως ἔργον ἐστίν. ἀλλὰ πρότερόν γε διελέσθαι τε χρὴ
καὶ μηνῦσαι σαφῶς ἕκαστον τῶν ὀνομάτων, οἷς χρησόμεθα
κατὰ τόνδε τὸν λόγον, καὶ ἐφ’ ὅ τι φέρομεν πρᾶγμα. γενήσεται
δὲ τοῦτο εὐθὺς ἔργων φυσικῶν διδασκαλία σὺν ταῖς
τῶν ὀνομάτων ἐξηγήσεσιν. ὅταν οὖν τι σῶμα κατὰ μηδὲν
ἐξαλλάττηται τῶν προϋπαρχόντων, ἡσυχάζειν αὐτό φαμεν·
εἰ δ’ ἐξίσταταί πη τοῦτο, κατ’ ἐκεῖνο κινεῖσθαι. καὶ τοίνυν
ἐπεὶ πολυειδῶς ἐξίσταται, πολυειδῶς κινηθήσεται. καὶ
γὰρ εἰ λευκὸν ὑπάρχον μελαίνοιτο, καὶ εἰ μέλαν λευκαίνοιτο,
κινεῖται κατὰ χρόαν. καὶ εἰ γλυκὺ τέως ὑπάρχον αὖθις αὐστηρὸν, ἢ ἔμπαλιν ἐξ αὐστηροῦ γλυκὺ γίνοιτο, καὶ τοῦτ’
ἂν κινεῖσθαι λέγοιτο κατὰ τὸν χυμόν. ἄμφω δὲ ταῦτά τε
καὶ τὰ προειρημένα κατὰ ποιότητα κινεῖσθαι λεχθήσεται.
καὶ οὐ μόνον γε τὰ κατὰ τὴν χρόαν καὶ τὸν χυμὸν ἐξαλλαττόμενα
κινεῖσθαί φαμεν, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ θερμότερον ἐκ ψυχροτέρου
γινόμενον ἢ ψυχρότερον ἐκ θερμοτέρου κινεῖσθαι καὶ
τοῦτο λέγομεν, ὥσπερ γε καὶ εἴ τι ξηρὸν ἐξ ὑγροῦ ἢ ὑγρὸν
ἐκ ξηροῦ γίνοιτο. κοινὸν δὲ κατὰ τούτων ἁπάντων ὄνομα
φέρομεν τὴν ἀλλοίωσιν, ἕν τι τοῦτο γένος κινήσεως. ἕτερον
δὲ γένος ἐπὶ τοῖς τὰς χώρας ἀμείβουσι σώμασι καὶ τόπον
ἐκ τόπου μεταλλάττειν λεγομένοις. ὄνομα δὲ καὶ τούτῳ
φορά. αὗται μὲν οὖν αἱ δύο κινήσεις ἁπλαῖ καὶ πρῶται.
σύνθετοι δ’ ἐξ αὐτῶν αὔξησίς τε καὶ φθίσις, ὅταν ἐξ
ἐλάττονός τι μεῖζον, ἢ ἐκ μείζονος ἔλαττον γίνηται, φυλάττον
τὸ οἰκεῖον εἶδος. ἕτεραι δὲ δύο κινήσεις γένεσις καὶ
φθορά. γένεσις μὲν ἡ εἰς οὐσίαν ἀγωγὴ, φθορὰ δὲ ἡ
ἐναντία. πάσαις δὲ ταῖς κινήσεσι κοινὸν ἡ ἐξάλλαξις τοῦ προϋπάρχοντος· ὥσπερ οὖν καὶ ταῖς ἡσυχίαις ἡ φυλακὴ τῶν
προϋπαρχόντων. ἀλλ’ ὅτι μὲν ἐξαλλάττεται καὶ πρὸς τὴν
ὄψιν, καὶ πρὸς τὴν γεῦσιν, καὶ πρὸς τὴν ἁφὴν, αἷμα γινόμενα
τὰ σιτία, συγχωροῦσιν· ὅτι δὲ καὶ κατ’ ἀλήθειαν,
οὐκέτι τοῦθ’ ὁμολογοῦσιν οἱ σοφισταί. οἱ μὲν γάρ τινες
αὐτῶν ἅπαντα τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν ἡμετέρων αἰσθήσεων ἀπάτας
τινὰς καὶ παραγωγὰς εἶναι νομίζουσιν, ἄλλοτε ἄλλως πασχουσῶν,
τῆς ὑποκειμένης οὐσίας μηδὲν τούτων, οἷς ἐπονομάζεται,
δεχομένης. οἱ δέ τινες εἶναι μὲν ἐν αὐτῇ βούλονται
φύσει τὰς ποιότητας, ἀμεταβλήτους δὲ καὶ ἀτρέπτους
ἐξ αἰῶνος εἰς αἰῶνα, καὶ τὰς φαινομένας ταύτας ἀλλοιώσεις
ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ διακρίσει τε καὶ συγκρίσει γίνεσθαί φασιν, ὡς
Ἀναξαγόρας. εἰ δὴ τούτους ἐκτραπόμενος ἐλέγχοιμι, μεῖζον
ἄν μοι τὸ πάρεργον τοῦ ἔργου γένοιτο. εἰ μὲν γὰρ οὐκ
ἴσασιν, ὅσα περὶ τῆς καθ’ ὅλην τὴν οὐσίαν ἀλλοιώσεως Ἀριστοτέλει
τε καὶ μετὰ τοῦτον Χρυσίππῳ γέγραπται, παρακαλέσαι
χρὴ τοῖς ἐκείνων αὐτοὺς ὁμιλῆσαι γράμμασιν· εἰ δὲ
γινώσκοντες ἔπειθ’ ἑκόντες τὰ χείρω πρὸ τῶν βελτιόνων αἱροῦνται, μάταια δήπου καὶ τὰ ἡμέτερα νομιοῦσιν. ὅτι δὲ
καὶ Ἱπποκράτης οὕτως ἐγίνωσκεν, Ἀριστοτέλους ὢν ἔτι πρότερος,
ἐν ἑτέροις ἡμῖν ἐπιδέδεικται. πρῶτος γὰρ οὗτος
ἁπάντων ὧν ἴσμεν ἰατρῶν τε καὶ φιλοσόφων ἀποδεικνύειν
ἐπεχείρησε, τέτταρας 10 εἶναι τὰς πάσας δραστικὰς
εἰς ἀλλήλας ποιότητας, ὑφ’ ὧν γίνεταί τε καὶ φθείρεται
πάνθ’, ὅσα γένεσίν τε καὶ φθορὰν ἐπιδέχεται. καὶ μέντοι
καὶ τὸ κεράννυσθαι δι’ ἀλλήλων ὅλας αὐτὰς δι’ ὅλων,
Ἱπποκράτης ἁπάντων ὧν ἴσμεν πρῶτος ἔγνω. καὶ τὰς ἀρχὰς
τῶν ἀποδείξεων, ὧν ὕστερον Ἀριστοτέλης μετεχειρίσατο,
παρ’ ἐκείνῳ προτέρῳ γεγραμμένας ἐστὶν εὑρεῖν. εἰ δ’, ὥσπερ
τὰς ποιότητας, οὕτω καὶ τὰς οὐσίας δι’ ὅλων κεράννυσθαι
χρὴ νομίζειν, ὡς ὕστερον ἀπεφῄνατο Ζήνων ὁ Κιττιεὺς,
οὐχ ἡγοῦμαι δεῖν ἔτι περὶ τούτου κατὰ τόνδε τὸν λόγον
ἐπεξιέναι· μόνην γὰρ εἰς τὰ παρόντα δέομαι γινώσκεσθαι
τὴν δι’ ὅλης τῆς οὐσίας ἀλλοίωσιν, ἵνα μή τις ὀστοῦ, καὶ
νεύρου, καὶ σαρκὸς, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἑκάστου μορίων οἷον ἐς
μισγάγκειάν τινα τῷ ἄρτῳ νομίσῃ περιέχεσθαι, κᾄπειτα ἐν τῷ σώματι διακρινόμενον πρὸς τὸ ὁμόφυλον ἕκαστον ἰέναι.
καίτοι πρό γε τῆς διακρίσεως αἷμα φαίνεται γινόμενος ὁ πᾶς
ἄρτος. εἰ γοῦν παμπόλλῳ τις χρόνῳ μηδὲν ἄλλο εἴη σιτίον
προσφερόμενος, οὐδὲν ἧττον ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶν αἷμα περιεχόμενον
ἕξει. καὶ φανερῶς τοῦτο τὴν τῶν ἀμετάβλητα τὰ στοιχεῖα
τιθεμένων ἐξελέγχει δόξαν· ὥσπερ γ’, οἶμαι, καὶ τοὔλαιον
εἰς τὴν τοῦ λύχνου φλόγα καταναλισκόμενον ἅπαν,
καὶ τὰ ξύλα πῦρ μικρὸν ὕστερον γινόμενα. καίτοι τό γ’
ἀντιλέγειν αὐτοῖς ἠρνησάμην, ἀλλ’ ἐπεὶ τῆς ἰατρικῆς ὕλης
ἦν τὸ παράδειγμα, καὶ χρήζω πρὸς τὸν παρόντα λόγον αὐτοῦ,
διὰ τοῦτ’ ἐμνημόνευσα. καταλιπόντες οὖν, ὡς ἔφην,
τὴν πρὸς τούτους ἀντιλογίαν, τοῖς βουλομένοις τά τε παρὰ
τῶν παλαιῶν ἐκμανθάνειν, κᾀξ ὧν ἡμεῖς ἰδίᾳ περὶ αὐτῶν
ἐπεσκέμμεθα τὸν ἑξῆς λόγον ἅπαντα ποιησόμεθα, ζητοῦντες,
ὑπὲρ ὧν ἐξ ἀρχῆς προὐθέμεθα, πόσαι τε καὶ τίνες εἰσὶν αἱ
τῆς φύσεως δυνάμεις, καὶ τί ποιεῖν ἔργον ἑκάστῃ πέφυκεν.
ἔργον δὲ δηλονότι καλῶ τὸ γεγονὸς ἤδη καὶ συμπεπληρωμένον ὑπὸ τῆς ἐνεργείας αὐτῶν, οἶον τὸ αἷμα, τὴν σάρκα
καὶ τὸ νεῦρον· ἐνέργειαν δὲ τὴν δραστικὴν ὀνομάζω κίνησιν,
καὶ τὴν ταύτης αἰτίαν δύναμιν. ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἐν τῷ τὸ
σιτίον αἷμα γίνεσθαι παθητικὴ μὲν ἡ τοῦ σιτίου, δραστικὴ
δ’ ἡ τῆς φλεβὸς γίνεται κίνησις, ὡσαύτως δὲ κᾀν τῷ μεταφέρειν
τὰ κῶλα κινεῖ μὲν ὁ μῦς, κινεῖται δὲ τὰ ὀστᾶ,
τὴν μὲν τῆς φλεβὸς καὶ τῶν μυῶν κίνησιν ἐνέργειαν εἷναί
φημι· τὴν 88 δὲ τῶν σιτίων καὶ τῶν ὀστῶν σύμπτωμά
τε καὶ πάθημα. τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀλλοιοῦται, τὰ δὲ φέρεται.
τὴν μὲν οὖν ἐνέργειαν ἐγχωρεῖ καλεῖν καὶ ἔργον τι φύσεως,
οἷον τὴν πέψιν, τὴν ἀνάδοσιν, τὴν αἱμάτωσιν, οὐ μὴν τὸ
γ’ ἔργον ἐξ ἅπαντος ἐνέργειαν. ἡ γάρ τοι σὰρξ ἔργον μέν
ἐστι τῆς φύσεως, οὐ μὴν ἐνέργειά γε. δῆλον οὗν, ὡς θάτερον
μὲν τῶν ὀνομάτων διχῶς λέγεται, θάτερον δ’ οὔ.

Ἐμοὶ μὲν οὖν καὶ φλὲψ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων
ἁπάντων ἕκαστον διὰ τὴν ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων ποιὰν κρᾶσιν
ᾡδί πως ἐνεργεῖν δοκεῖ. εἰσὶ δ’ οὐκ ὀλίγοι τινὲς ἄνδρες, οὐδὲ ἄδοξοι, φιλόσοφοί τε καὶ ἰατροὶ, οἱ τῷ μὲν θερμῷ
καὶ τῷ ψυχρῷ τὸ δρᾷν ἀναφέροντες, ὑποβάλλοντες δ’ αὐτοῖς
παθητικὰ τό τε ξηρὸν καὶ τὸ ὑγρόν. καὶ πρῶτός γ’ Ἀριστοτέλης
11 τὰς τῶν κατὰ μέρος ἁπάντων αἰτίας εἰς ταύτας
ἀνάγειν πειρᾶται τὰς ἀρχάς. ἠκολούθησε δ’ ὕστερον
αὐτῷ καὶ ὁ ἀπὸ τῆς στοᾶς χορός. καίτοι τούτοις μὲν, ὡς ἂν
καὶ αὐτῶν τῶν στοιχείων τὴν εἰς ἄλληλα μεταβολὴν χύσεσι
τέ τισι καὶ πιλήσεσιν ἀναφέρουσιν, εὔλογον ἦν ἀρχὰς δραστικὰς
ποιήσασθαι τὸ θερμὸν καὶ τὸ ψυχρόν. Ἀριστοτέλει
δ’ οὐχ οὕτως, ἀλλὰ τέτταρσι ποιότησιν εἰς τὴν τῶν
στοιχείων γένεσιν χρωμένῳ βέλτιον ἦν καὶ τὰς τῶν κατὰ
μέρος ἁπάσας αἰτίας εἰς ταύτας ἀνάγειν. τί δήποτ’ οὖν ἐν
μὲν τοῖς περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς ταῖς τέτταρσι χρῆται,
ἐν δὲ τοῖς μετεωρολογικοῖς καὶ τοῖς προβλήμασι καὶ ἄλλοθι
πολλαχόθι ταῖς δύο μόναις; εἰ μὲν γὰρ, ὡς ἐν ζώοις
τε καὶ φυτοῖς, μᾶλλον μὲν δρᾷν τὸ θερμὸν καὶ τὸ ψυχρὸν,
ἧττον δὲ τό θ’ ὑγρὸν καὶ τὸ ξηρὸν ἀποφαίνοιτό τις, ἴσως
ἂν ἔχοι καὶ τὸν Ἱπποκράτην σύμψηφον. εἰ δ’ ὡσαύτως ἐν ἅπασιν, οὐκ ἔτ’ οἶμαι συγχωρήσειν τοῦτο, μὴ ὅτι τὸν
Ἱπποκράτην, ἀλλὰ μηδ’ αὐτὸν τὸν Ἀριστοτέλην, μεμνῆσθαί
γε βουλόμενον, ὧν ἐν τοῖς περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς οὐχ
ἁπλῶς, ἀλλὰ μετ’ ἀποδείξεως αὐτὸς ἡμᾶς ἐδίδαξεν. ἀλλὰ
περὶ μὲν τούτων κᾀν τοῖς περὶ κράσεων, εἰς ὅσον ἰατρῷ
χρήσιμον, ἐπεσκεψάμεθα.

Ἡ δ’ οὖν δύναμις ἡ ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶν, ἡ αἱματοποιητικὴ
προσαγορευομένη, καὶ πᾶσα δ’ ἄλλη δύναμις
ἐν τῷ πρός τι νενόηται. πρώτη μὲν γὰρ ἡ δύναμις
τῆς ἐνεργείας αἰτία· ἤδη δὲ καὶ τοῦ ἔργου κατά τι συμβεβηκός.
ἀλλ’ εἴπερ ἡ αἰτία πρός τι, τοῦ γὰρ ὑπ’ αὐτῆς
γιγνομένου μόνου, τῶν δ’ ἄλλων οὐδενὸς, εὔδηλον, ὅτι καὶ
ἡ δύναμις ἐν τῷ πρός τι. καὶ μέχρι γ’ ἂν ἀγνοῶμεν τὴν
οὐσίαν τῆς ἐνεργούσης αἰτίας, δύναμιν αὐτὴν ὀνομάζομεν,
εἶναί τινα λέγοντες ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶν αἵματος ποιητικὴν δύναμιν.
ὡσαύτως δὲ κᾀν τῇ κοιλίᾳ πεπτικὴν, κᾀν τῇ καρδίᾳ
σφυγμικὴν, καὶ καθ’ ἕκαστον τῶν ἄλλων ἰδίαν τινὰ τῆς κατὰ τὸ μόριον ἐνεργείας. εἴπερ οὖν μεθόδῳ μέλλοιμεν
ἐξευρήσειν, ὁπόσαι τε καὶ ὁποῖαί τινες |αἱ δυνάμεις εἰσὶν,
ἀπὸ τῶν ἔργων ἡμῖν ἀρκτέον. ἕκαστον γὰρ αὐτῶν ὑπό τινος
ἐνεργείας γίγνεται, καὶ τούτων ἑκάστης προηγεῖταί τις
αἰτία.

Ἔργα μὲν οὖν τῆς φύσεως, ἔτι μὲν κυουμένου
τε καὶ διαπλαττομένου τοῦ ζώου, τὰ σύμπαντ’ ἐστὶ τοῦ σώματος
μόρια· γεννηθέντος δὲ τούτου, κοινὸν ἐφ’ ἅπασιν
ἔργον ἡ εἰς τὸ τέλειον ἑκάστῳ μέγεθος ἀγωγὴ, καὶ μετὰ
ταῦτα ἡ μέχρι τοῦ δυνατοῦ διαμονή. ἐνέργειαι δ’ ἐπὶ τρισὶ
τοῖς εἰρημένοις ἔργοις τρεῖς ἐξ ἀνάγκης, ἐφ’ ἑκάστῳ μία,
γένεσίς τε καὶ αὔξησις καὶ θρέψις. ἀλλ’ ἡ μὲν γένεσις
οὐχ ἁπλῆ τις ἐνέργεια τῆς φύσεως, ἀλλ’ ἐξ ἀλλοιώσεώς τε
καὶ διαπλάσεώς ἐστι σύνθετος. ἵνα μὲν γὰρ ὀστοῦν γένηται,
καὶ νεῦρον, καὶ φλὲψ, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἕκαστον, ἀλλοιοῦσθαι
χρὴ τὴν ὑποβεβλημένην οὐσίαν, ἐξ ἧς γίγνεται τὸ
ζῶον· ἵνα δὲ καὶ σχῆμα τὸ δέον, καὶ θέσιν, καὶ κοιλότητάς
τινας, καὶ ἀποφύσεις, καὶ συμφύσεις, 12 καὶ τἄλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα κτήσηται, διαπλάττεσθαι χρὴ τὴν ἀλλοιουμένην
οὐσίαν, ἣν δὴ καὶ ὕλην τοῦ ζώου καλῶν, ὡς τῆς νεὼς τὰ
ξύλα καὶ τῆς εἰκόνος τὸν κηρὸν, οὐκ ἂν ἁμάρτοις. ἡ δὲ
δὴ αὔξησις ἐπίδοσίς ἐστι καὶ διάστασις εἰς μῆκος καὶ
βάθος καὶ πλάτος τῶν στερεῶν τοῦ ζώου μορίων, ὧνπερ
καὶ ἡ διάπλασις ἦν. ἡ δὲ θρέψις πρόσθεσίς ἐστι τοῖς
αὐτοῖς ἄνευ διαστάσεως.

Περὶ πρώτης οὖν τῆς γενέσεως εἴπωμεν, ἣν
ἐξ ἀλλοιώσεώς τε καὶ διαπλάσεως ἐλέγομεν γίνεσθαι. καταβληθέντος
δὴ τοῦ σπέρματος εἰς τὴν μήτραν, ἢ εἰς τὴν
γῆν, οὐδὲν γὰρ διαφέρει, χρόνοις τισὶν ὡρισμένοις πάμπολλα
συνίσταται μόρια τῆς γεννωμένης οὐσίας, ξηρότητι,
καὶ ὑγρότητι, καὶ θερμότητι, καὶ ψυχρότητι, καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις
ἅπασιν, ὅσα τούτοις ἕπεται, διαφέροντα. τὰ δ’ ἑπόμενα
γινώσκεις, εἴπερ ὅλως ἐφιλοσόφησάς τι περὶ γενέσεως καὶ
φθορᾶς, εἴπερ ὅλως ἐφιλοσόφησάς τι περὶ γενέσεως καὶ
φθορὰς. αἱ λοιπαὶ γὰρ τῶν ἁπτῶν ὀνομαζομένων διαφοραὶ
ταῖς εἰρημέναις ἕπονται πρώτως καὶ μάλιστα· μετὰ δὲ ταύτας αἱ γευσταί τε καὶ ὀσφρηταὶ καὶ ὁραταί. σκληρότης
μὲν οὖν, καὶ μαλακότης, καὶ γλισχρότης, καὶ κραυρότης,
καὶ κουφότης, καὶ βαρύτης, καὶ πυκνότης, καὶ ἀραιότης,
καὶ λειότης, καὶ τραχύτης, καὶ παχύτης, καὶ λεπτότης
ἁπταὶ διαφοραὶ, καὶ εἴρηται περὶ πασῶν Ἀριστοτέλει καλῶς.
οἶσθα δὲ δήπου καὶ τὰς ὀσφρητάς τε καὶ ὁρατὰς
καὶ γευστὰς διαφοράς. ὥστ’, εἰ μὲν τὰς πρώτας τε καὶ στοιχειώδεις
ἀλλοιωτικὰς δυνάμεις ζητοίης, ὑγρότης τ’ ἐστὶ, καὶ
ξηρότης, καὶ θερμότης, καὶ ψυχρότης· εἰ δὲ τὰς ἐκ τῆς
τούτων κράσεως γινομένας, τοσαῦται καθ’ ἕκαστον ἔσονται
ζῶον, ὅσαπερ ἂν αὐτοῦ τὰ αἰσθητὰ στοιχεῖα
ὑπάρχῃ. καλεῖται δ’ αἰσθητὰ στοιχεῖα τὰ ὁμοιομερῆ πάντα
τοῦ σώματος μόρια. καὶ ταῦτ’ οὐκ ἐκ μεθόδου τινὸς,
ἀλλ’ αὐτόπτην γενόμενον ἐκμαθεῖν χρὴ διὰ τῶν ἀνατομῶν.
ὀστοῦν δὴ, καὶ χόνδρον, καὶ νεῦρον, καὶ ὑμένα, καὶ σύνδεσμον,
καὶ φλέβα, καὶ πάνθ’ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, κατὰ τὴν
πρώτην τοῦ ζώου γένεσιν ἡ φύσις ἀπεργάζεται, δυνάμει
χρωμένη, καθόλου μὲν εἰπεῖν, τῇ γεννητικῇ τε καὶ ἀλλοιωτικῇ, κατὰ μέρος δὲ θερμαντικῇ τε καὶ ψυκτικῇ καὶ ὑγραντικῇ
καὶ ξηραντικῇ, καὶ ταῖς ἐκ τῆς τούτων κράσεως γενομέναις,
οἷον ὀστοποιητικῇ τε καὶ νευροποιητικῇ καὶ χονδροποιητικῇ·
σαφηνείας γὰρ ἕνεκα καὶ τούτοις τοῖς ὀνόμασι χρηστέον.
ἔστι μὲν οὖν καὶ ἡ ἴδιος σὰρξ τοῦ ἥπατος ἐκ τούτου τοῦ γένους,
καὶ ἡ τοῦ σπληνὸς, καὶ ἡ τῶν νεφρῶν, καὶ ἡ τοῦ πνεύμονος,
καὶ ἡ τῆς καρδίας. οὕτω δὲ καὶ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου τὸ ἴδιον σῶμα,
καὶ τῆς γαστρὸς, καὶ τοῦ στομάχου, καὶ τῶν ἐντέρων, καὶ
τῶν ὑστερῶν, αἰσθητὸν στοιχεῖόν ἐστιν ὁμοιομερές τε καὶ
ἁπλοῦν καὶ ἀσύνθετον. ἂν γὰρ ἐξέλῃς ἑκάστου τῶν εἰρημένων
τὰς ἀρτηρίας τε καὶ τὰς φλέβας καὶ τὰ νεῦρα, τὸ
ὑπόλοιπον σῶμα τὸ καθ’ ἕκαστον ὄργανον ἁπλοῦν ἐστι καὶ
στοιχειῶδες ὡς πρὸς αἴσθησιν. ὅσα δὲ τῶν τοιούτων ὀργάνων
ἐκ δυοῖν σύγκειται χιτώνων, οὐχ ὁμοίων μὲν ἀλλήλοις,
ἁπλοῦ δ’ ἑκατέρου, τούτων οἱ χιτῶνές εἰσι τὰ στοιχεῖα,
καθάπερ τῆς τε γαστρὸς καὶ τοῦ στομάχου, καὶ τῶν
ἐντέρων, καὶ τῶν ἀρτηριῶν. καὶ καθ’ ἑκάτερόν γε τῶν χιτώνων
ἴδιος ἡ ἀλλοιωτικὴ δύναμις, ἡ ἐκ τοῦ παρὰ τῆς μητρὸς ἐπιμηνίου γεννήσασα τὸ μόριον. ὥστε τὰς κατὰ
μέρος ἀλλοιωτικὰς δυνάμεις τοσαύτας εἶναι καθ’ ἕκαστον
γένος ζώου, 13 ὅσα περ ἂν ἔχῃ τὰ στοιχειώδη μόρια. καὶ
μέντοι καὶ τὰς ἐνεργείας 89 ἰδίας ἑκάστῳ τῶν κατὰ μέρος
μορίων ἀναγκαῖον ὑπάρχειν, ὥσπερ καὶ τὰς χρείας, οἷον
καὶ τῶν ἀπὸ τῶν νεφρῶν εἰς τὴν κύστιν διηκόντων πόρων,
οἳ δὴ καὶ οὐρητῆρες καλοῦνται. οὗτοι γὰρ οὔτ’ ἀρτηρίαι
εἰσὶν, ὅτι μήτε σφύζουσι, μήτ’ ἐκ δυοῖν χιτώνων συνεστήκασιν,
οὔτε φλέβες, ὅτι μήθ’ αἷμα περιέχουσι, μήτ’ ἔοικεν
αὐτῶν ὁ χιτὼν κατά τι τῷ τῆς φλεβός· ἀλλὰ καὶ
νεύρων ἐπὶ πλέον ἀφεστήκασιν, ἢ τῶν εἰρημένων. τί ποτ’
οὖν εἰσιν; ἐρωτᾷ τις, ὥσπερ ἀναγκαῖον ὂν ἅπαν μόριον ἢ
ἀρτηρίαν, ἢ φλέβα, ἢ νεῦρον ὑπάρχειν, ἢ ἐκ τούτων πεπλέχθαι,
καὶ μὴ τοῦτ’ αὐτὸ τὸ νῦν λεγόμενον, ὡς ἴδιος
ἑκάστῳ τῶν κατὰ μέρος ὀργάνων ἐστὶν ἡ οὐσία. καὶ γὰρ
καὶ αἱ κύστεις ἑκάτεραι, ἥ τε τὸ οὖρον ὑποδεχομένη καὶ ἡ
τὴν ξανθὴν χολὴν, οὐ μόνον τῶν ἄλλων ἁπάντων, ἀλλὰ
καὶ ἀλλήλων διαφέρουσι, καὶ οἱ εἰς τὸ ἧπαρ ἀποφυόμενοι πόροι, καθάπερ στόμαχοί τινες ἀπὸ τῆς χοληδόχου κύστεως,
οὐδὲν οὔτ’ ἀρτηρίαις, οὔτε φλεψὶν, οὔτε νεύροις ἐοίκασιν.
ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων ἐπὶ πλέον ἐν ἄλλοις τέ τισι κᾀν
τοῖς περὶ τῆς ἀνατομῆς Ἱπποκράτους εἴρηται. αἱ δὲ κατὰ
μέρος ἅπασαι δυνάμεις τῆς φύσεως αἱ ἀλλοιωτικαὶ αὐτὴν
μὲν τὴν οὐσίαν τῶν χιτώνων τῆς κοιλίας καὶ τῶν
ἐντέρων καὶ τῶν ὑστερῶν ἀπετέλεσαν, οἵα πέρ ἐστι· τὴν
δὲ σύνθεσιν αὐτῶν, καὶ τὴν τῶν ἐμφυομένων πλοκὴν, καὶ
τὴν εἰς τὸ ἕτερον τῶν ἐντέρων ἔκφυσιν, καὶ τὴν τῆς ἔνδον
κοιλότητος ἰτέαν, καὶ τἄλλα ὅσα τοιαῦτα, δύναμίς τις
ἑτέρα διέπλασεν, ἣν διαπλαστικὴν ὀνομάζομεν. ἣν δὴ
καὶ τεχνικὴν εἶναι λέγομεν, μᾶλλον δ’ ἀρίστην καὶ ἄκραν
τέχνην, καὶ πάντα τινὸς ἕνεκα ποιοῦσαν, ὡς ἂν μηδὲν ἀργὸν
εἶναι, μήτε περιττὸν, μηδ’ ὅλως οὕτως ἔχον, ὡς δύνασθαι
βέλτιον ἑτέρως ἔχειν. ἀλλὰ τοῦτο μὲν ἐν τοῖς περὶ
χρείας μορίων ἀποδείξομεν.

Ἐπὶ δὲ τὴν αὐξητικὴν ἤδη μεταβάντες δύναμιν,
αὐτό γε τοῦθ’ ὑπομνήσωμεν πρῶτον, ὡς ὑπάρχει
μὲν καὶ αὕτη τοῖς κυουμένοις, ὥσπερ καὶ ἡ θρεπτική· ἀλλ’
οἷον ὑπηρέτιδές τινές εἰσι τηνικαῦτα τῶν προειρημένων δυνάμεων,
ἀλλοιώσεως καὶ διαπλάσεως, οὐκ ἐν ἑαυταῖς ἔχουσαι
τὸ πᾶν κῦρος. ἐπειδὰν δὲ τὸ τέλειον ἀπολάβῃ μέγεθος
τὸ ζῶον, ἐν τῷ μετὰ τὴν ἀποκύησιν χρόνῳ παντὶ μέχρι
τῆς ἀκμῆς ἡ μὲν αὐξητικὴ τηνικαῦτα κρατεῖ· βοηθοὶ
δ’ αὐτῆς καὶ οἷον ὑπηρέτιδες ἥ τ’ ἀλλοιωτικὴ δύναμίς
ἐστι καὶ ἡ θρεπτική. τί οὖν τὸ ἴδιόν ἐστι τῆς αὐξητικῆς
δυνάμεως; εἰς πᾶν μέρος ἐκτεῖναι τὰ πεφυκότα. καλεῖται
δ’ οὕτω τὰ στερεὰ μόρια τοῦ σώματος, ἀρτηρίαι, καὶ φλέβες,
καὶ νεῦρα, καὶ ὀστᾶ, καὶ χόνδροι, καὶ ὑμένες, καὶ
σύνδεσμοι, καὶ οἱ χιτῶνες ἅπαντες, οὓς στοιχειώδεις καὶ
ὁμοιομερεῖς καὶ ἁπλοῦς ὀλίγον ἔμπροσθεν ἐκαλοῦμεν. ὅτῳ
δὲ τρόπῳ τὴν εἰς πᾶν μέρος ἔκτασιν ἴσχουσιν, ἐγὼ
φράσω, παράδειγμά τι πρότερον εἰπὼν ἕνεκα τοῦ σαφοῦς. τὰς κύστεις τῶν ὑῶν λαβόντες οἱ παῖδες, πληροῦσί τε
πνεύματος καὶ τρίβουσιν ἐπὶ τῆς τέφρας πλησίον τοῦ
πυρὸς, ὡς ἀλεαίνεσθαι μὲν, βλάπτεσθαι δὲ μηδέν. καὶ
πολλή γε αὕτη ἡ παιδιὰ περί τε τὴν Ἰωνίαν καὶ ἐν ἄλλοις
ἔθνεσιν οὐκ ὀλίγοις ἐστίν. ἐπιλέγουσι δὲ δὴ καί τινα
ἔπη τρίβοντες ἐν μέτρῳ τέ τινι καὶ μέλει καὶ ῥυθμῷ·
14 καὶ ἔστι πάντα ταῦτα ῥήματα παρακέλευσις τῇ κύστει
πρὸς τὴν αὔξησιν. ἐπειδὰν δ’ ἱκανῶς αὐτοῖς διατετάσθαι
δοκῇ, πάλιν ἐμφυσῶσί τε καὶ ἐπιδιατείνουσι, καὶ αὖθις
τρίβουσι, καὶ τοῦτο πλεονάκις ποιοῦσιν, ἄχρις ἂν αὐτοῖς ἡ
κύστις ἱκανῶς ἔχειν δοκῇ τῆς αὐξήσεως. ἀλλ’ ἐν τούτοις
γε τοῖς ἔργοις τῶν παίδων ἐναργῶς, ὅσον εἰς μέγεθος ἐπιδίδωσιν
ἡ ἐντὸς εὐρυχωρία τῆς κύστεως, τοσοῦτον ἀναγκαῖον
εἰς λεπτότητα καθαιρεῖσθαι τὸ σῶμα. καὶ εἴγε τὴν
λεπτότητα ταύτην ἀνατρέφειν οἱ παῖδες οἷοί τε ἦσαν,
ὁμοίως ἂν τῇ φύσει τὴν κύστιν ἐκ μικρᾶς μεγάλην ἀπειργάζοντο.
νυνὶ δὲ τοῦτ’ αὐτοῖς ἐνδεῖ τὸ ἔργον, οὐδὲ καθ’
ἕνα τρόπον εἰς μίμησιν ἐνδεχόμενον ἀχθῆναι, μὴ ὅτι τοῖς παισὶν, ἀλλ’ οὐδ’ ἄλλῳ τινὶ τῶν τελείων· μόνης γὰρ τῆς
φύσεως ἴδιόν ἐστιν. ὥστ’ ἤδη σοι δῆλον, ὡς ἀναγκαία τοῖς
αὐξανομένοις ἡ θρέψις. εἰ γὰρ διατείνοιτο μὲν, ἀνατρέφοιτο
δὲ μὴ, φαντασίαν ψευδῆ μᾶλλον, οὐκ αὔξησιν ἀληθῆ
τὰ τοιαῦτα σώματα κτήσεται. καίτοι καὶ τὸ διατείνεσθαι
πάντη μόνοις τοῖς ὑπὸ φύσεως αὐξανομένοις ὑπάρχει. τὰ
γὰρ ὑφ’ ἡμῶν διατεινόμενα σώματα, κατὰ μίαν τινὰ διάστασιν
τοῦτο πάσχοντα, μειοῦται τοῖς λοιποῖς. οὐδὲ γάρ
ἐστιν εὑρεῖν οὐδὲν, ὃ συνεχὲς ἔτι μένον καὶ ἀδιάσπαστον
εἰς τὰς τρεῖς διαστάσεις ἐπεκτεῖναι δυνάμεθα. μόνης οὖν
τῆς φύσεως τὸ πάντη διϊστάναι συνεχὲς ἑαυτῷ μένον ἔτι
καὶ τὴν ἀρχαίαν ἅπασαν ἰδέαν φυλάττον τὸ σῶμα. καὶ
τοῦτ’ ἔστιν ἡ αὔξησις, ἄνευ τῆς ἐπιῤῥεούσης τε καὶ προσπλαττομένης
τροφῆς μὴ δυναμένη γενέσθαι.

Καὶ τοίνυν ὁ λόγος ἥκειν ἔοικεν ὁ περὶ
θρέψεως, ὃς δὴ λοιπός ἐστι καὶ τρίτος ὧν γ’ ἐξαρχῆς
προὐθέμεθα. τοῦ γὰρ ἐπιῤῥέοντος ἐν εἴδει τροφῆς παντὶ μορίῳ τοῦ τρεφομένου σώματος προσπλαττομένου, θρέψις
μὲν ἡ ἐνέργεια, θρεπτικὴ δὲ δύναμις ἡ αἰτία. ἀλλοίωσις
μὲν δὴ κᾀνταῦθα τὸ γένος τῆς ἐνεργείας, ἀλλ’ οὐχ οἵα
περ ἐν τῇ γενέσει. ἐκεῖ μὲν γὰρ οὐκ ὂν ὀστοῦν πρότερον
ὕστερον ἐγένετο· κατὰ δὲ τὴν θρέψιν τῷ ἤδη γεγονότι
συνεξομοιοῦται τὸ ἐπιῤῥέον, καὶ διὰ τοῦτ’ εὐλόγως ἐκείνην
μὲν τὴν ἀλλοίωσιν γένεσιν, ταύτην δ’ ἐξομοίωσίν τε καὶ
ὁμοίωσιν ὀνομάζομεν.

Ἐπεὶ δὲ περὶ τῶν τριῶν δυνάμεων τῆς φύσεως
αὐτάρκως εἴρηται, καὶ φαίνεται μηδὲ μιᾶς ἄλλης
προσδεῖσθαι τὸ ζῶον, ἔχον γε καὶ ὅπως αὐξηθῇ, καὶ ὅπως
τελειωθῇ, καὶ ὅπως ἕως πλείστου διαφυλαχθῇ, δόξειε μὲν
ἂν ἴσως ἱκανῶς ἔχειν ὁ λόγος οὗτος ἤδη, καὶ πάσας ἐξηγεῖσθαι
τὰς τῆς φύσεως δυνάμεις. ἀλλ’ εἴ τις πάλιν ἐννοήσειεν,
ὡς οὐδενὸς οὐδέπω τῶν τοῦ ζώου μορίων ἐφήψατο,
κοιλίας λέγω, καὶ ἐντέρων, καὶ ἥπατος, καὶ τῶν ὁμοίων,
οὐδ’ ἐξηγήσατο τὰς ἐν αὐτοῖς δυνάμεις, αὖθις ἂν δόξειεν
οἷον προοίμιόν τι μόνον εἰρῆσθαι τῆς χρησίμου διδασκαλίας. τὸ γὰρ σύμπαν ᾧδ’ ἔχει. γένεσις καὶ αὔξησις καὶ θρέψις
τὰ πρῶτα καὶ οἷον κεφάλαια τῶν ἔργων ἐστὶ τῆς φύσεως.
ὥστε καὶ αἱ τούτων ἐργαστικαὶ δυνάμεις αἱ πρῶται
τρεῖς εἰσι καὶ κυριώταται. δέονται δ’ εἰς ὑπηρεσίαν, ὡς
ἤδη λέλεκται, καὶ ἀλλήλων, καὶ ἄλλων. 15 τίνων μὲν οὖν
ἡ γεννητική τε καὶ αὐξητικὴ δέονται, λέλεκται· τίνων δ’ ἡ
θρεπτικὴ, νῦν εἰρήσεται.

Δοκῶ γάρ μοι δείξειν τὰ περὶ τὴν φυσικὴν
τῆς τροφῆς οἰκονομίαν ὄργανά τε καὶ τὰς δυνάμεις αὐτῶν
διὰ ταύτην γεγονότα. ἐπειδὴ γὰρ ἡ ἐνέργεια ταύτης τῆς
δυνάμεως ἐξομοίωσίς ἐστιν, ὁμοιοῦσθαι δὲ καὶ μεταβάλλειν
εἰς ἄλληλα πᾶσι τοῖς οὖσίν ἐστιν ἀδύνατον, εἰ μή τινα
ἔχει κοινωνίαν ἤδη καὶ συγγένειαν ἐν ταῖς ποιότησι, διὰ
τοῦτο πρῶτον μὲν οὐκ ἐκ πάντων ἐδεσμάτων πᾶν ζῶον
τρέφεσθαι πέφυκεν· ἔπειτα δ’ οὐκ ἐξ ὧν οἷόν τ’ ἐστὶν,
οὐδ’ ἐκ τούτων παραχρῆμα. καὶ διὰ ταύτην τὴν ἀνάγκην
πλειόνων ὀργάνων ἀλλοιωτικῶν τῆς τροφῆς ἕκαστον τῶν ζώων χρῄζει. ἵνα μὲν γὰρ τὸ ξανθὸν ἐρυθρὸν γένηται,
καὶ τὸ ἐρυθρὸν ξανθὸν, ἁπλῆς καὶ μιᾶς δεῖται τῆς ἀλλοιώσεως·
90 ἵνα δὲ τὸ λευκὸν μέλαν, ἢ τὸ μέλαν λευκὸν,
ἁπασῶν τῶν μεταξύ. καὶ τοίνυν καὶ τὸ μαλακώτατον οὐκ
ἂν ἀθρόως σκληρότατον γένοιτο, καὶ τὸ σκληρότατον οὐκ
ἂν εὐθέως μαλακώτατον· ὥσπερ οὐδὲ τὸ δυσωδέστατον
εὐωδέστατον, οὐδ’ ἔμπαλιν τὸ εὐωδέστατον δυσωδέστατον
ἐξαίφνης γένοιτο. πῶς οὖν ἐξ αἵματος ὀστοῦν ἄν ποτε γένοιτο,
μὴ παχυνθέντος πρότερον ἐπὶ πλεῖστον αὐτοῦ καὶ
λευκανθέντος; ἢ πῶς ἐξ ἄρτου τὸ αἷμα, μὴ καταβραχὺ
μὲν ἀποθεμένου τὴν λευκότητα, καταβραχὺ δὲ λαβόντος
τὴν ἐρυθρότητα; σάρκα μὲν γὰρ ἐξ αἵματος γενέσθαι
ῥᾷστον. εἰ γὰρ ἐς τοσοῦτον αὐτὸ παχύνει ἡ φύσις, ὡς σύστασίν
τινα σχεῖν, καὶ μηκέτ’ εἶναι ῥυτὸν, ἡ πρώτη καὶ
νεοπαγὴς οὕτως ἂν εἴη σάρξ. ὀστοῦν δ’ ἵνα γένηται, πολλοῦ
μὲν δεῖται χρόνου, πολλῆς δ’ ἐργασίας καὶ μεταβολῆς
τῷ αἵματι. ὅτι δὲ καὶ τῷ ἄρτῳ, καὶ πολλῷ μᾶλλον θριδακίνῃ καὶ τεύτλῳ καὶ τοῖς ὁμοίοις παμπόλλης δεῖται τῆς
ἀλλοιώσεως εἰς αἵματος γένεσιν, οὐδὲ τοῦτ’ ἄδηλον. ἓν μὲν
δὴ τοῦτ’ αἴτιον τοῦ πολλὰ γενέσθαι τὰ περὶ τὴν τῆς τροφῆς
ἀλλοίωσιν ὄργανα. Δεύτερον δὲ τῶν περιττωμάτων ἡ
φύσις. ὡς γὰρ ὑπὸ βοτανῶν οὐδ’ ὅλως δυνάμεθα τρέφεσθαι,
καίτοι τῶν βοσκημάτων τρεφομένων, οὕτως ὑπὸ ῥαφανίδων
τρεφόμεθα μὲν, ἀλλ’ οὐχ ὡς ὑπὸ τῶν κρεῶν.
τούτων μὲν γὰρ ὀλίγου δεῖν ὅλων ἡ φύσις ἡμῶν κρατεῖ,
καὶ μεταβάλλει, καὶ ἀλλοιοῖ, καὶ χρηστὸν ἐξ αὐτῶν αἷμα
συνίστησιν. ἐν δὲ τῇ ῥαφανίδι τὸ μὲν οἰκεῖόν τε καὶ μεταβληθῆναι
δυνάμενον, μόλις δὲ τοῦτο καὶ σὺν πολλῇ τῇ
κατεργασίᾳ, παντάπασιν ἐλάχιστον· ὅλη δ’ ὀλίγου δεῖν ἐστιν
περιττωματικὴ, καὶ διεξέρχεται τὰ τῆς πέψεως ὄργανα,
βραχέος ἐξ αὐτῆς εἰς τὰς φλέβας ἀναληφθέντος αἵματος,
καὶ οὐδὲ τούτου τελέως χρηστοῦ. δευτέρας οὖν αὖθις ἐδέησε
διακρίσεως τῇ φύσει τῶν ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶ περιττωμάτων.
καὶ χρεία καὶ τούτοις ὁδῶν τέ τινων ἑτέρων ἐπὶ τὰς ἐκκρίσεις αὐτὰ παραγουσῶν, ὡς μὴ λυμαίνοιτο τοῖς χρηστοῖς,
ὑποδοχῶν τέ τινων, οἷον δεξαμενῶν, ἐν αἷς ὅταν ἱκανὸν
ἀθροιζόμενον πλῆθος ἀφίκηται, τηνικαῦτ’ ἐκκριθήσεται.
δεύτερον δή σοι καὶ τοῦτο γένος τῶν ἐν τῷ σώματι μορίων
ἐξεύρηται, τοῖς περιττώμασι τῆς τροφῆς ἀνακείμενον. ἄλλο
δὲ τρίτον, ὑπὲρ τοῦ πάντη φέρεσθαι, καθάπερ τινὲς ὁδοὶ
πολλαὶ διὰ τοῦ σώματος ὅλου κατατετμημέναι· μία μὲν γὰρ
εἴσοδος ἡ διὰ τοῦ στόματος ἅπασι τοῖς σιτίοις, οὐχ ἓν δὲ
τὸ τρεφόμενον, 16 ἀλλὰ πάμπολλά τε καὶ πάμπολυ διεστῶτα.
μὴ τοίνυν θαύμαζε τὸ πλῆθος τῶν ὀργάνων, ὅσα
θρέψεως ἕνεκεν ἡ φύσις ἐδημιούργησε. τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀλλοιοῦντα
προπαρασκευάζει τὴν ἐπιτήδειον ἑκάστῳ μορίῳ τροφὴν,
τὰ δὲ διακρίνει τὰ περιττώματα, τὰ δὲ παραπέμπει, τὰ δ’
ὑποδέχεται, τὰ δ’ ἐκκρίνει, τὰ δ’ ὁδοὶ τῆς πάντη φορᾶς εἰσι
τῶν χρηστῶν χυμῶν. ὥστ’, εἴπερ βούλει τὰς δυνάμεις ἁπάσας
τῆς φύσεως ἐκμαθεῖν, ὑπὲρ ἑκάστου τούτων ἂν εἴη σοὶ τῶν
ὀργάνων ἐπισκεπτέον. ἀρχὴ δ’ αὐτῶν τῆς διδασκαλίας, ὅσα τε τοῦ τέλους ἐγγὺς ἔργα τε τῆς φύσεώς ἐστι καὶ μόρια,
καὶ δυνάμεις αὐτῶν.

Αὐτοῦ δὲ δὴ πάλιν ἀναμνηστέον ἡμῖν τοῦ
τέλους, οὗπερ ἕνεκα τοσαῦτα τε καὶ τοιαῦτα τῇ φύσει δεδημιούργηται
μόρια. τὸ μὲν οὖν ὄνομα τοῦ πράγματος,
ὥσπερ οὖν καὶ πρότερον εἴρηται, θρέψις· ὁ δὲ κατὰ τοὔνομα
λόγος ὁμοίωσις τοῦ τρέφοντος τῷ τρεφομένῳ. ἵνα δ’.
αὕτη γένηται, προηγεῖσθαι δεῖ πρόσφυσιν, ἵνα δ’ ἐκείνη,
πρόσθεσιν. ἐπειδὰν γὰρ ἐκπέσῃ τῶν ἀγγείων ὁ μέλλων
θρέψειν ὁτιοῦν τῶν τοῦ ζώου μορίων χυμὸς, εἰς ἅπαν αὐτὸ
διασπείρεται πρῶτον, ἔπειτα προστίθεται, κᾄπειτα προσφύεται,
καὶ τέλος ὁμοιοῦται. δηλοῦσι δ’ αἱ καλούμεναι
λεῦκαι τὴν διαφορὰν τῆς ὁμοιώσεώς τε καὶ προσφύσεως·
ὥσπερ τὸ γένος ἐκεῖνο τῶν ὑδέρων, ὅ τινες ὀνομάζουσιν
ἀνασάρκα, διορίζει σαφῶς πρόσθεσιν προσφύσεως. οὐ γὰρ
ἐνδείᾳ δήπου τῆς ἐπιῤῥεούσης ὑγρότητος, ὡς ἔνιαι τῶν
ἀτροφιῶν τε καὶ φθίσεων, ἡ τοῦ τοιούτου γένεσις ὑδέρου συντελεῖται. φαίνεται γὰρ ἱκανῶς αὐτοῖς ἥ τε σὰρξ ὑγρὰ καὶ
διάβροχος, ἕκαστόν τε τῶν στερεῶν τοῦ σώματος μορίων
ὡσαύτως διακείμενον. ἀλλὰ πρόσθεσις μέν τις γίνεται τῆς
ἐπιφερομένης τροφῆς, ἅτε δ’ ὑδατωδεστέρας οὔσης ἔτι καὶ
μὴ πάνυ τοι κεχυμωμένης, μηδὲ τὸ γλίσχρον ἐκεῖνο καὶ
κολλῶδες, ὃ δὴ τῆς ἐμφύτου θερμότητος οἰκονομίᾳ προσγίνεται,
κεκτημένης, ἡ πρόσφυσις ἀδύνατός ἐστιν ἐπιτελεῖσθαι,
πλήθει λεπτῆς ὑγρότητος ἀπέπτου διαῤῥεούσης τε καὶ ῥᾳδίως
ὀλισθαινούσης ἀπὸ τῶν στερεῶν τοῦ σώματος μορίων τῆς τροφῆς.
ἐν δὲ ταῖς λεύκαις πρόσφυσις μέν τις γίνεται τῆς τροφῆς,
οὐ μὴν ἐξομοίωσίς γε. καὶ δῆλον ἐν τῷδε, ὅτι τὸ μικρῷ πρόσθεν
ῥηθὲν ὀρθῶς ἐλέγετο, τὸ δεῖν πρόσθεσιν μὲν πρῶτον,
ἐφεξῆς δὲ πρόσφυσιν, ἔπειτ’ ἐξομοίωσιν γενέσθαι τῷ μέλλοντι
τρέφεσθαι. κυρίως μὲν οὖν τὸ τρέφον ἤδη τροφή·
τὸ δ’ οἷον μὲν τροφὴ, οὔπω δὲ θρέψαν, ὁποῖόν ἐστι τὸ
προσφυόμενον ἢ τὸ προστιθέμενον, τροφὴ μὲν οὐ κυρίως,
ὁμωνύμως δὲ τροφή. τὸ δ’ ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶ περιεχόμενον, καὶ τούτου ἔτι μᾶλλον τὸ κατὰ τὴν γαστέρα, ὡς μέλλον
ποτὲ θρέψειν, εἰ καλῶς κατεργασθείη, κέκληται τροφή.
κατὰ ταῦτα δὲ καὶ τῶν ἐδεσμάτων ἕκαστα τροφὰς ὀνομάζομεν,
οὔτε τῷ τρέφειν ἤδη τὸ ζῶον, οὔτε τῷ τοιοῦτον
ὑπάρχειν, οἷον τὸ τρέφον, ἀλλὰ τῷ δύνασθαί τε καὶ μέλλειν
τρέφειν, εἰ καλῶς κατεργασθείη. τοῦτο γὰρ ἦν καὶ τὸ
πρὸς Ἱπποκράτους λεγόμενον· Τροφὴ τὸ τρέφον, τροφὴ τὸ
οἷον τροφὴ, καὶ τὸ μέλλον. τὸ μὲν γὰρ ὁμοιούμενον ἤδη
τροφὴν ὠνόμασε· 17 τὸ δ’ οἷον μὲν ἐκεῖνο, προστιθέμενον
ἢ προσφυόμενον, οἷον τροφήν· τὸ δ’ ἄλλο πᾶν΄, ὅσον
ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶ καὶ τῇ γαστρὶ περιέχεται, μέλλον.

Ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἀναγκαῖον ὁμοίωσιν εἶναί τινα
τοῦ τρέφοντος τῷ τρεφομένῳ τὴν θρέψιν, ἄντικρυς δῆλον.
οὐ μὴν ὑπάρχουσάν γε ταύτην τὴν ὁμοίωσιν, ἀλλὰ φαινομένην
μόνον εἶναί φασιν οἱ μήτε τεχνικὴν οἰόμενοι τὴν
φύσιν, μήτε προνοητικὴν τοῦ ζώου, μήθ’ ὅλως ἔχουσάν
τινας οἰκείας δυνάμεις, αἷς χρωμένη τὰ μὲν ἕλκει, τὰ δὲ κατέχει, τὰ δ’ ἀλλοιοῖ, τὰ δ’ ἐκκρίνει. καὶ δύο αὗται
γεγόνασιν αἱρέσεις κατὰ γένος ἐν ἰατρικῇ τε καὶ φιλοσοφίᾳ
τῶν ἀποφῃναμένων τὶ περὶ φύσεως ἀνδρῶν, ὅσοι γ’
αὐτῶν γινώσκουσιν, ὅ τι λέγουσι, καὶ τὴν ἀκολουθίαν ὧν
ὑπέθεντο θεωροῦσί τε ἅμα καὶ διαφυλάττουσιν. ὡς ὅσοί
γε μηδ’ αὐτὸ τοῦτο συνιᾶσιν, ἀλλ’ ἁπλῶς, ὅ τι ἂν ἐπὶ
γλῶτταν ἔλθῃ, ληροῦσιν, ἐν οὐδετέρᾳ τῶν αἱρέσεων ἀκριβῶς
καταμένοντες, οὐδὲ μεμνῆσθαι τῶν τοιούτων προσήκει.
τίνες οὖν αἱ δύο αἱρέσεις αὗται, καὶ τίς ἡ τῶν ἐν αὐταῖς
ὑποθέσεων ἀκολουθία; τὴν ὑποβεβλημένην οὐσίαν γενέσει
καὶ φθορᾷ πᾶσαν ἡνωμένην τε ἅμα καὶ ἀλλοιοῦσθαι δυναμένην
ὑπέθετο θάτερον γένος τῆς αἱρέσεως· ἀμετάβλητον
δὲ καὶ ἀναλλοίωτον, καὶ κατατετμημένην εἰς λεπτὰ, καὶ
κεναῖς ταῖς μεταξὺ χώραις διειλημμένην, ἡ λοιπή. καὶ τοίνυν
ὅσοι γε τῆς ἀκολουθίας τῶν ὑποθέσεων αἰσθάνονται,
κατὰ μὲν τὴν δευτέραν αἵρεσιν οὔτε φύσεως οὔτε ψυχῆς
ἰδίαν τινὰ νομίζουσιν οὐσίαν 91 ἢ δύναμιν ὑπάρχειν, ἀλλ’ ἐν τῇ ποιᾷ συνόδῳ τῶν πρώτων σωμάτων ἐκείνων καὶ
ἀπαθῶν τῶν ἁπλῶν ἀποτελεῖσθαι. κατὰ δὲ τὴν προτέραν
εἰρημένην αἵρεσιν οὐχ ὑστέρα τῶν σωμάτων ἡ φύσις, ἀλλὰ
πολλῷ προτέρα τε καὶ πρεσβυτέρα. καὶ τοίνυν κατὰ μὲν
τούτους αὕτη τὰ σώματα τῶν ζώων καὶ τῶν φυτῶν συνίστησι,
δυνάμεις τινὰς ἔχουσα, τὰς μὲν ἑλκτικάς τε ἅμα
καὶ ὁμοιωτικὰς τῶν οἰκείων, τὰς δ’ ἀποκριτικὰς τῶν ἀλλοτρίων,
καὶ τεχνικῶς ἅπαντα διαπλάττει τε γεννῶσα καὶ
προνοεῖται τῶν γεννωμένων ἑτέραις αὖθίς τισι δυνάμεσι,
στοργικῇ μέν τινι καὶ προνοητικῇ τῶν ἐγγόνων, κοινωνικῇ
δὲ καὶ φιλικῇ τῶν ὁμογενῶν. κατὰ δ’ αὖ τοὺς ἑτέρους
οὔτε τούτων οὐδὲν ὑπάρχει ταῖς φύσεσιν, οὔτ’ ἔννοιά τίς
ἐστι τῇ ψυχῇ σύμφυτος ἐξ ἀρχῆς, οὐκ ἀκολουθίας, οὐ μάχης,
οὐ διαιρέσεως, οὐ συνθέσεως, οὐ δικαίων, οὐκ ἀδίκων,
οὐ καλῶν, οὐκ αἰσχρῶν, ἀλλ’ ἐξ αἰσθήσεώς τε καὶ
δι’ αἰσθήσεως ἅπαντα τὰ γινόμενά φασιν ἡμῖν ἐγγίνεσθαι,
καὶ φαντασίαις τισὶ καὶ μνήμαις οἰακίζεσθαι τὰ ζῶα. ἔνιοι δ’ αὐτῶν καὶ ῥητῶς ἀπεφῄναντο, μηδεμίαν εἶναι ψυχῇ δύναμιν,
ᾗ λογιζόμεθα, ἀλλ’ ὑπὸ τῶν αἰσθητῶν ἄγεσθαι παθῶν
ἡμᾶς, καθάπερ βοσκήματα, πρὸς μηδὲν ἀνανεῦσαι
μηδ’ ἀντειπεῖν δυναμένους. καθ’ οὓς δηλονότι καὶ ἀνδρεία,
καὶ φρόνησις, καὶ σωφροσύνη, καὶ ἐγκράτεια λῆρός
ἐστι μακρός· καὶ φιλοῦμεν οὔτ’ ἀλλήλους, οὔτε τὰ ἔγγονα,
καὶ τοῖς θεοῖς οὐδὲν ἡμῶν μέλει. καταφρονοῦσι δὲ καὶ τῶν
ὀνειράτων, καὶ τῶν οἰωνῶν, καὶ τῶν συμβόλων, καὶ πάσης
ἀστρολογίας, ὑπὲρ ὧν ἡμεῖς μὲν ἰδίᾳ καὶ δι’ ἑτέρου γράμματος
ἐπιπλέον ἐσκέμμεθα περὶ τῶν Ἀσκληπιάδου τοῦ
ἰατροῦ σκοπούμενοι δογμάτων. ἔνεστι δὲ τῷ βουλομένῳ,
κᾀκείνοις μὲν ὁμιλῆσαι τοῖς λόγοις, 18 καὶ νῦν δ’ ἤδη σκοπεῖν,
ὥσπερ τινῶν δυοῖν ὁδῶν ὑποκειμένων, ὁποτέραν βέλτιόν
ἐστιν ἡμῖν τρέπεσθαι. Ἱπποκράτης μὲν γὰρ τὴν πρότερον
ῥηθεῖσαν ἐτράπετο, καθ’ ἣν ἥνωται μὲν ἡ οὐσία,
καὶ ἀλλοιοῦται, καὶ σύμπνουν ὅλον ἐστὶ καὶ σύῤῥουν τὸ
σῶμα, καὶ ἡ φύσις ἅπαντα τεχνικῶς καὶ δικαίως πράττει,
δυνάμεις ἔχουσα, καθ’ ἃς ἕκαστον τῶν μορίων ἕλκει μὲν ἐφ’ ἑαυτὸ τὸν οἰκεῖον ἑαυτῷ χυμὸν, ἕλξαν δὲ προσφύει
παντὶ τῷ μέρει τῷ ἐν αὐτῷ, καὶ τελέως ἐξομοιοῖ, τὸ δὲ
μὴ κρατηθὲν ἐν τούτῳ μηδὲ τὴν παντελῆ δυνηθὲν ἀλλοίωσίν
τε καὶ ὁμοιότητα, τοῦ τρεφομένου καταδέξασθαι
δι’ ἑτέρας αὖ τινος ἀποκριτικῆς δυνάμεως ἀποτρίβεται.

Μαθεῖν δ’ ἔνεστιν, οὐ μόνον ἐξ ὧν οἱ
τἀναντία τιθέμενοι διαφέρονται τοῖς ἐναργῶς φαινομένοις,
εἰς ὅσον ὀρθότητός τε καὶ ἀληθείας ἥκει τὰ Ἱπποκράτεια
δόγματα, ἀλλὰ κᾀξ αὐτῶν τῶν κατὰ μέρος ἐν τῇ φυσικῇ
θεωρίᾳ ζητουμένων, τῶν τε ἄλλων ἁπάντων καὶ τῶν ἐν
τοῖς ζώοις ἐνεργειῶν. ὅσοι γὰρ οὐδεμίαν οὐδενὶ μορίῳ νομίζουσιν
ὑπάρχειν ἑλκτικὴν τῆς οἰκείας ποιότητος δύναμιν,
ἀναγκάζονται πολλάκις ἐναντία λέγειν τοῖς ἐναργῶς φαινομένοις,
ὥσπερ καὶ Ἀσκληπιάδης ὁ ἰατρὸς ἐπὶ τῶν νεφρῶν
ἐποίησεν· οὓς οὐ μόνον Ἱπποκράτης, ἢ Διοκλῆς, ἢ Ἐρασίστρατος,
ἢ Πραξαγόρας, ἢ εἴ τις ἄλλος ἄριστος, ὄργανα
διακριτικὰ τῶν οὔρων ἐπεπιστεύκεισαν ὑπάρχειν, ἀλλὰ καὶ οἱ μάγειροι σχεδὸν ἅπαντες ἴσασιν, ὁσημέραι θεώμενοι τήν τε
θέσιν αὐτῶν, καὶ τὸν ἀφ’ ἑκατέρου πόρον εἰς τὴν κύστιν
ἐμβάλλοντα, τὸν οὐρητῆρα καλούμενον, ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς κατασκευῆς
ἀναλογιζόμενοι τήν τε χρείαν αὐτῶν καὶ τὴν
δύναμιν· καὶ πρό γε τῶν μαγείρων ἅπαντες ἄνθρωποι δυσουροῦντες
πολλάκις, ἢ καὶ παντάπασιν ἰσχουροῦντες, ὅταν
ἀλγῶσι μὲν τὰ κατὰ τὰς ψόας, ψαμμώδη δ’ ἐξουρῶσιν,
νεφριτικοὺς ὀνομάζουσι σφᾶς αὐτούς. Ἀσκληπιάδην δ’ οἶμαι
μηδὲ λίθον οὐρηθέντα ποτὲ θεάσασθαι πρὸς τῶν
οὕτω πασχόντων, μηδ’ ὡς προηγήσατο κατὰ τὰς μεταξὺ
τῶν νεφρῶν καὶ τῆς κύστεως χώρας ὀδύνη τις ὀξεῖα, διερχομένου
τοῦ λίθου τῶν οὐρητήρων, μηδ’ ὡς, οὐρηθέντος
αὐτοῦ, τά τε τῆς ὀδύνης καὶ τὰ τῆς ἰσχουρίας ἐπαύσατο
παραχρῆμα. πῶς οὖν εἰς τὴν κύστιν τῷ λόγῳ παράγει τὸ
οὖρον, ἄξιον ἀκοῦσαι, καὶ θαυμάσαι τὴν σοφίαν τοῦ ἀνδρός·
ὃς καταλιπὼν οὕτως εὐρείας ὁδοὺς ἐναργῶς φαινομένας,
ἀφανεῖς καὶ στενὰς καὶ παντάπασιν ἀναισθήτους ὑπέθετο. βούλεται γὰρ, εἰς ἀτμοὺς ἀναλυόμενον τὸ πινόμενον
ὑγρὸν εἰς τὴν κύστιν διαδίδοσθαι, κᾄπειτ’ ἐξ
ἐκείνων αὖθις ἀλλήλοις συνιόντων, ἀπολαμβάνειν οὕτως
αὐτὸ τὴν ἀρχαίαν ἰδέαν, καὶ γίνεσθαι πάλιν ὑγρὸν ἐξ
ἀτμῶν ἀτεχνῶς, ὡς περὶ σπογγιᾶς τινος ἢ ἐρίου περὶ τῆς
κύστεως διανοούμενος, ἀλλ’ οὐ σώματος ἀκριβῶς πυκνοῦ
καὶ στεγανοῦ, δύο χιτῶνας ἰσχυροτάτους κεκτημένου, δι’
ὧν εἴπερ διεξέρχεσθαι φήσομεν τοὺς ἀτμοὺς, τί δήποτ’
οὐχὶ διὰ τοῦ περιτοναίου καὶ τῶν φρενῶν διελθόντες ἐνέπλησαν
ὕδατος τό τ’ ἐπιγάστριον ἅπαν καὶ τὸν θώρακα;
ἀλλὰ παχύτερός ἐστι καὶ στεγανώτερος ὁ περιτόναιος χιτὼν
τῆς κύστεως, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἐκεῖνος μὲν ἀποστέγει τοὺς
ἀτμοὺς, ἡ δὲ κύστις παραδέχεται. 19 ἀλλ’ εἴπερ ἀνετετμήκει,
τάχ’ ἂν ἠπίστατο, τὸν μὲν ἔξωθεν χιτῶνα τῆς κύστεως,
ἀπὸ τοῦ περιτοναίου πεφυκότα, τὴν αὐτὴν ἐκείνῳ φύσιν
ἔχειν, τὸν δ’ ἔνδοθεν τῆς αὐτῆς κύστεως ἴδιον πλέον ἢ
διπλάσιον ἐκείνου τὸ πάχος ὑπάρχειν. ἀλλ’ ἴσως οὔτε τὸ πάχος, οὔθ’ ἡ λεπτότης τῶν χιτώνων, ἀλλ’ ἡ θέσις τῆς
κύστεως αἰτία τοῦ φέρεσθαι τοὺς ἀτμοὺς εἰς αὐτήν. καὶ
μὴν εἰ διὰ τἄλλα πάντα τοῦ σώματος πιθανὸν ἦν αὐτοὺς
ἐνταῦθα συναθροίζεσθαι, τό γε τῆς θέσεως μόνης αὔταρκες
κωλῦσαι. κάτω μὲν γὰρ ἡ κύστις κεῖται, τοῖς δ’ ἀτμοῖς
σύμφυτος ἡ πρὸς τὸ μετέωρον φορὰ, ὥστε πολὺ πρότερον
ἐνέπλησαν ἂν ἅπαντα τὰ κατὰ τὸν θώρακά τε καὶ πνεύμονα,
πρὶν ἐπὶ τὴν κύστιν ἀφικέσθαι. καίτοι τί θέσεώς
τε καὶ κύστεως, καὶ περιτοναίου, καὶ θώρακος μνημονεύω;
διεκπεσόντες γὰρ δήπου τούς τε τῆς κοιλίας καὶ τῶν ἐντέρων
χιτῶνας οἱ ἀτμοὶ κατὰ τὴν μεταξὺ χώραν αὐτῶν τε
τούτων καὶ τοῦ περιτοναίου συναθροισθήσονται, καὶ
ὑγρὸν ἐνταυθοῖ γενήσονται, ὥσπερ καὶ τοῖς ὑδερικοῖς ἐν
τούτῳ τῷ χωρίῳ τὸ πλεῖστον ἀθροίζεται τοῦ ὕδατος, ἢ
πάντως αὐτοὺς χρὴ φέρεσθαι πρόσω διὰ πάντων τῶν ὁπωσοῦν
ὁμιλούντων καὶ μηδέποτε ἵστασθαι. ἀλλ’ εἰ καὶ
τοῦτό τις ὑπόθοιτο, διεκπεσόντες ἂν οὕτως οὐ τὸ
περιτόναιον μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ ἐπιγάστριον, εἰς τὸ
περιέχον σκεδασθεῖεν, ἢ πάντως ἂν ὑπὸ τῷ δέρματι συναθροισθεῖεν. ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς ταῦτ’ ἀντιλέγειν οἱ νῦν
Ἀσκληπιάδειοι πειρῶνται, καίτοι πρὸς ἁπάντων ἀεὶ τῶν
παρατυγχανόντων αὐτοῖς, ὅταν περὶ τούτοιν ἐρίζωσι, καταγελώμενοι.
οὕτως ἄρα δυσαπότριπτόν τι κακόν ἐστιν ἡ
περὶ τὰς αἱρέσεις φιλοτιμία, καὶ δυσέκνιπτον ἐν τοῖς μάλιστα,
καὶ ψώρας ἁπάσης δυσιατότερον. τῶν γοῦν καθ’
ἡμᾶς τις σοφιστῶν, τά τ’ ἄλλα καὶ περὶ τοὺς ἐριστικοὺς
λόγους ἱκανῶς συγκεκροτημένος, καὶ δεινὸς εἰπεῖν, εἴπερ τις
ἄλλος, ἀφικόμενος ἐμοί ποθ’ ὑπὲρ τούτων εἰς λόγους, τοσοῦτον
ἀπέδει τοῦ δυσωπεῖσθαι πρός τινος τῶν εἰρημένων,
ὥστε καὶ θαυμάζειν ἔφασκέ μου, ὡς τὰ σαφῶς φαινόμενα
λόγοις ληρώδεσιν ἀνατρέπειν ἐπιχειροῦντος, ἐναργῶς γὰρ
ὁσημέραι 92 θεωρεῖσθαι τὰς κύστεις ἁπάσας, εἴ τις αὐτὰς
ἐμπλήσειεν ὕδατος ἢ ἀέρος, εἶτα δήσας τὸν τράχηλον
πιέζει πανταχόθεν, οὐδαμόθεν μεθιείσας μηδὲν, ἀλλ’ ἀκριβῶς
ἅπαν ἐντὸς ἑαυτῶν στεγούσας. καίτοι γ’, εἴπερ ἦσάν
τινες ἐκ τῶν νεφρῶν εἰς αὐτὰς ἥκοντες αἰσθητοὶ καὶ μεγάλοι
πόροι, πάντως ἂν, ἔφη, καὶ δι’ ἐκείνων, ὥσπερ εἰσῄει τὸ ὑγρὸν εἰς αὐτὰς, οὕτω καὶ ἐκθλιβόντων ἐξεκρίνετο. ταῦτα
καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα εἰπὼν, ἐξαίφνης ἀπταίστῳ καὶ σαφεῖ στόματι
τελευτῶν, ἀναπηδήσας ἀπῄει καταλιπὼν ἡμᾶς, ὡς
μηδὲ πιθανῆς τινος ἀντιλογίας εὐπορῆσαι δυναμένους. οὕτως
οὐ μόνον οὐδὲν ὑγιὲς ἴσασιν οἱ ταῖς τοιαύταις αἱρέσεσι δουλεύοντες,
ἀλλ’ οὐδὲ μαθεῖν ὑπομένουσι. δέον γὰρ ἀκοῦσαι
τὴν αἰτίαν, δι’ ἣν εἰσιέναι μὲν δύναται διὰ τῶν οὐρητήρων
εἰς τὴν κύστιν τὸ ὑγρὸν, ἐξιέναι δ’ αὖθις ὀπίσω τὴν αὐτὴν
ὁδὸν οὐχ οἶόν τ’ αὐτῷ, καὶ θαυμάσαι τὴν τέχνην τῆς
φύσεως, οἱ δ’ οὔτε μαθεῖν ἐθέλουσι, καὶ λοιδοροῦσι προσέτι,
μάτην ὑπ’ αὐτῆς ἄλλα τε πολλὰ καὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς
γεγονέναι φάσκοντες. εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ οἳ, δειχθῆναι παρόντων
αὐτῶν τοὺς ἀπὸ τῶν νεφρῶν εἰς τὴν κύστιν ἐμφυομένους
οὐρητῆρας ὑπομείναντες, ἐτόλμησαν εἰπεῖν, οἱ μὲν, ὅτι
μάτην καὶ οὗτοι γεγόνασιν, οἱ δ’, ὅτι σπερματικοί τινές
εἰσι πόροι, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο κατὰ τὸν τράχηλον αὐτῆς, οὐκ
εἰς τὸ κῦτος ἐμφύονται. δείξαντες οὖν ἡμεῖς αὐτοῖς τοὺς
ἀληθῶς σπερματικοὺς πόρους κατωτέρω τῶν οὐρητήρων ἐμβάλλοντας εἰς τὸν τράχηλον, νῦν οὖν, εἰ καὶ μὴ πρότερον,
ᾠήθημεν ἀπάξειν τε τῶν ψευδῶς ὑπειλημμένων ἐπί
τε τἀναντία μεταστήσειν αὐτίκα. 20 οἱ δὲ καὶ πρὸς τοῦτο
ἀντιλέγειν ἐτόλμων, οὐδὲν εἶναι θαυμαστὸν εἰπόντες, ἐν
ἐκείνοις μὲν, ὡς ἂν στεγανωτέροις οὖσιν, ἐπιπλέον ὑπομένειν
τὸ σπέρμα, κατὰ δὲ τοὺς ἀπὸ τῶν νεφρῶν, ὡς ἂν ἱκανῶς
ἀνευρυσμένους, ἐκρεῖν διὰ ταχέων. ἡμεῖς οὖν ἠναγκάσθημεν
αὐτοῖς τοῦ λοιποῦ δεικνύειν εἰσρέον τῇ κύστει διὰ τῶν οὐρητήρων
τὸ οὖρον ἐναργῶς ἐπὶ ζῶντος ἔτι τοῦ ζώου, μόγις
ἂν οὕτω ποτὲ τὴν φλυαρίαν αὐτῶν ἐπισχεῖν ἐλπίζοντες.
ὁ δὲ τρόπος τῆς δείξεώς ἐστι τοιόσδε. διελεῖν χρὴ τὸ πρὸ
τῶν οὐρητήρων περιτόναιον, εἶτα βρόχοις αὐτοὺς ἐκλαβεῖν
ἰδίᾳ, κᾄπειτ’ ἐπιδήσαντας ἐᾶσαι τὸ ζῶον· οὐ γὰρ ἂν
οὐρήσειεν ἔτι. μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα λύειν μὲν τοὺς ἔξωθεν δεσμοὺς,
δεικνύειν δὲ κενὴν μὲν τὴν κύστιν, μεστοὺς δ’ ἱκανῶς
καὶ διατεταμένους τοὺς οὐρητῆρας καὶ κινδυνεύοντας
ῥαγῆναι, κᾄπειτα τοὺς βρόχους αὐτῶν ἀφελόντας, ἐναργῶς
ὁρᾷν ἤδη πληρουμένην οὔρου τὴν κύστιν. ἐπὶ δὲ τούτῳ φανέντι, πρὶν οὐρῆσαι τὸ ζῶον, βρόχον αὐτοῦ περιβαλεῖν
χρὴ τῷ αἰδοίῳ, κᾄπειτα θλίβειν πανταχόθεν τὴν κύστιν·
οὐ γὰρ ἂν οὐδὲν ἔτι διὰ τῶν οὐρητήρων ἐπανέλθοι ποτὲ
πρὸς τοὺς νεφρούς. κᾀν τούτῳ δῆλον γίνεται τὸ μὴ μόνον
ἐπὶ τεθνεῶτος, ἀλλὰ καὶ περιόντος ἔτι τοῦ ζώου, κωλύεσθαι
μεταλαμβάνειν αὖθις ἐκ τῆς κύστεως τοὺς οὐρητῆρας
τὸ οὖρον. ἐπὶ τούτοις ὀφθεῖσιν ἐπιτρέπειν οὐρεῖν
ἤδη τὸ ζῶον, λύοντας αὐτοῦ τὸν ἐπὶ τῷ αἰδοίῳ βρόχον,
εἶτ’ αὖθις ἐπιβαλεῖν μὲν θατέρῳ τῶν οὐρητήρων, ἐᾶσαι
δὲ τὸν ἕτερον εἰς τὴν κύστιν συῤῥεῖν, καί τινα διαλιπόντας
χρόνον ἐπιδεικνύειν ἤδη, πῶς ὁ μὲν ἕτερος αὐτῶν ὁ δεδεμένος
μεστὸς καὶ διατεταμένος κατὰ τὰ πρὸς τῶν νεφρῶν
μέρη φαίνεται, ὁ δ’ ἕτερος ὁ λελυμένος αὐτὸς μὲν χαλαρός
ἐστι, πεπλήρωκε δ’ οὔρου τὴν κύστιν. εἶτ’ αὖθις διατεμεῖν,
πρῶτον μὲν τὸν πλήρη, καὶ δεῖξαι, πῶς ἐξακοντίζεται
τὸ οὖρον ἐξ αὐτοῦ, καθάπερ ἐν ταῖς φλεβοτομίαις τὸ
αἷμα, μετὰ ταῦτα δὲ καὶ τὸν ἕτερον αὖθις διατεμεῖν, κᾄπειτ’
ἐπιδῆσαι τὸ ζῶον ἔξωθεν, ἀμφοτέρων διῃρημένων, εἶθ’, ὅταν ἱκανῶς ἔχειν δοκῇ, λῦσαι τὸν δεσμόν. εὑρεθήσεται
γὰρ ἡ μὲν κύστις κενὴ, πλῆρες δ’ οὔρου τὸ μεταξὺ
τῶν ἐντέρων τε καὶ τοῦ περιτοναίου χωρίον ἅπαν, ὡς εἰ
καὶ ὑδερικὸν ἦν τὸ ζῶον. ταῦτ’ οὖν εἴ τις αὐτὸς καθ’
αὑτὸν βουληθείη βασανίζειν ἐπὶ ζώου, μεγάλως μοι δοκεῖ
καταγνώσεσθαι τῆς Ἀσκληπιάδου προπετείας. εἰ δὲ δὴ καὶ
τὴν αἰτίαν μάθοι, δι’ ἣν οὐδὲν ἐκ τῆς κύστεως εἰς τοὺς
οὐρητῆρας ἀντεκρεῖ, πεισθῆναι γοῦν μοι δοκεῖ καὶ διὰ
τοῦδε τὴν εἰς τὰ ζῶα πρόνοιάν τε καὶ τέχνην τῆς φύσεως.
Ἱπποκράτης μὲν οὖν ὧν ἴσμεν ἰατρῶν τε καὶ φιλοσόφων
πρῶτος ἁπάντων, ὡς ἂν καὶ πρῶτος ἐπιγνοὺς τὰ τῆς φύσεως
ἔργα, θαυμάζει τε καὶ διὰ παντὸς ὑμνεῖ ταύτην, δικαίαν
ὀνομάζων, καὶ μόνην ἐξαρκεῖν εἰς ἅπαντα τοῖς ζώοις
φησὶν, αὐτὴν ἐξ αὑτῆς ἀδιδάκτως πράττουσαν ἅπαντα τὰ
δέοντα. τοιαύτην δὲ οὖσαν αὐτὴν, εὐθὺς καὶ δυνάμεις
ὑπέλαβεν ἔχειν, ἑλκτικὴν μὲν τῶν οἰκείων μίαν, ἀποκριτικὴν
δὲ ἑτέραν τῶν ἀλλοτρίων, καὶ τρέφειν καὶ αὔξειν αὐτὴν τὰ ζῶα, καὶ κρίνειν τὰ νοσήματα ταύταις ἡγεῖτο ταῖς
δυνάμεσι. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἐν τοῖς σώμασιν ἡμῶν σύμπνοιάν
τε μίαν εἶναί φησι καὶ σύῤῥοιαν, καὶ πάντα συμπαθέα.
κατὰ δὲ τὸν Ἀσκληπιάδην οὐδὲν οὐδενὶ συμπαθές ἐστι,
φύσει διῃρημένης τε καὶ κατατεθραυσμένης εἰς ἄναρμα στοιχεῖα
καὶ ληρώδεις ὄγκους ἁπάσης τῆς οὐσίας. ἐξ ἀνάγκης
οὖν ἄλλα τε μυρία τοῖς ἐναργῶς φαινομένοις ἐναντίως ἀπεφῄνατο,
καὶ τῆς φύσεως ἠγνόησε τήν τε τῶν οἰκείων ἐπισπαστικὴν
δύναμιν, καὶ τὴν τῶν ἀλλοτρίων ἀποκριτικήν.
ἐπὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς ἐξαιματώσεώς τε καὶ ἀναδόσεως ἐξεῦρέ
τινα ψυχρὰν ἀδολεσχίαν. 21 εἰς δὲ τὴν τῶν περιττωμάτων
κάθαρσιν οὐδὲν ὅλως εὑρὼν εἰπεῖν, οὐκ ὤκνησεν
ὁμόσε χωρῆσαι τοῖς φαινομένοις· ἐπὶ μὲν τῆς τῶν οὔρων
διακρίσεως, ἀποστερήσας μὲν τῶν τε νεφρῶν καὶ τῶν οὐρητήρων
τὴν ἐνέργειαν, ἀδήλους δέ τινας πόρους εἰς τὴν κύστιν
ὑποθέμενος· τοῦτο γὰρ ἦν δηλαδὴ μέγα καὶ σεμνὸν,
ἀπιστήσαντα τοῖς φαινομένοις, πιστεῦσαι τοῖς ἀδήλοις. ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς ξανθῆς χολῆς ἔτι μεῖζον αὐτῷ καὶ νεανικώτερόν
ἐστι τὸ τόλμημα· γεννᾶσθαι γὰρ αὐτὴν ἐν τοῖς χοληδόχοις
ἀγγείοις, οὐ διακρίνεσθαι λέγει. πῶς οὖν τοῖς ἰκτερικοῖς
ἅμ’ ἄμφω συμπίπτει, τὰ μὲν διαχωρήματα μηδόλως ἔχοντα
χολὴν ἐν αὐτοῖς, ἀνάπλεων δὲ αὐτοῖς γινόμενον ὅλον τὸ
σῶμα. ληρεῖν πάλιν ἐνταῦθ’ ἀναγκάζεται τοῖς ἐπὶ τῶν
οὔρων εἰρημένοις παραπλησίως. ληρεῖ δ’ οὐδὲν ἧττον καὶ
περὶ τῆς μελαίνης χολῆς, καὶ τοῦ σπληνὸς, οὔτε, τί ποθ’
ὑφ’ Ἱπποκράτους εἴρηται, συνιεὶς, ἀντιλέγειν τ’ ἐπιχειρῶν
οἷς οὐκ οἶδεν ἐμπλήκτῳ τινὶ καὶ μαινομένῳ στόματι. τί
δὴ τὸ κέρδος ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων δογμάτων εἰς τὰς θεραπείας
ἐκτήσατο; μήτε νεφριτικὸν νόσημα δύνασθαι θεραπεῦσαι,
μήτ’ ἰκτερικὸν, μήτε μελαγχολικὸν, ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ τοῦ πᾶσιν
ἀνθρώποις, οὐχ Ἱπποκράτει μόνον ὁμολογουμένου τοῦ,
καθαίρειν τῶν φαρμάκων ἔνια μὲν τὴν ξανθὴν χολὴν, ἔνια
δὲ τὴν μέλαιναν, ἄλλα δέ τινα φλέγματα, καί τινα τὸ
λεπτὸν καὶ ὑδατῶδες περίττωμα, μηδὲ περὶ τούτων συγχωρεῖν,
ἀλλ’ ὑπ’ αὐτῶν γε τῶν φαρμάκων γίνεσθαι λέγειν
τοιοῦτον ἕκαστον τῶν κενουμένων, ὥσπερ ὑπὸ τῶν χοληδόχων πόρων τὴν χολήν· καὶ μηδὲν διαφέρειν κατὰ τὸν
θαυμαστὸν Ἀσκληπιάδην, ἢ ὑδραγωγὸν διδόναι τοῖς ὑδεριῶσιν,
ἢ χολαγωγὸν φάρμακον· ἅπαντα γὰρ ὁμοίως κενοῦν
καὶ συντήκειν τὸ σῶμα, καὶ τὸ σύντηγμα τοιόνδε τι φαίνεσθαι
ποιεῖν, μὴ πρότερον ὑπάρ 93 χον τοιοῦτον. ἆρ’
οὖν οὐ μαίνεσθαι νομιστέον αὐτὸν, ἢ παντάπασιν ἄπειρον
εἶναι τῶν ἔργων τῆς τέχνης; τίς γὰρ οὐκ οἶδεν, ὡς, εἰ
φλέγματος ἀγωγὸν δοθείη φάρμακον τοῖς ἰκτεριῶσιν, οὐκ ἂν
οὐδὲ τέτταρας κυάθους καθαρθεῖεν· οὕτω δ’ οὐδ’, εἰ τῶν
ὑδραγωγῶν τι· χολαγωγῷ δὲ φαρμάκῳ πλεῖστον μὲν ἐκκενοῦται
τῆς χολῆς, αὐτίκα δὲ καθαρὸς τοῖς οὕτω καθαρθεῖσιν
ὁ χρὼς γίνεται. πολλοὺς οὖν ἡμεῖς, μετὰ τὸ θεραπεῦσαι
τὴν ἐν τῷ ἥπατι διάθεσιν, ἅπαξ καθῄραντες, ἀπηλλάξαμεν
τοῦ παθήματος. οὐ μὴν, εἰ φλέγματος ἀγωγῷ καθαίρεις
φαρμάκῳ, πλέον ἄν τι διαπράξαιο. καὶ ταῦτ’ οὐχ
Ἱπποκράτης μὲν οὕτως οἶδε γιγνόμενα, τοῖς δ’ ἀπὸ τῆς
ἐμπειρίας μόνης ὁρμωμένοις ἑτέρως ἔγνωσται, ἀλλὰ κᾀκείνοις ὡσαύτως καὶ πᾶσιν ἰατροῖς, οἷς μέλει τῶν ἔργων τῆς
τέχνης, οὕτω δοκεῖ, πλὴν Ἀσκληπιάδου. προδοσίαν γὰρ
εἶναι νενόμικε τῶν στοιχείων ὧν ὑπέθετο, τὴν ἀληθῆ περὶ
τῶν τοιούτων ὁμολογίαν. εἰ γὰρ ὅλως εὑρεθείη τι φάρμακον
ἑλκτικὸν τοῦδέ τινος τοῦ χυμοῦ μόνου, κίνδυνος δηλαδὴ
κρατεῖν τῷ λόγῳ τὸ ἐν ἑκάστῳ τῶν νοσημάτων
εἶναί τινα δύναμιν ἐπισπαστικὴν τῆς οἰκείας ποιότητος. διὰ
τοῦτο κνίκον μὲν, καὶ κόκκον κνίδειον, καὶ ἱπποφαὲς οὐχ
ἕλκειν ἐκ τοῦ σώματος, ἀλλὰ ποιεῖν τὸ φλέγμα φησίν·
ἄνθος δὲ χαλκοῦ, καὶ λεπίδα, καὶ αὐτὸν τὸν κεκαυμένον χαλκὸν
καὶ χαμαίδρυν, καὶ χαμαιλέοντα εἰς ὕδωρ ἀναλύειν
τὸ σῶμα, καὶ τοὺς ὑδερικοὺς ὑπὸ τούτων οὐχὶ καθαιρομένους
ὀνίνασθαι, ἀλλὰ κενουμένους, μὴ κενουμένοις δὲ
συναύξεσθαι δηλαδὴ τὸ πάθος. εἰ γὰρ οὐ κενοῖ τὸ περιεχόμενον
ἐν τοῖς σώμασιν ὑδατῶδες ὑγρὸν, ἀλλ’ αὐτὸ
γεννᾷ, τῷ νοσήματι προστιμωρεῖται. καὶ μὲν γε καὶ ἡ
σκαμμωνία, πρὸς τῷ μὴ κενοῦν ἐκ τοῦ σώματος τῶν ἰκτερικῶν
τὴν χολὴν, ἔτι καὶ τὸ χρηστὸν αἷμα χολὴν ἐργαζομένη, 22 συντήκουσα τὸ σῶμα, καὶ τηλικαῦτα κακὰ δρῶσα, καὶ
τὸ πάθος ἐπαύξουσα κατά γε τὸν Ἀσκληπιάδου λόγον, ὅμως
ἐναργῶς ὁρᾶται πολλοὺς ὠφελοῦσα. ναὶ, φησὶν, ὀνίνανται
μὲν, ἀλλ’ αὐτῷ μόνῳ τῷ λόγῳ τῆς κενώσεως. καὶ μὴν εἰ
φλέγματος ἀγωγὸν δοίη τις φάρμακον, οὐκ ὀνήσονται. καὶ
τοῦθ’ οὕτως ἐναργές ἐστιν, ὥστε καὶ οἱ ἀπὸ μόνης τῆς ἐμπειρίας
ὁρμώμενοι γινώσκουσιν αὐτό. καίτοι τούτοις γε
τοῖς ἀνδράσιν αὐτὸ δὴ τοῦτ’ ἔστι φιλοσόφημα, τὸ μηδενὶ
λόγῳ πιστεύειν, ἀλλὰ μόνοις τοῖς ἐναργῶς φαινομένοις.
ἐκεῖνοι μὲν οὖν σωφρονοῦσιν· Ἀσκληπιάδης δὲ παραπαίει,
ταῖς αἰσθήσεσιν ἡμᾶς ἀπιστεῖν κελεύων, ἔνθα τὸ φαινόμενον
ἀνατρέπει σαφῶς αὐτοῦ τὰς ὑποθέσεις. καίτοι μακρῷ
γε ἦν ἄμεινον οὐχ ὁμόσε χωρεῖν τοῖς φαινομένοις, ἀλλ’.
ἐκείνοις ἀναθέσθαι τὸ πᾶν. ἆρ’ οὖν ταῦτα μόνον ἐναργῶς
μάχεται τοῖς Ἀσκληπιάδου δόγμασιν, ἢ καὶ τὸ θέρους
πλείονα μὲν κενοῦσθαι τὴν ξανθὴν χολὴν ὑπὸ τῶν αὐτῶν
φαρμάκων, χειμῶνος δὲ τὸ φλέγμα; καὶ νεανίσκῳ μὲν
πλείονα τὴν χολὴν, πρεσβυτέρῳ δὲ τὸ φλέγμα; φαίνεται γὰρ ἕκαστον ἕλκειν τὴν οὖσαν, οὐκ αὐτὸ γεννᾷν τὴν οὐκ
οὖσαν. εἰ γοῦν ἐθελήσαις νεανίσκῳ τινὶ τῶν ἰσχνῶν καὶ
θερμῶν, ὥρᾳ θέρους, μήτ’ ἀργῶς βεβιωκότι μήτ’ ἐν πλησμονῇ,
φλέγματος ἀγωγὸν δοῦναι φάρμακον, ὀλίγιστον μὲν
καὶ μετὰ βίας πολλῆς ἐκκενώσεις τοῦ χυμοῦ, βλάψεις δ’
ἐσχάτως τὸν ἄνθρωπον· ἔμπαλιν δ’, εἰ χολαγωγὸν δοίης,
καὶ πολὺ κενώσεις, καὶ βλάψεις οὐδέν. ἆρ’ ἀπιστοῦμεν ἔτι
τῷ μὴ οὐχ ἕκαστον τῶν φαρμάκων ἐπισπᾶσθαι τὸν οἰκεῖον
ἑαυτῷ χυμόν; ἴσως φήσουσιν οἱ ἀπ’ Ἀσκληπιάδου, μᾶλλον
δ’ οὐκ ἴσως, ἀλλὰ πάντως ἀπιστεῖν ἐροῦσι, ἵνα μὴ προδῶσι
τὰ φίλτατα.

Πάλιν οὖν ἡμεῖς μεταβῶμεν ἐφ’ ἑτέραν
ἀδολεσχίαν. οὐ γὰρ ἐπιτρέπουσιν οἱ σοφισταὶ τῶν ἀξίων
τι ζητημάτων προχειρίζεσθαι, καίτοι παμπόλλων ὑπαρχόντων,
ἀλλὰ κατατρίβειν ἀναγκάζουσι τὸν χρόνον εἰς τὴν τῶν σοφισμάτων,
ὧν προβάλλονται, λύσιν. τίς οὖν ἡ ἀδολεσχία;
ἡ ἔνδοξος αὕτη καὶ πολυθρύλλητος λίθος ἡ τὸν σίδηρον ἐπισπωμένη· τάχα γὰρ ἂν αὕτη ποτὲ τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτῶν
ἐπισπάσαιτο πιστεύειν, εἶναί τινας ἐν ἑκάστῳ τῶν σωμάτων
ἑλκτικὰς τῶν οἰκείων ποιοτήτων δυνάμεις. Ἐπίκουρος μὲν
οὖν, καίτοι παραπλησίοις Ἀσκληπιάδῃ στοιχείοις εἰς τὴν
φυσιολογίαν χρώμενος, ὅμως ὁμολογεῖ, πρὸς μὲν τῆς ἡρακλείας
λίθου τὸν σίδηρον ἕλκεσθαι, πρὸς δὲ τῶν ἠλέκτρων
τὰ κυρήβια, καὶ πειρᾶταί γε καὶ τὴν αἰτίαν ἀποδιδόναι τοῦ
φαινομένου. τὰς γὰρ ἀποῤῥεούσας ἀτόμους ἀπὸ τῶν λίθων
ταῖς ἀποῤῥεούσαις ἀπὸ τοῦ σιδήρου τοῖς σχήμασιν οἰκείας
εἶναί φησιν, ὥστε περιπλέκεσθαι ῥᾳδίως. προσκρουούσας
οὖν αὐτὰς τοῖς συγκρίμασιν ἑκατέροις, τοῖς τε τοῦ λίθου
καὶ τοῦ σιδήρου, κᾄπειτ’ εἰς τὸ μέσον ἀποπαλλομένας,
οὕτως ἀλλήλαις τε περιπλέκεσθαι καὶ συνεπισπᾶσθαι τὸν
σίδηρον. ὅτι μὲν οὖν τὸ τῶν ὑποθέσεων εἰς τὴν αἰτιολογίαν
ἀπίθανον, ἄντικρυς δῆλον, ὅμως δ’ οὖν ὁμολογεῖ τὴν
ὁλκήν. καὶ οὕτω γε καὶ κατὰ τὰ σώματα τῶν ζώων φησὶ
γίνεσθαι τάς τ’ ἀναδόσεις καὶ τὰς διακρίσεις τῶν περιττωμάτων,
καὶ τὰς τῶν καθαιρόντων φαρμάκων ἐνεργείας.
Ἀσκληπιάδης δὲ τό τε τῆς εἰρημένης αἰτίας ἀπί 23 θανον ὑπειδόμενος, καὶ μηδεμίαν ἄλλην ἰσχὺν ἐφ’ οἷς ὑπέθετο
στοιχείοις ἐξευρίσκων πιθανὴν, ἐπὶ τὸ μηδ’ ὅλως ἕλκεσθαι
λέγειν ὑπὸ μηδενὸς μηδὲν ἀναισχυντήσας ἐτράπετο· δέον,
εἰ μήθ’ οἶς Ἐπίκουρος εἶπεν ἠρέσκετο, μήτ’ ἄλλα βελτίω
λέγειν εἶχεν, ἀποστῆναι τῶν ὑποθέσεων, καὶ τήν τε φύσιν
εἰπεῖν τεχνικὴν, ἔτι τε καὶ οὐσίαν τῶν ὄντων ἑνουμένην
τε πρὸς ἑαυτὴν ἀεὶ καὶ ἀλλοιουμένην πρὸς τῶν ἑαυτῆς
μορίων εἰς ἄλληλα δρώντων τε καὶ πασχόντων. εἰ γὰρ
ταῦθ’ οὕτως ὑπέθετο, χαλεπὸν οὐδὲν ἦν τὴν τεχνικὴν
ἐκείνην φύσιν ὁμολογῆσαι δυνάμεις ἔχειν, ἐπισπαστικὰς μὲν
τῶν οἰκείων, ἀποκριτικὰς δὲ τῶν ἀλλοτρίων. οὐ γὰρ δὴ
ἄλλο τί γε ἦν αὐτῇ τὸ τεχνικῇ τε εἶναι, καὶ τοῦ ζώου
διασωστικῇ, καὶ τῶν νοσημάτων κριτικῇ, παρὰ τὸ προσίεσθαι
μὲν καὶ φυλάττειν τὸ οἰκεῖον, ἀποκρίνειν δὲ τὸ
ἀλλότριον. ἀλλ’ Ἀσκληπιάδης κᾀνταῦθα τὸ μὲν ἀκόλουθον
ταῖς ἀρχαῖς αἷς ὑπέθετο σύνοιδεν, οὐ μὴν τήν γε
πρὸς τὸ φαινόμενον ἐναργῶς ᾐδέσθη μάχην, ἀλλ’ ὁμόσε χωρεῖ καὶ περὶ τούτου πᾶσιν οὐκ ἰατροῖς μόνον, ἀλλ’
ἤδη καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἀνθρώποις, οὔτε κρίσιν εἶναί τινα λέγων,
οὔθ’ ἡμέραν κρίσιμον, οὔθ’ ὅλως ἐπὶ σωτηρίᾳ ζώου
πραγματεύεσθαι τὴν φύσιν. ἀεὶ γὰρ τὸ μὲν ἀκόλουθον
φυλάττειν βούλεται, τὸ δ’ ἐναργῶς φαινόμενον ἀνατρέπειν,
ἔμπαλιν Ἐπικούρῳ. τιθεὶς γὰρ ἐκεῖνος ἀεὶ τὸ φαινόμενον,
αἰτίαν αὐτοῦ ψυχρὰν ἀποδίδωσι. τὰ γὰρ ἀποπαλλόμενα
σμικρὰ σώματα τῆς ἡρακλείας λίθου τοιούτοις ἑτέροις περιπλέκεσθαι
μορίοις τοῦ σιδήρου, κᾄπειτα διὰ τῆς περιπλοκῆς
ταύτης, καὶ μηδαμοῦ φαινομένης, ἐπισπᾶσθαι βαρεῖαν
οὕτως οὐσίαν, οὐκ οἶδ’ ὅπως ἄν τις πεισθείη. καὶ γὰρ, εἰ
τοῦτο συγχωρήσαιμεν, τό γε τῷ σιδήρῳ πάλιν ἕτερα προστιθέντι
συνάπτεσθαι τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν οὐκέτι προσίεται.
τί γὰρ ἐροῦμεν; ἢ δηλαδὴ τῶν ἀποῤῥεόντων τῆς λίθου
μορίων ἔνια μὲν προσκρούσαντα τῷ σιδήρῳ πάλιν ἀποπάλλεσθαι,
καὶ ταῦτα μὲν εἶναι, δι’ ὧν κρέμασθαι συμβαίνει
τὸν σίδηρον, τὰ δ’ εἰς αὐτὸν εἰσδυόμενα διὰ τῶν κενῶν πόρων διέρχεσθαι τάχιστα, κᾄπειτα τῷ παρακειμένῳ
σιδήρῳ 94 προσκρούοντα, μήτ’ ἐκεῖνον διαδῦναι δύνασθαι,
καὶ τόν γε πρῶτον διαδύντα, παλινδρομοῦντα δ’ αὖθις
ἐπὶ τὸν πρότερον ἑτέρας αὖθις ἐργάζεσθαι ταῖς προτέραις
ὁμοίας περιπλοκάς; ἐναργῶς γὰρ ἐνταῦθα τὸ ληρῶδες τῆς
αἰτίας ἐλέγχεται. γραφεῖα γοῦν οἶδά ποτε σιδηρᾶ πέντε
κατὰ τὸ συνεχὲς ἀλλήλοις συναφθέντα, τοῦ πρώτου μὲν
μόνου τῆς λίθου ψαύσαντος, ἐξ ἐκείνου δ’ εἰς τἄλλα τῆς
δυνάμεως διαδοθείσης. καὶ οὐκ ἔστιν εἰπεῖν, ὡς, εἰ μὲν τῷ
κάτω τοῦ γραφείου πέρατι προσάγοις ἕτερον, ἔχεταί τε καὶ
συνάπτεται καὶ κρέμαται τὸ προσενεχθέν· εἰ δ’ ἄλλῳ τινὶ
μέρει τῶν πλαγίων προσθείης, οὐ συνάπτεται. πάντη γὰρ
ὁμοίως ἡ τῆς λίθου διαδίδοται δύναμις, εἰ μόνον ἅψαιτο
κατά τι τοῦ πρώτου γραφείου. καὶ μέντοι κᾀκ τούτου πάλιν
εἰς τὸ δεύτερον ὅλον ἡ δύναμις ἅμα νοήματι διαῤῥεῖ,
κᾀξ ἐκείνου πάλιν εἰς τὸ τρίτον ὅλον. εἰ δὴ νοήσαις
μικράν τινα λίθον ἡρακλείαν ἐν οἴκῳ τινὶ κρεμαμένην,
εἴτ’ ἐν κύκλῳ πάμπολλα ψαύοντα σιδήρια, κᾀκείνων πάλιν
ἕτερα, κᾀκείνων ἄλλα, καὶ τοῦτ’ ἄχρι πλείονος, ἅπαντα δήπου πίμπλασθαι χρὴ τὰ σιδήρια τῶν ἀποῤῥεόντων τῆς
λίθου σωμάτων. καὶ κινδυνεύει διαφορηθῆναι τὸ σμικρὸν
ἐκεῖνο λιθίδιον, εἰς τὰς ἀποῤῥοὰς διαλυθέν. καίτοι, κᾂν
εἰ μηδὲν παρακέοιτο αὐτῷ σιδήριον, εἰς τὸν ἀέρα σκεδάννυται|,
μάλιστ’ εἰ καὶ θερμὸς ὑπάρχῃ. ναὶ, φησὶ, 24 σμικρὰ
γὰρ αὐτὰ χρὴ πάνυ νοεῖν, ὥστε τῶν ἐμφερομένων τῷ ἀέρι
ψηγμάτων τούτων δὴ τῶν σμικροτάτων ἐκείνων ἔνια μυριοστὸν
εἶναι μέρος. εἶτ’ ἐξ οὕτω σμικρῶν τολμᾶτε λέγειν
κρεμάννυσθαι βάρη τηλικαῦτα σιδήρου; εἰ γὰρ ἕκαστον αὐτῶν
μυριοστόν ἐστι μέρος τῶν ἐν τῷ ἀέρι φερομένων ψηγμάτων,
πηλίκον χρὴ νοῆσαι τὸ πέρας αὐτῶν τὸ ἀγκιστρῶδες,
ᾧ περιπλέκεται πρὸς ἄλληλα; πάντως γὰρ δή που
τοῦτο σμικρότατόν ἐστιν ὅλου τοῦ ψήγματος. εἶτα μικρὸν
μικρῷ, κινούμενον κινουμένῳ περιπλακὲν, οὐκ εὐθὺς ἀποπάλλεται.
καὶ γὰρ δὴ καὶ ἄλλα ἄττα πάντως αὐτοῖς, τὰ
μὲν κάτωθεν, τὰ δ’ ἄνωθεν, καὶ τὰ μὲν ἔμπροσθεν, τὰ
δ’ ὄπισθεν, τὰ δ’ ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν, τὰ δ’ ἐκ τῶν ἀριστερῶν ἐκρηγνύμενα, σείει τε καὶ ταράττει, καὶ μένειν οὐκ ἐᾷ. καὶ
μέντοι καὶ πολλὰ χρὴ νοεῖν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἕκαστον ἐκείνων
τῶν μικρῶν σωμάτων ἔχειν ἀγκιστρώδη πέρατα. δι’ ἑνὸς
μὲν γὰρ ἀλλήλοις οὐ συνάπτεται, δι’ ἑτέρου δ’ ἑνὸς τοῦ
μὲν ὑπερκειμένου τῇ λίθῳ, τοῦ δ’ ὑποκειμένου τῷ σιδήρῳ.
εἰ γὰρ ἄνω μὲν ἐξαφθείη τῆς λίθου, κάτω δὲ τῷ
σιδήρῳ μὴ συμπλακείη, πλέον οὐδέν. ὥστε τοῦ μὲν ὑπερκειμένου
τὸ ἄνω μέρος ἐκκρέμασθαι χρὴ τῆς λίθου, τοῦ
δ’ ὑποκειμένου τῷ κάτω πέρατι συνῆφθαι τὸν σίδηρον.
ἐπεὶ δὲ κᾀκ τῶν πλαγίων ἀλλήλοις περιπλέκεται, πάντως
που κᾀνταῦθα ἔχει τὰ ἄγκιστρα. καὶ μέμνησό μοι πρὸ
πάντων, ὅπως ὄντα σμικρὰ τὰς τοσαύτας τε καὶ
τοιαύτας ἀποφύσεις ἔχει. καὶ τούτου μᾶλλον ἔτι δεῖ
μεμνῆσθαι, ὅπως, ἵνα τὸ δεύτερον σιδήριον συναφθῇ τῷ
πρώτῳ, καὶ τῷ δευτέρῳ τὸ τρίτον, κᾀκείνῳ τὸ τέταρτον,
ἅμα μὲν διέρχεσθαι χρὴ τοὺς πόρους ταυτὶ τὰ σμικρὰ καὶ
ληρώδη ψήγματα, ἅμα δ’ ἀποπάλλεσθαι τοῦ μετ’ αὐτὸ τεταγμένου, καίτοι κατὰ πᾶν ὁμοίου τὴν φύσιν ὑπάρχοντος.
οὐδὲ γὰρ ἡ τοιαύτη πάλιν ὑπόθεσις ἄτολμος, ἀλλ’, εἰ χρὴ
τἀληθὲς εἰπεῖν, μακρῷ τῶν ἔμπροσθεν ἀναισχυντοτέρα,
πέντε σιδηρίων ὁμοίων ἀλλήλοις ἐφεξῆς τεταγμένων, διὰ
μὲν τοῦ πρώτου διαδυόμενα ῥᾳδίως τῆς λίθου τὰ μόρια,
κατὰ δὲ τὸ δεύτερον ἀποπάλλεσθαι, καὶ μὴ διὰ τούτου
κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον ἑτοίμως διεξέρχεσθαι. καὶ μὴν
ἑκατέρως ἄτοπον. εἰ μὲν ἀποπάλλεται, πῶς εἰς τὸ τρίτον
ὠκέως διεξέρχεται; εἰ δ’ οὐκ ἀποπάλλεται, πῶς κρεμάννυται
τὸ δεύτερον ἐκ τοῦ πρώτου; τὴν γὰρ ἀπόπαλσιν αὐτὸς
ὑπέθετο δημιουργὸν τῆς ὁλκῆς. ἀλλ’, ὅπερ ἔφην, εἰς ἀδολεσχίαν
ἀναγκαῖον ἐμπίπτειν, ἐπειδάν τις τοιούτοις ἀνδράσι
διαλέγηται. σύντομον οὖν τινα καὶ κεφαλαιώδη λόγον εἰπὼν,
ἀπαλλάττεσθαι βούλομαι. τοῖς γὰρ Ἀσκληπιάδου
γράμμασιν εἴ τις ἐπιμελῶς ὁμιλήσειε, τήν τε πρὸς τὰς ἀρχὰς
ἀκολουθίαν τῶν τοιούτων δογμάτων ἀκριβῶς ἂν ἐκμάθοι
καὶ τὴν πρὸς τὰ φαινόμενα μάχην. ὁ μὲν οὖν
Ἐπίκουρος, τὰ φαινόμενα φυλάττειν βουλόμενος, ἀσχημονεῖ φιλοτιμούμενος ἐπιδεικνύειν αὐτὰ ταῖς ἀρχαῖς ὁμολογοῦντα.
ὁ δ’ Ἀσκληπιάδης τὸ μὲν ἀκόλουθον ταῖς ἀρχαῖς φυλάττει,
τοῦ φαινομένου δ’ οὐδὲν αὐτῷ μέλει. ὅστις οὖν βούλεται
τὴν ἀτοπίαν ἐξελέγχειν τῶν ὑποθέσεων, εἰ μὲν πρὸς
Ἀσκληπιάδην ὁ λόγος αὐτῷ γίγνοιτο, τῆς πρὸς τὸ φαινόμενον
ἐπιμιμνησκέτω μάχης· εἰ δὲ πρὸς Ἐπίκουρον, τῆς
πρὸς τὰς ἀρχὰς διαφωνίας. αἱ δ’ ἄλλαι σχεδὸν αἱρέσεις αἱ
τῶν ὁμοίων ἀρχῶν ἐχόμεναι τελέως ἀπέσβησαν· αὗται δ’
ἔτι μόναι διαρκοῦσιν οὐκ ἀγεννῶς. καίτοι τὰ μὲν Ἀσκληπιάδου
Μηνόδοτος ὁ ἐμπειρικὸς ἀφύκτως ἐξελέγχει, τήν
τε πρὸς τὰ φαινόμενα μάχην ὑπομιμνήσκων αὐτὸν καὶ τὴν
πρὸς ἄλληλα· τὰ δ’ Ἐπικούρου πάλιν ὁ Ἀσκληπιάδης,
ἐχόμενος ἀεὶ τῆς ἀκολουθίας, ἧς ἐκεῖνος οὐ πάνυ τι φαίνεται
φροντίζων. 25 ἀλλ’ οἱ νῦν ἄνθρωποι, πρὶν καὶ
ταύτας ἐκμαθεῖν τὰς αἱρέσεις καὶ τὰς ἄλλας τὰς βελτίους,
κᾄπειτα χρόνῳ πολλῷ κρῖναί τε καὶ βασανίσαι
τὸ καθ’ ἕκαστον αὐτῶν ἀληθές τε καὶ ψευδὲς, οἱ μὲν
ἰατροὺς ἑαυτοὺς, οἱ δὲ φιλοσόφους ὀνομάζουσι, μηδὲν εἰδότες. οὐδὲν οὖν θαυμαστὸν, ἐπίσης τοῖς ἀληθέσι τὰ ψευδῆ τετιμῆσθαι.
ὅτῳ γὰρ ἂν ἕκαστος πρώτῳ περιτύχῃ διδασκάλῳ,
τοιοῦτος ἐγένετο, μὴ περιμείνας μηδὲν ἔτι παρ’ ἄλλου μαθεῖν.
ἔνιοι δ’ αὐτῶν, εἰ καὶ πλείοσιν ἐντύχοιεν, ἀλλ’ οὕτως
γ’ εἰσὶν ἀσύνετοί τε καὶ βραδεῖς τὴν διάνοιαν, ὥστε
καὶ γεγηρακότες οὔπω συνιᾶσιν ἀκολουθίαν λόγου. πάλαι
δὲ τοὺς τοιούτους ἐπὶ τὰς βαναύσους τέχνας ἀπέλυον. ἀλλὰ
ταῦτα μὲν εἰς ὅ τι τελευτήσει, θεοὺς εἰδέναι. ἡμεῖς δ’
ἐπειδὴ, καίτοι φεύγοντες ἀντιλέγειν τοῖς ἐν αὐταῖς ταῖς ἀρχαῖς
εὐθὺς ἐσφαλμένοις, ὅμως ἠναγκάσθημεν ὑπ’ αὐτῆς
τῶν πραγμάτων τῆς ἀκολουθίας εἰπεῖν τινα καὶ διαλεχθῆναι
πρὸς αὐτοὺς, ἔτι καὶ τοῦτο προσθήσομεν τοῖς εἰρημένοις,
ὡς οὐ μόνον τὰ καθαίροντα φάρμακα πέφυκεν ἐπισπᾶσθαι
τὰς οἰκείας ποιότητας, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὰ τοὺς σκόλοπας
ἀνάγοντα, καὶ τὰ τὰς τῶν βελῶν ἀκίδας, εἰς πολὺ
βάθος σαρκὸς ἐμπεπαρμένας ἐνίοτε. καὶ μέντοι καὶ ὅσα
τοὺς ἰοὺς τῶν θηρίων ἢ τοὺς ἐμπεφαρμαγμένους βέλεσιν
ἀνέλκει, καὶ ταῦτα τὴν αὐτὴν ταῖς ἡρακλείαις λίθοις ἐπιδείκνυται δύναμιν. ἔγωγ’ οὖν οἶδά ποτε καταπεπαρμένον
ἐν ποδὶ νεανίσκου σκόλοπα, τοῖς μὲν δακτύλοις ἕλκουσιν
ἡμῖν βιαίως οὐκ ἀκολουθήσαντα, φαρμάκου δ’ ἐπιτεθέντος,
ἀλύπως τε καὶ διὰ ταχέων ἀνελθόντα. καίτοι καὶ πρὸς
τοῦτό τινες ἀντιλέγουσι, φάσκοντες, ὅταν ἡ φλεγμονὴ λυθῇ
τοῦ μέρους, αὐτομάτως ἐξιέναι τὸν σκόλοπα, πρὸς οὐδενὸς
ἀνελκόμενον ἄλλου. ἀλλ’ οὗτοί γε πρῶτον μὲν ἀγνοεῖν
ἐοίκασιν, ὡς ἄλλα μέν ἐστι φλεγμονῆς, ἄλλα δὲ τῶν οὕτω
καταπεπαρμένων ἑλκτικὰ φάρμακα· καίτοι γ’, εἴπερ, ἀφλεγμάντων
γενομένων, ἐξεκρίνετο τὰ παρὰ φύσιν, 95 ὅσα
φλεγμονῆς ἐστι λυτικὰ, ταῦτ’ εὐθὺς ἂν ἦν κᾀκείνων ἑλκτικά·
δεύτερον δ’, ὃ καὶ μᾶλλον ἄν τις θαυμάσειεν, ὡς οὐ μόνον
ἄλλα μὲν τοὺς σκόλοπας, ἄλλα δὲ τοὺς ἕλκει, ἀλλὰ
καὶ αὐτῶν τῶν τοὺς ἰοὺς ἑλκόντων τὰ μὲν τὸν τῆς ἐχίδνης,
τὰ δὲ τὸν τῆς τρυγόνος, τὰ δ’ ἄλλου τινὸς ἐπισπᾶται,
καὶ σαφῶς ἐστι τοῖς φαρμάκοις ἐπικειμένους ἰδεῖν αὐτούς.
ἐνταῦθ’ οὖν Ἐπίκουρον μὲν πάλιν ἐπαινεῖν χρὴ τῆς πρὸς τὸ φαινόμενον αἰδοῦς, μέμφεσθαι δὲ τὸν λόγον τῆς αἰτίας.
ὃν γὰρ ἡμεῖς ἕλκοντες τοῖς δακτύλοις οὐκ ἀνηγάγομεν σκόλοπα,
τοῦτον ὑπὸ τῶν σμικρῶν ἐκείνων ἀνέλκεσθαι ψηγμάτων,
πῶς οὐ παντάπασιν ἄτοπον εἶναι χρὴ νομίζειν;
ἆρ’ οὖν ἤδη πεπείσμεθα, τῶν ὄντων ἑκάστῳ δύναμίν τινα
ὑπάρχειν, ᾗ τὴν οἰκείαν ἕλκει ποιότητα, τὸ μὲν μᾶλλον,
τὸ δ’ ἧττον; ἢ καὶ τὸ τῶν πυρῶν ἔτι παράδειγμα προχειρισόμεθα
τῷ λόγῳ; φανοῦνται γὰρ, οἶμαι, καὶ τῶν
γεωργῶν ἀμαθέστεροι τὰ περὶ φύσεως οἱ μηδὲν ὅλως ὑπὸ
μηδενὸς ἕλκεσθαι συγχωροῦντες. ὡς ἔγωγε πρῶτον μὲν
ἀκούσας τὸ γινόμενον ἐθαύμασα, καὶ αὐτὸς ἐβουλήθην
αὐτόπτης αὐτοῦ καταστῆναι. μετὰ ταῦτα δὲ, ὡς καὶ τὸ
τῆς πείρας ὡμολόγει, τὴν αἰτίαν σκοπούμενος ἐν παμπόλλῳ
χρόνῳ κατὰ πάσας τὰς αἱρέσεις, οὐδεμίαν ἄλλην
εὑρεῖν οἷός τε ἦν, οὐδ’ ἄχρι τοῦ πιθανοῦ προϊοῦσαν, ἀλλὰ
καταγελάστους τε καὶ σαφῶς ἐξελεγχομένας τὰς ἄλλας ἁπάσας,
πλὴν τῆς τὴν ὁλκὴν πρεσβευούσης. ἔστι δὲ τὸ γινόμενον
τοιόνδε. μετακομίζοντες οἱ παρ’ ἡμῖν γεωργοὶ τοὺς ἐκ τῶν ἀγρῶν πυροὺς εἰς τὴν πόλιν ἐν ἁμάξαις τισὶν,
ὅταν ὑφελέσθαι βουληθῶσιν, ὥστε μὴ φωραθῆναι, κεράμι’
ἄττα πληρώσαντες ὕδατος, μέσοις αὐτοῖς ἐνιστῶσιν. 26 ἕλκοντες
οὖν ἐκεῖνοι διὰ τοῦ κεραμίου τὸ ὑγρὸν εἰς αὑτοὺς,
ὄγκον μὲν καὶ βάρος προσκτῶνται, κατάδηλοι δ’ οὐ πάνυ
γίγνονται τοῖς ὁρῶσιν, εἰ μή τις προπεπυσμένος ἤδη περιεργότερον
ἐπισκοποῖτο. καίτοι γ’, εἰ βουληθείης ἐν ἡλίῳ
καταθεῖναι πάνυ θερμῷ ταὐτὸν ἀγγεῖον, ἐλάχιστον παντελῶς
εὑρήσεις τὸ δαπανώμενον ἐφ’ ἑκάστης ἡμέρας. οὕτως
ἄρα καὶ τῆς ἡλιακῆς θερμασίας τῆς σφοδρᾶς ἰσχυροτέραν
οἱ πυροὶ δύναμιν ἔχουσιν ἕλκειν εἰς ἑαυτοὺς τὴν πλησιάζουσαν
ὑγρότητα. λῆρος οὖν ἐνταῦθα μακρὸς ἡ πρὸς
τὸ λεπτομερὲς φορὰ τοῦ περιέχοντος ἡμᾶς ἀέρος, καὶ μάλισθ’
ὅταν ἱκανῶς ᾖ θερμὸς, πολὺ μὲν ὑπάρχοντος ἢ
κατὰ τοὺς πυροὺς λεπτομερεστέρου, δεχομένου δ’ οὐδὲ τὸ
δέκατον μέρος τῆς εἰς ἐκείνους μεταλαμβανομένης ὑγρότητος.

Ἐπεὶ δ’ ἱκανῶς ἠδολεσχήσαμεν οὐχ ἑκόντες,
ἀλλ’, ὡς ἡ παροιμία φησὶ, μαινομένοις ἀναγκασθέντες συμμανῆναι, πάλιν ἐπὶ τὴν τῶν οὔρων ἐπανέλθωμεν διάκρισιν,
ἐν ᾗ τῶν μὲν Ἀσκληπιάδου λήρων ἐπιλαθώμεθα, μετὰ δὲ
τῶν πεπεισμένων διηθεῖσθαι τὰ οὖρα διὰ τῶν νεφρῶν, τίς
ὁ τρόπος ἐστὶ τῆς ἐνεργείας, ἐπισκεψώμεθα. πάντως γὰρ ἢ
ἐξ αὑτῶν ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς φέρεται τὰ οὖρα, τοῦτο βέλτιον
εἶναι νομίζοντα, καθάπερ ἡμεῖς, ὁπόταν εἰς τὴν ἀγορὰν
ἀπίωμεν· ἢ, εἰ τοῦτ’ ἀδύνατον, ἕτερόν τι χρὴ τῆς φορᾶς
αὐτῶν ἐξευρεῖν αἴτιον. τί δὴ τοῦτ’ ἔστιν; εἰ γὰρ μὴ τοῖς
νεφροῖς δώσομέν τινα δύναμιν ἑλκτικὴν τῆς τοιαύτης ποιότητος,
ὡς Ἱπποκράτης ἐνόμιζεν, οὐδὲν ἕτερον ἐξευρήσομεν.
ὅτι μὲν γὰρ ἤτοι τούτους ἕλκειν αὐτὸ προσῆκεν, ἢ τὰς
φλέβας πέμπειν, εἴπερ γε μὴ ἐξ ἑαυτοῦ φέρεται, παντί
που δῆλον. ἀλλ’ εἰ μὲν αἱ φλέβες περιστελλόμεναι προωθοῖεν,
οὐκ ἐκεῖνο μόνον, ἀλλὰ σὺν αὐτῷ καὶ τὸ πᾶν αἷμα
περιεχόμενον ἐν ἑαυταῖς εἰς τοὺς νεφροὺς ἐκθλίψουσιν. εἰ
δὲ τοῦτ’ ἀδύνατον, ὡς δείξομεν, λείπεται τοὺς νεφροὺς ἕλκειν.
πῶς οὖν τοῦτ’ ἀδύνατον; τῶν νεφρῶν ἡ θέσις ἀντιβαίνει.
οὐ γὰρ δὴ οὕτω γ’ ὑπόκεινται τῇ κοίλῃ φλεβὶ, καθάπερ τοῖς ἐξ ἐγκεφάλου περιττώμασιν ἔν τε τῇ ῥινὶ
καὶ κατὰ τὴν ὑπερώαν οἱ τοῖς ἠθμοῖς ὅμοιοι πόροι, ἀλλ’
ἑκατέρωθεν αὐτῇ παράκεινται. καὶ μὴν, εἴπερ ὁμοίως τοῖς
ἠθμοῖς, ὅσον ἂν ᾖ λεπτότερον καὶ τελέως ὀῤῥῶδες, τοῦτο
μὲν ἑτοίμως διαπέμπουσι, τὸ δὲ παχύτερον ἀποστέγουσιν,
ἅπαν ἐπ’ αὐτοὺς ἰέναι χρὴ τὸ αἷμα τὸ περιεχόμενον ἐν τῇ
κοίλῃ φλεβὶ, καθάπερ εἰς τὸν τρυγητὸν ὁ πᾶς οἶνος ἐμβάλλεται.
καὶ μέν γε καὶ τὸ τοῦ γάλακτος τοῦ τυρουμένου
παράδειγμα σαφῶς ἂν, ὃ βούλομαι λέγειν, ἐνδείξαιτο. καὶ
γὰρ καὶ τοῦτο, πᾶν ἐμβληθὲν εἰς τοὺς ταλάρους, οὐ πᾶν
διηθεῖται, ἀλλ’ ὅσον ἂν ᾖ λεπτότερον τῆς εὐρύτητος τῶν
πλοκάμων, εἰς τὸ κάταντες φέρεται, καὶ τοῦτο μὲν ὀῤῥὸς
ἐπονομάζεται· τὸ λοιπὸν δὲ παχὺ, τὸ μέλλον ἔσεσθαι τυρὸς,
ὡς ἂν οὐ παραδεχομένων αὐτὸ τῶν ἐν τοῖς ταλάροις
πόρων, οὐ διεκπίπτει κάτω. καὶ τοίνυν, εἴπερ οὕτως μέλλει
διηθεῖσθαι τῶν νεφρῶν ὁ τοῦ αἵματος ὀῤῥὸς, ἅπαν ἐπ’
αὐτοὺς ἥκειν χρὴ τὸ αἷμα, καὶ μὴ τὸ μὲν ἥκειν, τὸ δ’ οὔ. πῶς οὖν ἔχει τὸ φαινόμενον ἐκ τῆς ἀνατομῆς; τὸ μὲν ἕτερον
μέρος τῆς κοίλης ἄνω πρὸς τὴν καρδίαν ἀναφέρεται, τὸ
λοιπὸν δ’ ἐπιβαίνει τῇ ῥάχει, καθ’ ὅλης αὐτῆς ἐκτεινόμενον
ἄχρι τῶν σκελῶν. ὥστε τὸ μὲν ἕτερον οὐδ’ ἐγγὺς
ἀφικνεῖται τῶν νεφρῶν, τὸ λοιπὸν δὲ πλησιάζει μὲν,
27 οὐ μὴν εἰς αὐτούς γε καταφύεται. ἐχρῆν δ’, εἴπερ
ἔμελλεν ὡς δι’ ἠθμῶν αὐτῶν καθαρθήσεσθαι τὸ αἷμα, πᾶν
ἐμπίπτειν εἰς αὐτοὺς, κᾄπειτα κάτω μὲν φέρεσθαι τὸ λεπτὸν,
ἴσχεσθαι δ’ ἄνω τὸ. παχύ. νυνὶ δ’ οὐχ οὕτως ἔχει·
πλάγιοι γὰρ ἑκατέρωθεν τῆς κοίλης φλεβὸς οἱ νεφροὶ κεῖνται.
οὔκουν ὡς ἠθμοὶ διηθοῦσι, πεμπούσης μὲν ἐκείνης,
αὐτοὶ δ’ οὐδεμίαν εἰσφερόμενοι δύναμιν, ἀλλ’ ἕλκουσι δηλονότι·
τοῦτο γὰρ ἔτι λείπεται. πῶς οὖν ἕλκουσιν; εἰ μὲν,
ὡς Ἐπίκουρος οἴεται, τὰς ὁλκὰς ἁπάσας γίγνεσθαι κατὰ τὰς
τῶν ἀτόμων ἀποπάλσεις τε καὶ περιπλοκὰς, ἄμεινον ὄντως
ἐστὶν εἰπεῖν, μηδ’ ἕλκειν ὅλως αὐτούς· πολὺ γὰρ ἂν
οὕτω γε τῶν ἐπὶ τῆς ἡρακλείας λίθου μικρῷ πρόσθεν εἰρημένων ὁ λόγος ἐξεταζόμενος εὑρεθείη γελοιότερος· ἀλλ’
ὡς Ἱπποκράτης ἐβούλετο. λεχθήσεται δὲ σαφέστερον ἐπὶ
προήκοντι τῷ λόγῳ. νῦν γὰρ οὐ τοῦτο πρόκειται διδάσκειν,
ἀλλ’ ὡς οὔτ’ ἄλλο τι δυνατὸν ἂν εἰπεῖν αἴτιον εἶναι τῆς
τῶν οὔρων διακρίσεως πλὴν ὁλκῆς τῶν νεφρῶν, οὔθ’ οὕτω
γίγνεσθαι τὴν ὁλκὴν, ὡς οἱ μηδεμίαν οἰκείαν διδόντες τῇ
φύσει δύναμιν οἴονται γίγνεσθαι. τούτου γὰρ ὁμολογηθέντος,
ὡς ἔστιν ὅλως τις ἐν τοῖς φύσεως διοικουμένοις
δύναμις ἑλκτικὴ, ληρώδης εἶναι νομίζοιτ’ ἂν ὁ περὶ ἀναδόσεως
τροφῆς ἄλλό τι λέγειν ἐπιχειρῶν.

Ἐρασίστρατος δὲ, οὐκ οἶδ’ ὅπως, ἑτέραις
μέν τισι δόξαις εὐήθεσιν ἀντεῖπε διὰ μακρῶν· ὑπερέβη δὲ
τελέως τὴν Ἱπποκράτειον, οὐδ’ ἄχρι τοῦ μνημονεῦσαι μόνον
αὐτῆς, ὡς ἐν τοῖς περὶ καταπόσεως ἐποίησεν, ἀξιώσας. ἐν
ἐκείνοις μὲν γὰρ ἄχρι τοσούτου φαίνεται μνημονεύων, ὡς
τοὔνομα εἰπεῖν τῆς ὁλκῆς μόνον, ᾧδέ πη γράφων· Ὁλκὴ
μὲν οὖν τῆς κοιλίης οὐδεμία φαίνεται εἶναι. περὶ δὲ τῆς ἀναδόσεως τὸν λόγον ποιούμενος οὐδ’ ἄχρι συλλαβῆς μιᾶς
ἐμνημόνευσε τῆς Ἱπποκρατείου δόξης. καίτοι γ’ ἐπήρκεσεν
ἂν ἡμῖν, εἰ καὶ τοῦτ’ ἔγραψε μόνον, ὡς Ἱπποκράτης εἰπὼν,
Σάρκες ὁλκοὶ ἐκ κοιλίης εἴσωθεν καὶ ἔξωθεν, ψεύδεται·
οὔτε γὰρ ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας, οὔτ’ εἴσωθεν, οὔτ’ ἔξωθεν
96 δύναιντ’ ἂν ἕλκειν. εἰ δὲ |καὶ ὅτι μήτρας αἰτιώμενος
ἄῤῥωστον αὐχένα κακῶς εἶπεν· Οὐ γὰρ δύναται αὐτέης ὁ
στόμαχος εἰρύσαι τὴν γονήν. ἢ εἰ καί τι τοιοῦτον ἄλλο γράφειν
ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος ἠξίωσε, τότ’ ἂν καὶ ἡμεῖς, πρὸς αὐτὸν
ἀπολογούμενοι, εἴπομεν· Ὦ γενναῖε, μὴ ῥητορικῶς ἡμῶν
κατάτρεχε χωρὶς ἀποδείξεως, ἀλλ’ εἰπέ τινα κατηγορίαν τοῦ
δόγματος, ἵν’ ἢ πεισθῶμέν σοι καλῶς ἐξελέγχοντι τὸν παλαιὸν
λόγον, ἢ μεταπείσωμεν ἀγνοοῦντα. καίτοι τί λέγω
ῥητορικῶς; μὴ γὰρ, ἐπειδή τινες τῶν ῥητόρων, ἃ μάλιστα
ἀδυνατοῦσι διαλύεσθαι, ταῦτα διαγελάσαντες οὐδ’ ἐπιχειροῦσιν
ἀντιλέγειν, ἤδη που τοῦτο καὶ ἡμεῖς ἡγώμεθα
εἶναι τὸ ῥητορικῶς. τὸ γὰρ διὰ λόγου πιθανοῦ ἐστὶ τὸ ῥητορικῶς· τὸ δὲ ἄνευ λόγου πιθανοῦ βωμολοχικὸν, οὐ
ῥητορικόν. οὐκ οὖν οὔτε ῥητορικῶς, οὔτε διαλεκτικῶς ἀντεῖπεν
ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος ἐν τῷ περὶ τῆς καταπόσεως λόγῳ.
τί γάρ φησιν; ὁλκὴ μὲν οὖν τῆς κοιλίης οὐδεμία φαίνεται
εἶναι. πάλιν οὖν αὐτῷ παρ’ ἡμῶν ἀντιμαρτυρῶν ὁ αὐτὸς
λόγος ἀντιπαραβαλλέσθω. περιστολὴ μὲν οὖν τοῦ στομάχου
οὐδεμία φαίνεται εἶναι. καὶ πῶς οὐ φαίνεται; τάχ’ ἂν ἴσως
εἴποι τις τῶν ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ. 28 τὸ γὰρ λέγειν, τῶν ἄνωθεν
αὐτοῦ μερῶν συστελλομένων, διαστέλλεσθαι τὰ κάτω, πῶς
οὐκ ἔστι τῆς περιστολῆς ἐνδεικτικόν; αὖθις οὖν ἡμεῖς, καὶ
πῶς οὐ φαίνεται, φήσομεν, ἡ τῆς κοιλίας ὁλκή; τὸ γὰρ
ἀεὶ, τῶν κάτωθεν μερῶν τοῦ στομάχου διαστελλομένων, συστέλλεσθαι
τὰ ἄνω, πῶς οὐκ ἔστι τῆς ὁλκῆς ἐνδεικτικόν;
εἰ δὲ σωφρονήσειέ ποτε καὶ γνοίη, τὸ φαινόμενον τοῦτο
μηδὲν μᾶλλον τῆς ἑτέρας τῶν δοξῶν ὑπάρχειν ἐνδεικτικὸν,
ἀλλ’ ἀμφοτέρων εἶναι κοινὸν, οὕτως ἂν ἤδη δείξαιμεν αὐτῷ
τὴν ὀρθὴν ὁδὸν τῆς τοῦ ἀληθοῦς εὑρέσεως. ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν
τῆς κοιλίας αὖθις. ἡ δὲ τῆς τροφῆς ἀνάδοσις οὐδὲν δεῖται τῆς πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον ἀκολουθίας, ἅπαξ γε τῆς ἑλκτικῆς
δυνάμεως ἐπὶ τῶν νεφρῶν ὡμολογημένης, ἣν, καίτοι πάνυ
σαφῶς ἀληθῆ γινώσκων ὑπάρχειν, ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος οὔτε
ἐμνημόνευσεν, οὔτ’ ἀντεῖπεν, οὔθ’ ὅλως ἀπεφῄνατό τινα
ἔχειν δόξαν ὑπὲρ τῆς τῶν οὔρων διακρίσεως. ἢ διὰ τί,
προειπὼν εὐθὺς κατ’ ἀρχὰς τὸν καθ’ ὅλου λόγον, ὡς ὑπὲρ
τῶν φυσικῶν ἐνεργειῶν ἐρεῖ, πρῶτον αἵτινές τέ εἰσι καὶ
πῶς γίγνονται, καὶ διὰ τίνων τόπων, ἐπὶ τῆς τῶν οὔρων
διακρίσεως, ὅτι μὲν διὰ νεφρῶν, ἀπεφῄνατο, τὸ δ’, ὅπως
γίγνεται, παρέλιπε. μάτην οὖν ἡμᾶς καὶ περὶ τῆς πέψεως
ἐδίδαξεν, ὅπως γίγνεται, καὶ περὶ τῆς τοῦ χολώδους περιττώματος
διακρίσεως κατατρίβει. ἤρκει γὰρ εἰπεῖν καὶ ταῦτα
τὰ μόρια, δι’ ὧν γίγνεται, τὸ δ’ ὅπως παραλιπεῖν. ἀλλὰ
περὶ μὲν ἐκείνων εἶχε λέγειν, οὐ μόνον δι’ ὧν ὀργάνων,
ἀλλὰ καὶ καθ’ ὅντινα γίνεται τρόπον, ὥσπερ, οἶμαι, καὶ
περὶ τῆς ἀναδόσεως. οὐ γὰρ ἤρκεσεν αὐτῷ μόνον εἰπεῖν,
ὅτι διὰ φλεβῶν, ἀλλὰ καὶ πῶς, ὑπεξῆλθεν, ὅτι τῇ πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον ἀκολουθίᾳ. περὶ δὲ τῶν οὔρων τε καὶ διακρίσεως,
ὅτι μὲν διὰ νεφρῶν γίνεται, γράφει, τὸ δ’ ὅπως
οὐκέτι προστίθησιν. οὔτε γὰρ, οἶμαι, τὴν πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον
ἀκολουθίαν ἦν εἰπεῖν· οὕτω γὰρ ἂν οὐδεὶς ὑπὸ
ἰσχουρίας ἀπέθανεν οὐδέποτε, μὴ δυναμένου πλέονος ἐπιῤῥυῆναί
ποτε παρὰ τὸ κενούμενον· ἄλλης γὰρ αἰτίας μηδεμιᾶς
προστεθείσης, ἀλλὰ μόνης τῆς πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον
ἀκολουθίας ποδηγούσης τὸ συνεχὲς, οὐκ ἐγχωρεῖ πλέον ἐπιῤῥυῆναί
ποτε τοῦ κενουμένου. ἀλλ’ οὐδ’ ἄλλην τινὰ προσθεῖναι
πιθανὴν αἰτίαν εἶχεν, ὡς ἐπὶ τῆς ἀναδόσεως τὴν
ἔκθλιψιν τῆς γαστρός. ἀλλ’ αὕτη γ’ ἐπὶ τοῦ κατὰ τὴν
κοιλίαν αἵματος ἀπολώλει τελέως, οὐ τῷ μήκει μόνον τῆς
ἀποστάσεως ἐκλυθεῖσα, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῷ τὴν καρδίαν ὑπερκειμένην
ἐξαρπάζειν αὐτῆς σφοδρῶς καθ’ ἑκάστην διαστολὴν
οὐκ ὀλίγον αἷμα. μόνη δή τις ἔτι καὶ πάντων ἔρημος ἀπολείπεται
τῶν σοφισμάτων ἐν τοῖς κάτω τῆς κοίλης ἡ πρὸς τὸ κενοόμενον ἀκολουθία, διά τε τοὺς ἐπὶ ταῖς ἰσχουρίαις
ἀποθνήσκοντας ἀπολωλεκυῖα τὴν πιθανότητα, καὶ διὰ τὴν
τῶν νεφρῶν θέσιν οὐδὲν ἧττον. Εἰ μὲν γὰρ ἅπαν ἐπ’
αὐτοὺς ἐφέρετο τὸ αἷμα, δεόντως ἄν τις ἅπαν ἔφασκεν
αὐτὸ καθαίρεσθαι. νυνὶ δὲ, οὐ γὰρ ὅλον, ἀλλὰ τοσοῦτον
αὐτοῦ μέρος, ὅσον αἱ μέχρι νεφρῶν δέχονται φλέβες, ἐπ’.
αὐτοὺς ἔρχεται, καὶ μόνον ἐκεῖνο καθαρθήσεται. καὶ τὸ
μὲν ὀῤῥῶδες αὐτοῦ καὶ λεπτὸν οἷον δι’ ἠθμῶν τινων
τῶν νεφρῶν διαδύσεται· τὸ δ’ αἱματῶδές τε καὶ παχὺ,
κατὰ τὰς φλέβας ὑπομένον, ἐμποδὼν στήσεται τῷ κατόπιν
ἐπιῤῥέοντι. παλινδρομεῖν οὖν αὐτὸ πρότερον ἐπὶ τὴν κοίλην
ἀναγκαῖον, καὶ κενὰς οὕτως ἐργάζεσθαι τὰς ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς
ἰούσας φλέβας· 29 αἳ δεύτερον οὐκέτι |παρακομιοῦσιν
ἐπ’ αὐτοὺς ἀκάθαρτον αἷμα· κατειληφότος γὰρ αὐτὰς τοῦ
προτέρου, πάροδος οὐδεμία λέλειπται. τίς οὖν ἡμῖν δύναμις
ἀπάξει πάλιν ὀπίσω τῶν νεφρῶν τὸ καθαρὸν αἷμα; τίς δὲ
τοῦτο μὲν διαδεξαμένη κελεύσει πρὸς τὸ κάτω μέρος ἰέναι
τῆς κοίλης, ἑτέρῳ δ’ ἄνωθεν ἐπιφερομένῳ προστάξει, πρὶν ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς ἀπελθεῖν, μὴ φέρεσθαι; ταῦτ’ οὖν
ἅπαντα συνιδὼν ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος ἀποριῶν μεστὰ, καὶ μίαν
μόνην δόξαν εὔπορον εὑρὼν ἐν ἅπασι τὴν τῆς ὁλκῆς, οὔτ’
ἀπορεῖσθαι βουλόμενος, οὔτε τὰ πρὸς Ἱπποκράτους ἐθέλων
λέγειν, ἄμεινον ὑπέλαβε σιωπητέον εἶναι περὶ τοῦ τρόπου
τῆς διακρίσεως. ἀλλ’ εἰ κᾀκεῖνος ἐσιώπησεν, ἡμεῖς οὐ σιγήσομεν.
ἴσμεν γὰρ, ὡς οὐκ ἐνδέχεται παρελθόντα τὴν Ἱπποκράτειον
δόξαν, εἶθ’ ἕτερόν τι περὶ τῆς τῶν νεφρῶν
ἐνεργείας εἰπόντα, μὴ οὐ καταγέλαστον εἶναι παντάπασι.
διὰ τοῦτο Ἐρασίστρατος μὲν ἐσιώπησεν, Ἀσκληπιάδης δ’
ἐψεύσατο, παραπλησίως οἰκέταις, λάλοις μὲν τὰ πρόσθεν
τοῦ βίου, καὶ πολλὰ πολλάκις ἐγκλήματα διαλυσαμένοις ὑπὸ
περιττῆς πανουργίας, ἐπ’ αὐτοφώρῳ δέ ποτε κατειλημμένοις,
εἶτ’ οὐδὲν ἐξευρίσκουσι σόφισμα, κᾄπειτ’ ἐνταῦθα τοῦ μὲν
αἰδημονεστέρου σιωπῶντος, οἷον ἀποπληξίᾳ τινὶ κατειλημμένου,
τοῦ δ’ ἀναισχυντοτέρου κρύπτοντος μὲν ἔθ’
ὑπὸ μάλης τὸ ζητούμενον, ἐξομνυμένου δὲ καὶ μηδ’ ἑωρακέναι
πώποτε φάσκοντος. οὕτω γάρ τοι ὁ Ἀσκληπιάδης, ἐπιλειπόντων αὐτῷ τῶν τῆς πανουργίας σοφισμάτων, καὶ
μήτε τῆς πρὸς τὸ λεπτομερὲς φορᾶς ἐχούσης ἔτι χώραν ἐνταυθοῖ
ληρεῖσθαι, μήθ’ ὡς ὑπὸ τῶν νεφρῶν γεννᾶται τουτὶ
τὸ περίττωμα, καθάπερ ὑπὸ τῶν ἐν ἥπατι πόρων ἡ χολὴ,
ἀδύνατον ὂν, εἰπόντα, μὴ οὐ μέγιστον ὄφλειν γέλωτα,
ἐξόμνυταί τε καὶ ψεύδεται φανερῶς, οὐ διῆκον λέγων ἐπὶ
τοὺς νεφροὺς τὸ οὖρον, ἀλλ’ ἀτμοειδῶς εὐθὺς ἐκ τῶν
κατὰ τὴν κοιλίαν μερῶν εἰς τὴν κύστιν ἀθροίζεσθαι. οὗτοι
μὲν οὖν τοῖς ἐπ’ αὐτοφώρῳ κατειλημμένοις οἰκέταις ὁμοίως
ἐκπλαγέντες, ὁ μὲν ἐσιώπησεν, ὁ δ’ ἀναισχύντως
ψεύδεται.

Τῶν δὲ νεωτέρων ὅσοι τοῖς τούτων ὀνόμασιν
ἑαυτοὺς ἐσέμνυναν, Ἐρασιστρατείους τε καὶ Ἀσκληπιαδείους
ἐπονομάσαντες, ὁμοίως τοῖς ὑπὸ τοῦ βελτίστου
Μενάνδρου κατὰ τὰς κωμῳδίας εἰσαγομένοις οἰκέταις,
Δάοις τέ τισι καὶ Γέταις, οὐδὲν ἡγουμένοις, φησὶ, πεπρᾶχθαι
γενναῖον, εἰ μὴ τρὶς ἐξαπατήσειαν τὸν δεσπότην,
οὕτω καὶ αὐτοὶ κατὰ πολλὴν σχολὴν ἀν 97 αίσχυντα σοφίσματα
συνέθεσαν, οἱ μὲν, ἵνα μηδ’ ὅλως ἐξελεγχθῇ ποτε Ἀσκληπιάδης ψευδόμενος, οἱ δ’, ἵνα κακῶς ἐροῦσιν, ἃ καλῶς
ἐσιώπησεν Ἐρασίστρατος. ἀλλὰ τῶν μὲν Ἀσκληπιαδείων
ἅλις. οἱ δ’ Ἐρασιστράτειοι λέγειν ἐπιχειροῦντες, ὅπως οἱ
νεφροὶ διηθοῦσι τὸ οὖρον, ἅπαντα δρῶσί τε καὶ πάσχουσι,
καὶ παντοῖοι γίγνονται, πιθανόν τι ζητοῦντες ἐξευρεῖν αἴτιον,
ὁλκῆς μὴ δεόμενον. οἱ μὲν δὴ πλησίον Ἐρασιστράτου τοῖς
χρόνοις γενόμενοι τὰ μὲν ἄνω τῶν νεφρῶν μόρια καθαρὸν
αἷμα λαμβάνειν φασὶ, τὸ βάρος δ’ ἔχειν τὸ ὑδατῶδες περίττωμα,
βρίθειν τε καὶ ὑποῤῥεῖν κάτω· διηθούμενον δ’
ἐνταῦθα κατὰ τοὺς νεφροὺς αὐτοὺς, χρηστὸν οὕτω γενόμενον,
ἅπασι τοῖς κάτω τῶν νεφρῶν ἐπιπέμπεσθαι τὸ αἷμα.
καὶ μέχρι γέ τινος ηὐδοκίμησεν ἥδε ἡ δόξα, καὶ ἤκμασε, καὶ
ἀληθὴς ἐνομίσθη· 30 χρόνῳ δ’ ὕστερον καὶ αὐτοῖς τοῖς
Ἐρασιστρατείοις ὕποπτος ἐφάνη, καὶ τελευτῶντες ἀπέστησαν
αὐτῆς. αἰτεῖσθαι γὰρ ἐδόκουν δύο ταῦτα, μήτε συγχωρούμενα
πρός τινος, ἀλλ’ οὐδ’ ἀποδειχθῆναι δυνάμενα, πρῶτον
μὲν τὸ βάρος τῆς ὀῤῥώδους ὑγρότητος ἐν τῇ κοίλῃ πρώτῃ φλεβὶ γεννώμενον, ὥσπερ οὐκ ἐξ ἀρχῆς ὑπάρχον,
ὁπότ’ ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας εἰς ἧπαρ ἀνεφέρετο. τί δὴ οὖν οὐκ
εὐθὺς ἐν ἐκείνοις τοῖς χωρίοις ὑπέῤῥει κάτω; πῶς δ’ ἄν
τῳ δόξειεν εὐλόγως εἰρῆσθαι συντελεῖν εἰς τὴν ἀνάδοσιν ἡ
ὑδατώδης ὑγρότης, εἴπερ οὕτως ἐστὶ βαρεῖα; δεύτερον δ’
ἄτοπον, ὅτι κᾂν κάτω συγχωρηθῇ φέρεσθαι πᾶσα, καὶ μηκέτ’
εἶναι κατ’ ἄλλο χωρίον, ἢ τὴν κοίλην φλέβα, τίνα
τρόπον εἰς τοὺς νεφροὺς ἐμπεσεῖται, χαλεπὸν, μᾶλλον δ’
ἀδύνατον εἰπεῖν, μήτ’ ἐν τοῖς κάτω μέρεσι κειμένων αὐτῶν
τῆς φλεβὸς, ἀλλ’ ἐκ τῶν πλαγίων, μήτ’ ἐμφυομένης αὐτοῖς
τῆς κοίλης, ἀλλ’ ἀπόφυσίν τινα μόνην εἰς ἑκάτερα πεμπούσης,
ὥσπερ καὶ εἰς τἄλλα πάντα μόρια. τίς οὖν ἡ διαδεξαμένη
ταύτην δόξα τὴν καταγνωσθεῖσαν; ἐμοὶ μὲν
ἠλιθιωτέρα μακρῷ φαίνεται τῆς προτέρας. ἤκμασε δ’ οὖν
καὶ αὕτη ποτέ. φασὶ γὰρ, εἰ κατὰ τῆς γῆς ἐκχυθῇ μεμιγμένον
ἔλαιον ὕδατι, διάφορον ἑκάτερον ὁδὸν βαδιεῖσθαι
καὶ ῥυήσεσθαι, τὸ μὲν τῇδε, τὸ δὲ τῇδε. θαυμαστὸν οὖν
οὐδὲν εἶναί φασιν, εἰ τὸ μὲν ὑδατῶδες ὑγρὸν εἰς τοὺς νεφροὺς ῥεῖ, τὸ δ’ αἱματῶδες διὰ τῆς κοίλης φέρεται κάτω.
κατέγνωσται οὖν ἤδη καὶ ἥδε ἡ δόξα. διὰ τί γὰρ, ἀπὸ τῆς
κοίλης μυρίων ἐκπεφυκυιῶν φλεβῶν, αἷμα μὲν εἰς τὰς ἄλλας
ἁπάσας, ἡ δ’ ὀῤῥώδης ὑγρότης εἰς τὰς ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς
φερομένας ἐκτρέπεται; τοῦτ’ αὐτὸ τὸ ζητούμενον οὐκ
εἰρήκασιν, ἀλλὰ τὸ γινόμενον εἰπόντες μόνον οἴονται τὴν
αἰτίαν ἀποδεδωκέναι. πάλιν οὖν, τὸ τρίτον τῷ σωτῆρι, τὴν
χειρίστην ἁπασῶν δόξαν, ἐξευρημένην δὲ νῦν ὑπὸ Λύκου
τοῦ Μακεδόνος, εὐδοκιμοῦσάν τε διὰ τὸ καινὸν, ἤδη λέγωμεν.
ἀπεφῄνατο γὰρ δὴ ὁ Λύκος οὗτος, ὥσπερ ἐξ ἀδύτου
τινὸς χρησμὸν ἀποφθεγγόμενος, περίττωμα τῆς τῶν
νεφρῶν θρέψεως εἶναι τὸ οὖρον. ὅτι μὲν οὖν αὐτὸ τὸ πινόμενον
ἅπαν οὖρον γίνεται, πλὴν εἴ τι κατὰ τῶν διαχωρημάτων
ὑπῆλθεν, ἢ εἰς ἱδρῶτας ἀπεχώρησεν, ἢ κατὰ τὴν
ἄδηλον διαπνοὴν, ἐναργῶς ἐνδείκνυται τὸ πλῆθος τῶν
καθ’ ἑκάστην ἡμέραν οὐρουμένων. ἐν χειμῶνι δὲ μάλιστα
μαθεῖν ἐστιν ἐπὶ τῶν ἀργούντων μὲν, κωθωνιζομένων δὲ,
καὶ μάλιστ’ εἰ λεπτὸς ὁ οἶνος εἴη καὶ πόριμος· οὐροῦσι γὰρ οὗτοι διὰ ταχέων, ὀλίγου δεῖν, ὅσον περ καὶ πίνουσιν.
ὅτι δὲ καὶ ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος οὕτως ἐγίνωσκεν, οἱ τὸ πρῶτον
αὐτοῦ ἀνεγνωκότες σύγγραμμα τῶν καθόλου λόγων ἐπίστανται.
ὥσθ’ ὁ Λύκος οὔτ’ ἀληθῆ λέγων φαίνεται, οὔτ’
Ἐρασιστράτεια, δῆλον δὲ, ὡς οὔτ’ Ἀσκληπιάδεια, πολὺ δὲ
μᾶλλον οὔθ’ Ἱπποκράτεια. λευκῷ τοίνυν, κατὰ τὴν παροιμίαν,
ἔοικε κόρακι, μήτ’ αὐτοῖς τοῖς κόραξιν ἀναμιχθῆναι
δυναμένῳ διὰ τὴν χρόαν, μήτε ταῖς περιστεραῖς διὰ τὸ
μέγεθος. ἀλλ’ οὔτι που τούτου γ’ ἕνεκα παροπτέος. ἴσως
γάρ τι λέγει θαυμαστὸν, ὃ μηδεὶς τῶν ἔμπροσθεν ἔγνω.
τὸ μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα τὰ τρεφόμενα μόρια ποιεῖν τι περίττωμα
συγχωροῦμεν, τὸ δὲ τοὺς νεφροὺς μόνους, οὕτω σμικρὰ
σώματα, χόας ὅλους τέτταρας ἢ καὶ πλείους ἴσχειν
ἐνίοτε περιττώματος, οὔθ’ ὁμολογούμενον, οὔτε λόγον ἔχον.
τὸ γὰρ ἑκάστου τῶν μειζόνων σπλάγχνων περίττωμα πλεῖον
ἀναγκαῖον ὑπάρχειν. 31 οἷον αὐτίκα τὸ τοῦ πνεύμονος,
εἴπερ ἀνάλογον τῷ μεγέθει τοῦ σπλάγχνου γίνοιτο, πολλαπλάσιον ἔσται δήπου τοῦ κατὰ τοὺς νεφροὺς, ὥσθ’ ὅλος μὲν ὁ
θώραξ ἐμπλησθήσεται, πνιγήσεται δ’ αὐτίκα τὸ ζῶον.
ἀλλ’ εἰ ἴσως φήσει τις γίγνεσθαι καθ’ ἕκαστον τῶν ἄλλων
μορίων περίττωμα, διὰ ποίων κύστεων ἐκκρίνεται; εἰ γὰρ
οἱ νεφροὶ τοῖς κωθωνιζομένοις τρεῖς ἢ τέτταρας ἐνίοτε χόας
ποιοῦσι περιττώματος, ἑκάστου τῶν ἄλλων σπλάγχνων
πολλῷ πλείους ἔσονται, καὶ πίθου τινὸς οὕτω μεγίστου
δεήσει τοῦ δεξομένου τὰ πάντων περιττώματα. καίτοι πολλάκις,
ὅσον ἔπιέ τις, ὀλίγου δεῖν, ἅπαν οὔρησεν, ὡς ἂν ἐπὶ
τοὺς νεφροὺς φερομένου τοῦ πόματος ἅπαντος. ἔοικεν οὖν ὁ
τὸ τρίτον ἐξαπατῶν οὕτως οὐδὲν ἀνύειν, ἀλλ’ εὐθὺς γεγονέναι
κατάφωρος, καὶ μένειν ἔτι τὸ ἐξαρχῆς ἄπορον Ἐρασιστράτῳ
τε καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἅπασι, πλὴν Ἱπποκράτους.
διατρίβω δ’ ἑκὼν ἐν τῷ τόπῳ, σαφῶς εἰδὼς, ὅτι μηδὲν
εἰπεῖν ἔχει μηδεὶς ἄλλος περὶ τῆς τῶν νεφρῶν ἐνεργείας,
ἀλλ’ ἀναγκαῖον, ἢ τῶν μαγείρων ἀμαθεστέρους φαίνεσθαι,
μηδ’ ὅτι διηθεῖται δι’ αὐτῶν τὸ οὖρον ὁμολογοῦντας, ἢ τοῦτο συγχωρήσαντας μηδὲν ἔτ’ ἔχειν εἰπεῖν ἕτερον αἴτιον
τῆς διακρίσεως πλὴν τῆς ὁλκῆς. ἀλλ’ εἰ μὴ τῶν οὔρων ἡ
φορὰ τῇ πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον ἀκολουθίᾳ γίγνεται, δῆλον
ὡς οὐδ’ ἡ τοῦ αἵματος, οὐδ’ ἡ τῆς χολῆς, ἢ, εἴπερ ἐκείνων,
καὶ τούτου. πάντως γὰρ ὡσαύτως ἀναγκαῖον ἐπιτελεῖσθαι,
καὶ κατ’ αὐτὸν τὸν Ἐρασίστρατον. εἰρήσεται δὲ
ἐπὶ πλέον ὑπὲρ αὐτῶν ἐν τῷ μετὰ ταῦτα γράμματι.

Περί φυσικῶν δυνάμεων Perseus (Galen. On the Natural Faculties. Brock, Arthur John, editor. London: William Heinemann Ltd.; Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1916.) — 1 focus

Α

k.v.2.p.1

ἐπειδὴ τὸ μὲν αἰσθάνεσθαί τε καὶ κινεῖσθαι κατὰ προαίρεσιν ἴδια τῶν ζῴων ἐστί, τὸ δʼ αὐξάνεσθαί τε καὶ τρέφεσθαι κοινὰ καὶ τοῖς φυτοῖς, εἴη ἂν τὰ μὲν πρότερα τῆς ψυχῆς, τὰ δὲ δεύτερα τῆς φύσεως ἔργα. εἰ δέ τις καὶ τοῖς φυτοῖς ψυχῆς μεταδίδωσι καὶ διαιρούμενος αὐτὰς ὀνομάζει φυτικὴν μὲν ταύτην, αἰσθητικὴν δὲ τὴν ἑτέραν, λέγει μὲν οὐδʼ οὗτος ἄλλα, τῇ λέξει δʼ οὐ πάνυ τῇ συνήθει κέχρηται. ἀλλʼ ἡμεῖς γε μεγίστην λέξεως ἀρετὴν σαφήνειαν εἶναι k.v.2.p.2 πεπεισμένοι καὶ ταύτην εἰδότες ὑπʼ οὐδενὸς οὕτως ὡς ὑπὸ τῶν ἀσυνήθων ὀνομάτων διαφθειρομένην, ὡς τοῖς πολλοῖς ἔθος, οὕτως ὀνομάζοντες ὑπὸ μὲν ψυχῆς θʼ ἅμα καὶ φύσεως τὰ ζῷα διοικεῖσθαί φαμεν, ὑπὸ δὲ φύσεως μόνης τὰ φυτὰ καὶ τό γʼ αὐξάνεσθαί τε καὶ τρέφεσθαι φύσεως ἔργα φαμέν, οὐ ψυχῆς.

[2] καὶ ζητήσομεν κατὰ τόνδε τὸν λόγον, ὑπὸ τίνων γίγνεται δυνάμεων αὐτὰ δὴ ταῦτα καὶ εἰ δή τι ἄλλο φύσεως ἔργον ἐστίν.

ἀλλὰ πρότερόν γε διελέσθαι τε χρὴ καὶ μηνῦσαι σαφῶς ἕκαστον τῶν ὀνομάτων, οἷς χρησόμεθα κατὰ τόνδε τὸν λόγον, καὶ ἐφʼ ὅ τι φέρομεν πρᾶγμα. γενήσεται δὲ τοῦτʼ εὐθὺς ἔργων φυσικῶν διδασκαλία σὺν ταῖς τῶν ὀνομάτων ἐξηγήσεσιν.

ὅταν οὖν τι σῶμα κατὰ μηδὲν ἐξαλλάττηται τῶν προϋπαρχόντων, ἡσυχάζειν αὐτό φαμεν· εἰ δʼ ἐξίσταιτό πῃ, κατʼ ἐκεῖνο κινεῖσθαι. καὶ τοίνυν ἐπεὶ πολυειδῶς ἐξίσταται, πολυειδῶς καὶ κινηθήσεται. καὶ γὰρ εἰ λευκὸν ὑπάρχον μελαίνοιτο καὶ εἰ μέλαν λευκαίνοιτο, κινεῖται κατὰ χρόαν, k.v.2.p.3 καὶ εἰ γλυκὺ τέως ὑπάρχον αὖθις αὐστηρὸν ἢ ἔμπαλιν ἐξ αὐστηροῦ γλυκὺ γένοιτο, καὶ τοῦτʼ ἂν κινεῖσθαι λέγοιτο κατὰ τὸν χυμόν. ἄμφω δε ταῦτά τε καὶ τὰ προειρημένα κατὰ τὴν ποιότητα κινεῖσθαι λεχθήσεται καὶ οὐ μόνον γε τὰ κατὰ τὴν χρόαν ἢ τὸν χυμὸν ἐξαλλαττόμενα κινεῖσθαί φαμεν, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ θερμότερον ἐκ ψυχροτέρου γενόμενον ἢ ψυχρότερον ἐκ θερμοτέρου κινεῖσθαι καὶ τοῦτο λέγομεν, ὥσπερ γε καὶ εἴ τι ξηρὸν ἐξ ὑγροῦ ἢ ὑγρὸν ἐκ ξηροῦ γίγνοιτο. κοινὸν δὲ κατὰ τούτων ἁπάντων ὄνομα φέρομεν τὴν ἀλλοίωσιν.

ἕν τι τοῦτο γένος κινήσεως. ἕτερον δὲ γένος ἐπὶ τοῖς τὰς χώρας ἀμείβουσι σώμασι καὶ τόπον ἐκ τόπου μεταλλάττειν λεγομένοις, ὄνομα δὲ καὶ τούτῳ φορά.

αὗται μὲν οὖν αἱ δύο κινήσεις ἁπλαῖ καὶ πρῶται, σύνθετοι δʼ ἐξ αὐτῶν αὔξησίς τε καὶ φθίσις, ὅταν ἐξ ἐλάττονός τι μεῖζον ἢ ἐκ μείζονος ἔλαττον γένηται φυλάττον τὸ οἰκεῖον εἶδος. ἕτεραι δὲ δύο κινήσεις γένεσις καὶ φθορά, γένεσις μὲν ἡ εἰς οὐσίαν ἀγωγή, φθορὰ δʼ ἡ ἐναντία.

πάσαις δὲ ταῖς κινήσεσι κοινὸν ἐξάλλαξις k.v.2.p.4 τοῦ προϋπάρχοντος, ὥσπερ οὖν καὶ ταῖς ἡσυχίαις ἡ φυλακὴ τῶν προϋπαρχόντων. ἀλλʼ ὅτι μὲν ἐξαλλάττεται καὶ πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν καὶ πρὸς τὴν γεῦσιν καὶ πρὸς τὴν ἁφὴν αἷμα γιγνόμενα τὰ σιτία, συγχωροῦσιν· ὅτι δὲ καὶ κατʼ ἀλήθειαν, οὐκέτι τοῦθʼ ὁμολογοῦσιν οἱ σοφισταί. οἱ μὲν γάρ τινες αὐτῶν ἅπαντα τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν ἡμετέρων αἰσθήσεων ἀπάτας τινὰς καὶ παραγωγὰς νομίζουσιν ἄλλοτʼ ἄλλως πασχουσῶν, τῆς ὑποκειμένης οὐσίας μηδὲν τούτων, οἷς ἐπονομάζεται, δεχομένης· οἱ δέ τινες εἶναι μὲν ἐν αὐτῇ βούλονται τὰς ποιότητας, ἀμεταβλήτους δὲ καὶ ἀτρέπτους ἐξ αἰῶνος εἰς αἰῶνα καὶ τὰς φαινομένας ταύτας ἀλλοιώσεις τῇ διακρίσει τε καὶ συγκρίσει γίγνεσθαί φασιν ὡς Ἀναξαγόρας.

εἰ δὴ τούτους ἐκτραπόμενος ἐξελέγχοιμι, μεῖζον ἄν μοι τὸ πάρεργον τοῦ ἔργου γένοιτο. εἰ μὲν γὰρ οὐκ ἴσασιν, ὅσα περὶ τῆς καθʼ ὅλην τὴν οὐσίαν ἀλλοιώσεως Ἀριστοτέλει τε καὶ μετʼ αὐτὸν Χρυσίππῳ γέγραπται, παρακαλέσαι χρὴ τοῖς ἐκείνων αὐτοὺς ὁμιλῆσαι γράμμασιν· εἰ δὲ γιγνώσκοντες ἔπειθʼ ἑκόντες τὰ χείρω πρὸ τῶν k.v.2.p.5 βελτιόνων αἱροῦνται, μάταια δήπου καὶ τὰ ἡμέτερα νομιοῦσιν. ὅτι δὲ καὶ Ἱπποκράτης οὕτως ἐγίγνωσκεν Ἀριστοτέλους ἔτι πρότερος ὤν, ἐν ἑτέροις ἡμῖν ἀποδέδεικται. πρῶτος γὰρ οὗτος ἁπάντων ὧν ἴσμεν ἰατρῶν τε καὶ φιλοσόφων ἀποδεικνύειν ἐπεχείρησε τέτταρας εἶναι τὰς πάσας δραστικὰς εἰς ἀλλήλας ποιότητας, ὑφʼ ὧν γίγνεταί τε καὶ φθείρεται πάνθʼ, ὅσα γένεσίν τε καὶ φθορὰν ἐπιδέχεται. καὶ μέντοι καὶ τὸ κεράννυσθαι διʼ ἀλλήλων αὐτὰς ὅλας διʼ ὅλων Ἱπποκράτης ἁπάντων πρῶτος ἔγνω· καὶ τὰς ἀρχάς γε τῶν ἀποδείξεων, ὧν ὕστερον Ἀριστοτέλης μετεχειρίσατο, παρʼ ἐκείνῳ πρώτῳ γεγραμμένας ἔστιν εὑρεῖν.

εἰ δʼ ὥσπερ τὰς ποιότητας οὕτω καὶ τὰς οὐσίας διʼ ὅλων κεράννυσθαι χρὴ νομίζειν, ὡς ὕστερον ἀπεφήνατο Ζήνων ὁ Κιττιεύς, οὐχ ἡγοῦμαι δεῖν ἔτι περὶ τούτου κατὰ τόνδε τὸν λόγον ἐπεξιέναι. μόνην γὰρ εἰς τὰ παρόντα δέομαι γιγνώσκεσθαι τὴν διʼ ὅλης τῆς οὐσίας ἀλλοίωσιν, ἵνα μή τις ὀστοῦ καὶ σαρκὸς καὶ νεύρου καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἑκάστου μορίων οἱονεὶ μισγάγκειάν τινα τῷ ἄρτῳ k.v.2.p.6 νομίσῃ περιέχεσθαι κἄπειτʼ ἐν τῷ σώματι διακρινόμενον ὡς τὸ ὁμόφυλον ἕκαστον ἰέναι. καίτοι πρό γε τῆς διακρίσεως αἷμα φαίνεται γιγνόμενος ὁ πᾶς ἄρτος. εἰ γοῦν παμπόλλῳ τις χρόνῳ μηδὲν ἄλλʼ εἴη σιτίον προσφερόμενος, οὐδὲν ἧττον ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶν αἷμα περιεχόμενον ἕξει. καὶ φανερῶς τοῦτο τὴν τῶν ἀμετάβλητα τὰ στοιχεῖα τιθεμένων ἐξελέγχει δόξαν, ὥσπερ οἶμαι καὶ τοὔλαιον εἰς τὴν τοῦ λύχνου φλόγα καταναλισκόμενον ἅπαν καὶ τὰ ξύλα πῦρ μικρὸν ὕστερον γιγνόμενα.

καίτοι τό γʼ ἀντιλέγειν αὐτοῖς ἠρνησάμην, ἀλλʼ ἐπεὶ τῆς ἰατρικῆς ὕλης ἦν τὸ παράδειγμα καὶ χρῄζω πρὸς τὸν παρόντα λόγον αὐτοῦ, διὰ τοῦτʼ ἐμνημόνευσα. καταλιπόντες οὖν, ὡς ἔφην, τὴν πρὸς τούτους ἀντιλογίαν, ἐνὸν τοῖς βουλομένοις τὰ τῶν παλαιῶν ἐκμανθάνειν κἀξ ὧν ἡμεῖς ἰδίᾳ περὶ αὐτῶν ἐπεσκέμμεθα.

τὸν ἐφεξῆς λόγον ἅπαντα ποιησόμεθα ζητοῦντες ὑπὲρ ὧν ἐξ ἀρχῆς προὐθέμεθα, πόσαι τε καὶ τίνες εἰσὶν αἱ τῆς φύσεως δυνάμεις καὶ τί ποιεῖν ἔργον ἑκάστη πέφυκεν. ἔργον δὲ δηλονότι καλῶ τὸ k.v.2.p.7 γεγονὸς ἤδη καὶ συμπεπληρωμένον ὑπὸ τῆς ἐνεργείας αὐτῶν, οἷον τὸ αἷμα, τὴν σάρκα, τὸ νεῦρον· ἐνέργειαν δὲ τὴν δραστικὴν ὀνομάζω κίνησιν καὶ τὴν ταύτης αἰτίαν δύναμιν. ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἐν τῷ τὸ σιτίον αἷμα γίγνεσθαι παθητικὴ μὲν ἡ τοῦ σιτίου, δραστικὴ δʼ ἡ τῆς φλεβὸς γίγνεται κίνησις, ὡσαύτως δὲ κἀν τῷ μεταφέρειν τὰ κῶλα κινεῖ μὲν ὁ μῦς, κινεῖται δὲ τὰ ὀστᾶ, τὴν μὲν τῆς φλεβὸς καὶ τῶν μυῶν κίνησιν ἐνέργειαν εἶναί φημι, τὴν δὲ τῶν σιτίων τε καὶ τῶν ὀστῶν σύμπτωμά τε καὶ πάθημα· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀλλοιοῦται, τὰ δὲ φέρεται. τὴν μὲν οὖν ἐνέργειαν ἐγχωρεῖ καλεῖν καὶ ἔργον τῆς φύσεως, οἷον τὴν πέψιν, τὴν ἀνάδοσιν, τὴν αἱμάτωσιν, οὐ μὴν τό γʼ ἔργον ἐξ ἅπαντος ἐνέργειαν· ἡ γάρ τοι σὰρξ ἔργον μέν ἐστι τῆς φύσεως, οὐ μὴν ἐνέργειά γε. δῆλον οὖν, ὡς θάτερον μὲν τῶν ὀνομάτων διχῶς λέγεται, θάτερον δʼ οὔ.

[3] ἐμοὶ μὲν οὖν καὶ ἡ φλὲψ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἁπάντων ἕκαστον διὰ τὴν ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων ποιὰν κρᾶσιν ὡδί πως ἐνεργεῖν δοκεῖ. εἰσὶ δέ γε μὴν οὐκ k.v.2.p.8 ὀλίγοι τινὲς ἄνδρες οὐδʼ ἄδοξοι, φιλόσοφοί τε καὶ ἰατροί, τῷ μὲν θερμῷ καὶ τῷ ψυχρῷ τὸ δρᾶν ἀναφέροντες, ὑποβάλλοντες δʼ αὐτοῖς παθητικὰ τὸ ξηρόν τε καὶ τὸ ὑγρόν. καὶ πρῶτός γʼ Ἀριστοτέλης τὰς τῶν κατὰ μέρος ἁπάντων αἰτίας εἰς ταύτας ἀνάγειν πειρᾶται τὰς ἀρχάς, ἠκολούθησε δʼ ὕστερον αὐτῷ καὶ ὁ ἀπὸ τῆς στοᾶς χορός. καίτοι τούτοις μέν, ὡς ἂν καὶ αὐτῶν τῶν στοιχείων τὴν εἰς ἄλληλα μεταβολὴν χύσεσί τέ τισι καὶ πιλήσεσιν ἀναφέρουσιν, εὔλογον ἦν ἀρχὰς δραστικὰς ποιήσασθαι τὸ θερμὸν καὶ τὸ ψυχρόν, Ἀριστοτέλει δʼ οὐχ οὕτως, ἀλλὰ ταῖς τέτταρσι ποιότησιν εἰς τὴν τῶν στοιχείων γένεσιν χρωμένῳ βέλτιον ἦν καὶ τὰς τῶν κατὰ μέρος αἰτίας ἁπάσας εἰς ταύτας ἀνάγειν. τί δήποτʼ οὖν ἐν μὲν τοῖς περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς ταῖς τέτταρσι χρῆται, ἐν δὲ τοῖς μετεωρολογικοῖς καὶ τοῖς προβλήμασι καὶ ἄλλοθι πολλαχόθι ταῖς δύο μόναις; εἰ μὲν γὰρ ὡς ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις τε καὶ τοῖς φυτοῖς μᾶλλον μὲν δρᾷ τὸ θερμὸν καὶ τὸ ψυχρόν, ἧττον δὲ τὸ ζηρὸν καὶ τὸ ὑγρὸν ἀποφαίνοιτο τις, ἴσως ἂν ἔχοι καὶ τὸν Ἱπποκράτην σύμψηφον· εἰ δʼ ὡσαύτως ἐν k.v.2.p.9 ἅπασιν, οὐκέτʼ οἶμαι συγχωρήσειν τοῦτο μὴ ὅτι τὸν Ἱπποκράτην ἀλλὰ μηδʼ αὐτὸν τὸν Ἀριστοτέλην μεμνῆσθαί γε βουλόμενον ὧν ἐν τοῖς περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς οὐχ ἁπλῶς ἀλλὰ μετʼ ἀποδείξεως αὐτὸς ἡμᾶς ἐδίδαξεν. ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων κἀν τοῖς περὶ κράσεων, εἰς ὅσον ἰατρῷ χρήσιμον, ἐπεσκεψάμεθα.

[4] ἡ δʼ οὖν δύναμις ἡ ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶν ἡ αἱματοποιητικὴ προσαγορευομένη καὶ πᾶσα δʼ ἄλλη δύναμις ἐν τῷ πρός τι νενόηται· πρώτως μὲν γὰρ τῆς ἐνεργείας αἰτία, ἤδη δὲ καὶ τοῦ ἔργου κατὰ συμβεβηκός. ἀλλʼ εἴπερ ἡ αἰτία πρός τι, τοῦ γὰρ ὑπʼ αὐτῆς γενομένου μόνου, τῶν δʼ ἄλλων οὐδενός, εὔδηλον, ὅτι καὶ ἡ δύναμις ἐν τῷ πρός τι. καὶ μέχρι γʼ ἂν ἀγνοῶμεν τὴν οὐσίαν τῆς ἐνεργούσης αἰτίας, δύναμιν αὐτὴν ὀνομάζομεν, εἶναί τινα λέγοντες ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶν αἱματοποιητικήν, ὡσαύτως δὲ κἀν τῇ κοιλίᾳ πεπτικὴν κἀν τῇ καρδίᾳ σφυγμικὴν καὶ καθʼ ἕκαστον τῶν ἄλλων k.v.2.p.10 ἰδίαν τινὰ τῆς κατὰ τὸ μόριον ἐνεργείας. εἴπερ οὖν μεθόδῳ μέλλοιμεν ἐξευρήσειν, ὁπόσαι τε καὶ ὁποῖαί τινες αἱ δυνάμεις εἰσίν, ἀπὸ τῶν ἔργων αὐτῶν ἀρκτέον· ἕκαστον γὰρ αὐτῶν ὑπό τινος ἐνεργείας γίγνεται καὶ τούτων ἑκάστης προηγεῖταί τις αἰτία.

[5] ἔργα τοίνυν τῆς φύσεως ἔτι μὲν κυουμένου τε καὶ διαπλαττομένου τοῦ ζῴου τὰ σύμπαντʼ ἐστὶ τοῦ σώματος μόρια, γεννηθέντος δὲ κοινὸν ἐφʼ ἅπασιν ἔργον ἡ εἰς τὸ τέλειον ἑκάστῳ μέγεθος ἀγωγὴ καὶ μετὰ ταῦθʼ ἡ μέχρι τοῦ δυνατοῦ διαμονή.

ἐνέργειαι δʼ ἐπὶ τρισὶ τοῖς εἰρημένοις ἔργοις τρεῖς ἐξ ἀνάγκης, ἐφʼ ἑκάστῳ μία, γένεσίς τε καὶ αὔξησις καὶ θρέψις. ἀλλʼ ἡ μὲν γένεσις οὐχ ἁπλῆ τις ἐνέργεια τῆς φύσεως, ἀλλʼ ἐξ ἀλλοιώσεώς τε καὶ διαπλάσεώς ἐστι σύνθετος. ἵνα μὲν γὰρ ὀστοῦν γένηται καὶ νεῦρον καὶ φλὲψ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἕκαστον, ἀλλοιοῦσθαι χρὴ τὴν ὑποβεβλημένην οὐσίαν, ἐξ ἧς γίγνεται τὸ ζῷον· ἵνα δὲ καὶ σχῆμα τὸ δέον καὶ θέσιν καὶ κοιλότητάς τινας k.v.2.p.11 καὶ ἀποφύσεις καὶ συμφύσεις καὶ τἆλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα κτήσηται, διαπλάττεσθαι χρὴ τὴν ἀλλοιουμένην οὐσίαν, ἣν δὴ καὶ ὕλην τοῦ ζῴου καλῶν, ὡς τῆς νεὼς τὰ ξύλα καὶ τῆς εἰκόνος τὸν κηρόν, οὐκ ἂν ἁμάρτοις.

ἡ δʼ αὔξησις ἐπίδοσίς ἐστι καὶ διάστασις κατὰ μῆκος καὶ πλάτος καὶ βάθος τῶν στερεῶν τοῦ ζῴου μορίων, ὧνπερ καὶ ἡ διάπλασις ἦν, ἡ δὲ θρέψις πρόσθεσις τοῖς αὐτοῖς ἄνευ διαστάσεως.

[6] περὶ πρώτης οὖν τῆς γενέσεως εἴπωμεν, ἣν ἐξ ἀλλοιώσεώς θʼ ἅμα καὶ διαπλάσεως ἐλέγομεν γίγνεσθαι.

Καταβληθέντος δὴ τοῦ σπέρματος εἰς τὴν μήτραν εἰς τὴν γῆν, οὐδὲν γὰρ διαφέρει, χρόνοις τιοὶν ὡρισμένοις πάμπολλα συνίσταται μόρια τῆς γεννωμένης οὐσίας ὑγρότητι καὶ ξηρότητι καὶ ψυχρότητι καὶ θερμότητι καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἅπασιν, ὅσα τούτοις ἕπεται, διαφέροντα. τὰ δʼ ἑπόμενα γιγνώσκεις, εἴπερ ὅλως ἐφιλοσόφησάς τι περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς· αἱ λοιπαὶ γὰρ τῶν ἁπτῶν ὀνομαζομένων διαφορῶν ταῖς εἰρημέναις ἕπονται k.v.2.p.12 πρῶται καὶ μάλιστα, μετὰ δὲ ταύτας αἱ γευσταί τε καὶ ὀσφρηταὶ καὶ ὁραταί. σκληρότης μὲν οὖν καὶ μαλακότης καὶ γλισχρότης καὶ κραυρότης καὶ κουφότης καὶ βαρύτης καὶ πυκνότης καὶ ἀραιότης καὶ λειότης καὶ τραχύτης καὶ παχύτης καὶ λεπτότης ἁπταὶ διαφοραὶ καὶ εἴρηται περὶ πασῶν Ἀριστοτέλει καλῶς. οἶσθα δὲ δήπου καὶ τὰς γευστάς τε καὶ ὀσφρητὰς καὶ ὁρατὰς διαφοράς. ὥστʼ, εἰ μὲν τὰς πρώτας τε καὶ στοιχειώδεις ἀλλοιωτικὰς δυνάμεις ζητοίης, ὑγρότης ἐστὶ καὶ ξηρότης καὶ ψυχρότης καὶ θερμότης· εἰ δὲ τὰς ἐκ τῆς τούτων κράσεως γενομένας, τοσαῦται καθʼ ἕκαστον ἔσονται ζῷον, ὅσαπερ ἂν αὐτοῦ τὰ αἰσθητὰ στοιχεῖα ὑπάρχῃ· καλεῖται δʼ αἰσθητὰ στοιχεῖα τὰ ὁμοιομερῆ πάντα τοῦ σώματος μόρια· καὶ ταῦτʼ οὐκ ἐκ μεθόδου τινὸς ἀλλʼ αὐτόπτην γενόμενον ἐκμαθεῖν χρὴ διὰ τῶν ἀνατομῶν.

ὀστοῦν δὴ καὶ χόνδρον καὶ νεῦρον καὶ ὑμένα καὶ σύνδεσμον καὶ φλέβα καὶ πάνθʼ ὅσα τοιαῦτα κατὰ τὴν πρώτην τοῦ ζῴου γένεσιν ἡ φύσις ἀπεργάζεται δυνάμει χρωμένη καθόλου μὲν k.v.2.p.13 εἰπεῖν τῇ γεννητικῇ τε καὶ ἀλλοιωτικῇ, κατὰ μέρος δὲ θερμαντικῇ τε καὶ ψυκτικῇ καὶ ξηραντικῇ καὶ ὑγραντικῇ καὶ ταῖς ἐκ τῆς τούτων κράσεως γενομέναις, οἷον ὀστοποιητικῇ τε καὶ νευροποιητικῇ καὶ χονδροποιητικῇ· σαφηνείας γὰρ ἕνεκα καὶ τούτοις τοῖς ὀνόμασι χρηστέον.

ἔστι γοῦν καὶ ἡ ἰδία σὰρξ τοῦ ἥπατος ἐκ τούτου τοῦ γένους καὶ ἡ τοῦ σπληνὸς καὶ ἡ τῶν νεφρῶν καὶ ἡ τοῦ πνεύμονος καὶ ἡ τῆς καρδίας οὕτω δὲ καὶ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου τὸ ἴδιον σῶμα καὶ τῆς γαστρὸς καὶ τοῦ στομάχου καὶ τῶν ἐντέρων καὶ τῶν ὑστερῶν αἰσθητὸν στοιχεῖόν ἐστιν ὁμοιομερές τε καὶ ἁπλοῦν καὶ ἀσύνθετον· ἐὰν γὰρ ἐξέλῃς ἑκάστου τῶν εἰρημένων τὰς ἀρτηρίας τε καὶ τὰς φλέβας καὶ τὰ νεῦρα, τὸ ὑπόλοιπον σῶμα τὸ καθʼ ἕκαστον ὄργανον ἁπλοῦν ἐστι καὶ στοιχειῶδες ὡς πρὸς αἴσθησιν. ὅσα δὲ τῶν τοιούτων ὀργάνων ἐκ δυοῖν σύγκειται χιτώνων οὐχ ὁμοίων μὲν ἀλλήλοις, ἁπλοῦ δʼ ἑκατέρου, τούτων οἱ χιτῶνές εἰσι τὰ στοιχεῖα καθάπερ τῆς τε γαστρὸς καὶ τοῦ στομάχου καὶ τῶν ἐντέρων καὶ τῶν ἀρτηριῶν, καὶ καθʼ ἑκάτερόν γε τῶν χιτώνων ἴδιος ἡ ἀλλοιωτικὴ δύναμις ἡ ἐκ τοῦ k.v.2.p.14 παρὰ τῆς μητρὸς ἐπιμηνίου γεννήσασα τὸ μόριον, ὥστε τὰς κατὰ μέρος ἀλλοιωτικὰς δυνάμεις τοσαύτας εἶναι καθʼ ἕκαστον ζῷον, ὅσαπερ ἂν ἔχῃ τὰ στοιχειώδη μόρια. καὶ μέν γε καὶ τὰς ἐνεργείας ἰδίας ἑκάστῳ τῶν κατὰ μέρος ἀναγκαῖον ὑπάρχειν ὥσπερ καὶ τὰς χρείας, οἷον καὶ τῶν ἀπὸ τῶν νεφρῶν εἰς τὴν κύστιν διηκόντων πόρων, οἳ δὴ καὶ οὐρητῆρες καλοῦνται. οὗτοι γὰρ οὔτʼ ἀρτηρίαι εἰσίν, ὅτι μήτε σφύζουσι μήτʼ ἐκ δυοῖν χιτώνων συνεστήκασιν, οὔτε φλέβες, ὅτι μήθʼ αἷμα περιέχουσι μήτʼ ἔοικεν αὐτῶν ὁ χιτὼν κατά τι τῷ τῆς φλεβός· ἀλλὰ καὶ νεύρων ἐπὶ πλέον ἀφεστήκασιν ἢ τῶν εἰρημένων.

τί ποτʼ οὖν εἰσιν; ἐρωτᾷ τις, ὥσπερ ἀναγκαῖον ὂν ἅπαν μόριον ἢ ἀρτηρίαν ἢ φλέβα ἢ νεῦρον ὑπάρχειν ἢ ἐκ τούτων πεπλέχθαι καὶ μὴ τοῦτʼ αὐτὸ τὸ νῦν λεγόμενον, ὡς ἴδιος ἑκάστῳ τῶν κατὰ μέρος ὀργάνων ἐστὶν ἡ οὐσία. καὶ γὰρ καὶ αἱ κύστεις ἑκάτεραι ἥ τε τὸ οὖρον ὑποδεχομένη καὶ ἡ τὴν ξανθὴν χολὴν οὐ μόνον τῶν ἄλλων ἁπάντων ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀλλήλων διαφέρουσι καὶ οἱ εἰς τὸ ἧπαρ k.v.2.p.15 ἀποφυόμενοι πόροι, καθάπερ στόμαχοί τινες ἀπὸ τῆς χοληδόχου κύστεως, οὐδὲν οὔτʼ ἀρτηρίαις οὔτε φλεψὶν οὔτε νεύροις ἐοίκασιν. ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων ἐπὶ πλέον ἐν ἄλλοις τέ τισι κἀν τοῖς περὶ τῆς Ἱπποκράτους ἀνατομῆς εἴρηται.

αἱ δὲ κατὰ μέρος ἅπασαι δυνάμεις τῆς φύσεως αἱ ἀλλοιωτικαὶ αὐτὴν μὲν τὴν οὐσίαν τῶν χιτώνων τῆς κοιλίας καὶ τῶν ἐντέρων καὶ τῶν ὑστερῶν ἀπετέλεσαν, οἵαπέρ ἐστι· τὴν δὲ σύνθεσιν αὐτῶν καὶ τὴν τῶν ἐμφυομένων πλοκὴν καὶ τὴν εἰς τὸ ἔντερον ἐκφυσιν καὶ τὴν τῆς ἔνδον κοιλότητος ἰδέαν καὶ τἆλλʼ ὅσα τοιαῦτα δύναμίς τις ἑτέρα διέπλασεν, ἣν διαπλαστικὴν ὀνομάζομεν, ἣν δὴ καὶ τεχνικὴν εἶναι λέγομεν, μᾶλλον δʼ ἀρίστην καὶ ἄκραν τέχνην καὶ πάντα τινὸς ἕνεκα ποιοῦσαν, ὡς μηδὲν ἀργὸν εἶναι μηδὲ περιττὸν μηδʼ ὅλως οὕτως ἔχον, ὡς δύνασθαι βέλτιον ἑτέρως ἔχειν. ἀλλὰ τοῦτο μὲν ἐν τοῖς περὶ χρείας μορίων ἀπ δείξομεν.

[7] k.v.2.p.16 Ἐπὶ δὲ τὴν αὐξητικὴν ἤδη μεταβάντες δύναμιν αὐτὸ τοῦθʼ ὑπομνήσωμεν πρῶτον, ὡς ὑπάρχει μὲν καὶ αὐτὴ τοῖς κυουμένοις ὥσπερ καὶ ἡ θρεπτική· ἀλλʼ οἶον ὑπηρέτιδές τινές εἰσι τηνικαῦτα τῶν προειρημένων δυνάμεων, οὐκ ἐν αὑταῖς ἔχουσαι τὸ πᾶν κῦρος. ἐπειδὰν δὲ τὸ τέλειον ἀπολάβῃ μέγεθος τὸ ζῷον, ἐν τῷ μετὰ τὴν ἀποκύησιν χρόνῳ παντὶ μέχρι τῆς ἀκμῆς ἡ μὲν αὐξητικὴ τηνικαῦτα κρατεῖ· βοηθοὶ δʼ αὐτῆς καὶ οἷον ὑπηρέτιδες ἥ τʼ ἀλλοιωτικὴ δύναμίς ἐστι καὶ ἡ θρεπτική. τί οὖν τὸ ἴδιόν ἐστι τῆς αὐξητικῆς δυνάμεως; εἰς πᾶν μέρος ἐκτεῖναι τὰ πεφυκότα. καλεῖται δʼ οὕτω τὰ στερεὰ μόρια τοῦ σώματος, ἀρτηρίαι καὶ φλέβες καὶ νεῦρα καὶ ὀστᾶ καὶ χόνδροι καὶ ὑμένες καὶ σύνδεσμοι καὶ οἱ χιτῶνες ἅπαντες, οὓς στοιχειώδεις τε καὶ ὁμοιομερεῖς καὶ ἁπλοῦς ὀλίγον ἔμπροσθεν ἐκαλοῦμεν. ὅτῳ δὲ τρόπῳ τὴν εἰς πᾶν μέρος ἔκτασιν ἴσχουσιν, ἐγὼ φράσω παράδειγμά τι πρότερον εἰπὼν ἕνεκα τοῦ σαφοῦς.

k.v.2.p.17 Τὰς κύστεις τῶν ὑῶν λαβόντες οἱ παῖδες πληροῦσί τε πνεύματος καὶ τρίβουσιν ἐπὶ τῆς τέφρας πλησίον τοῦ πυρός, ὡς ἀλεαίνεσθαι μέν, βλάπτεσθαι δὲ μηδέν· καὶ πολλή γʼ αὕτη ἡ παιδιὰ περί τε τὴν Ἰωνίαν καὶ ἐν ἄλλοις ἔθνεσιν οὐκ ὀλίγοις ἐστίν. ἐπιλέγουσι δὲ δὴ καί τινʼ ἔπη τρίβοντες ἐν μέτρῳ τέ τινι καὶ μέλει καὶ Ῥυθμῷ καὶ ἔστι πάντα τὰ Ῥήματα ταῦτα παρακέλευσις τῇ κύστει πρὸς τὴν αὔξησιν. ἐπειδὰν δʼ ἱκανῶς αὐτοῖς διατετάσθαι δοκῇ, πάλιν ἐμφυσῶσί τε καὶ ἐπιδιατείνουσι καὶ αὖθις τρίβουσι καὶ τοῦτο πλεονάκις ποιοῦσιν, ἄχρις ἂν αὐτοῖς ἡ κύστις ἱκανῶς ἔχειν δοκῇ τῆς αὐξήσεως. ἀλλʼ ἐν τούτοις γε τοῖς ἔργοις τῶν παίδων ἐναργῶς, ὅσον εἰς μέγεθος ἐπιδίδωσιν ἡ ἐντὸς εὐρυχωρία τῆς κύστεως, τοσοῦτον ἀναγκαῖον εἰς λεπτότητα καθαιρεῖσθαι τὸ σῶμα καὶ εἴ γε τὴν λεπτότητα ταύτην ἀνατρέφειν οἷοί τʼ ἦσαν οἱ παῖδες, ὁμοίως ἂν τῇ φύσει τὴν κύστιν ἐκ μικρᾶς μεγάλην ἀπειργάζοντο. νυνὶ δὲ τοῦτʼ αὐτοῖς ἐνδεῖ τὸ ἔργον οὐδὲ καθʼ ἕνα τρόπον εἰς μίμησιν k.v.2.p.18 ἐνδεχόμενον ἀχθῆναι μὴ ὅτι τοῖς παισὶν ἀλλʼ οὐδʼ ἄλλῳ τινί· μόνης γὰρ τῆς φύσεως ἴδιόν ἐστιν.

ὥστʼ ἤδη σοι δῆλον, ὡς ἀναγκαία τοῖς αὐξανομένοις ἡ θρέψις. εἰ γὰρ διατείνοιτο μέν, ἀνατρέφοιτο δὲ μή, φαντασίαν ψευδῆ μᾶλλον, οὐκ αὔξησιν ἀληθῆ τὰ τοιαῦτα σώματα κτήσεται. καίτοι καὶ τὸ διατείνεσθαι πάντη μόνοις τοῖς ὑπὸ φύσεως αὐξανομένοις ὑπάρχει. τὰ γὰρ ὑφʼ ἡμῶν διατεινόμενα σώματα κατὰ μίαν τινὰ διάστασιν τοῦτο πάσχοντα μειοῦται ταῖς λοιπαῖς, οὐδʼ ἔστιν εὑρεῖν οὐδέν, ὃ συνεχὲς ἔτι μένον καὶ ἀδιάσπαστον εἰς τὰς τρεῖς διαστάσεις ἐπεκτεῖναι δυνάμεθα. μόνης οὖν τῆς φύσεως τὸ πάντη διιστάναι συνεχὲς ἑαυτῷ μένον ἔτι καὶ τὴν ἀρχαίαν ἅπασαν ἰδέαν φυλάττον τὸ σῶμα.

καὶ τοῦτʼ ἔστιν ἡ αὔξησις ἄνευ τῆς ἐπιρρεούσης τε καὶ προσπλαττομένης τροφῆς μὴ δυναμένη γενέσθαι.

[8] καὶ τοίνυν ὁ λόγος ἥκειν ἔοικεν ὁ περὶ τῆς θρέψεως, ὃς δὴ λοιπός ἐστι καὶ τρίτος ὧν ἐξ ἀρχῆς προὐθέμεθα. τοῦ γὰρ ἐπιρρέοντος ἐν εἴδει k.v.2.p.19 τροφῆς παντὶ μορίῳ τοῦ τρεφομένου σώματος προσπλαττομένου θρέψις μὲν ἡ ἐνέργεια, θρεπτικὴ δὲ δύναμις ἡ αἰτία. ἀλλοίωσις μὲν δὴ κἀνταῦθα τὸ γένος τῆς ἐνεργείας, ἀλλʼ οὐχ οἵαπερ ἡ ἐν τῇ γενέσει. ἐκεῖ μὲν γὰρ οὐκ ὂν πρότερον ὕστερον ἐγένετο, κατὰ δὲ τὴν θρέψιν τῷ ἤδη γεγονότι συνεξομοιοῦται τὸ ἐπιρρέον καὶ διὰ τοῦτʼ εὐλόγως ἐκείνην μὲν τὴν ἀλλοίωσιν γένεσιν, ταύτην δʼ ἐξομοίωσιν ὠνόμασαν.

[9] ἐπειδὴ δὲ περὶ τῶν τριῶν δυνάμεων τῆς φύσεως αὐτάρκως εἴρηται καὶ φαίνεται μηδεμιᾶς ἄλλης προσδεῖσθαι τὸ ζῷον, ἔχον γε καὶ ὅπως αὐξηθῇ καὶ ὅπως τελειωθῇ καὶ ὅπως ἕως πλείστου διαφυλαχθῇ, δόξειε μὲν ἂν ἴσως ἱκανῶς ἔχειν ὁ λόγος οὗτος ἤδη καὶ πάσας ἐξηγεῖσθαι τὰς τῆς φύσεως δυνάμεις. ἀλλʼ εἴ τις πάλιν ἐννοήσειεν, ὡς οὐδενὸς

οὐδέπω τῶν τοῦ ζῴου μορίων ἐφήψατο, κοιλίας λέγω καὶ ἐντέρων καὶ ἥπατος καὶ τῶν ὁμοίων, οὐδʼ ἐξηγήσατο τὰς ἐν αὐτοῖς δυνάμεις, αὖθις δόξειεν ἂν οἷον προοίμιόν τι μόνον εἰρῆσθαι k.v.2.p.20 τῆς χρησίμου διδασκαλίας. τὸ γὰρ σύμπαν ὧδʼ ἔχει. γένεσις καὶ αὔξησις καὶ θρέψις τὰ πρῶτα καὶ οἷον κεφάλαια τῶν ἔργων ἐστὶ τῆς φύσεως· ὥστε καὶ αἱ τούτων ἐργαστικαὶ δυνάμεις αἱ πρῶται τρεῖς εἰσι καὶ κυριώταται· δέονται δʼ εἰς ὑπηρεσίαν, ὡς ἤδη δέδεικται, καὶ ἀλλήλων καὶ ἄλλων. τίνων μὲν οὖν ἡ γεννητική τε καὶ αὐξητικὴ δέονται, εἴρηται, τίνων δʼ ἡ θρεπτική, νῦν εἰρήσεται.

[10] δοκῶ γάρ μοι δείξειν τὰ περὶ τὴν τῆς τροφῆς οἰκονομίαν ὄργανά τε καὶ τὰς δυνάμεις αὐτῶν διὰ ταύτην γεγονότα. ἐπειδὴ γὰρ ἡ ἐνέργεια ταύτης τῆς δυνάμεως ἐξομοίωσίς ἐστιν, ὁμοιοῦσθαι δὲ καὶ μεταβάλλειν εἰς ἄλληλα πᾶσι τοῖς οὖσιν ἀδύνατον, εἰ μή τινα ἔχοι κοινωνίαν ἤδη καὶ συγγένειαν ἐν ταῖς ποιότησι, διὰ τοῦτο πρῶτον μὲν οὐκ ἐκ πάντων ἐδεσμάτων πᾶν ζῷον τρέφεσθαι πέφυκεν, ἔπειτα δʼ οὐδʼ ἐξ ὧν οἷόν τʼ ἐστὶν οὐδʼ ἐκ τούτων παραχρῆμα, καὶ διὰ ταύτην τὴν ἀνάγκην πλειόνων ὀργάνων ἀλλοιωτικῶν τῆς k.v.2.p.21 τροφῆς ἕκαστον τῶν ζῴων χρῄζει. ἵνα μὲν γὰρ τὸ ξανθὸν ἐρυθρὸν γένηται καὶ τὸ ἐρυθρὸν ξανθόν, ἁπλῆς καὶ μιᾶς δεῖται τῆς ἀλλοιώσεως· ἵνα δὲ τὸ λευκὸν μέλαν καὶ τὸ μέλαν λευκόν, ἁπασῶν τῶν μεταξύ. καὶ τοίνυν καὶ τὸ μαλακώτατον οὐκ ἂν ἀθρόως σκληρότατον καὶ τὸ σκληρότατον οὐκ ἂν ἀθρόως μαλακώτατον γένοιτο, ὥσπερ οὐδὲ τὸ δυσωδέστατον εὐωδέστατον οὐδʼ ἔμπαλιν τὸ εὐωδέστατον δυσωδέστατον ἐξαίφνης γένοιτʼ ἄν.

πῶς οὖν ἐξ αἵματος ὀστοῦν ἄν ποτε γένοιτο μὴ παχυνθέντος γε πρότερον ἐπὶ πλεῖστον αὐτοῦ καὶ λευκανθέντος ἢ πῶς ἐξ ἄρτου τὸ αἷμα μὴ κατὰ βραχὺ μὲν ἀποθεμένου τὴν λευκότητα, κατὰ βραχὺ δὲ λαμβάνοντος τὴν ἐρυθρότητα; σάρκα μὲν γὰρ ἐξ αἵματος γενέσθαι Ῥᾷστον· εἰ γὰρ εἰς τοσοῦτον αὐτὸ παχύνειεν ἡ φύσις, ὡς σύστασίν τινα σχεῖν καὶ μηκέτʼ εἶναι Ῥυτόν, ἡ πρώτη καὶ νεοπαγὴς οὕτως ἂν εἴη σάρξ· ὀστοῦν δʼ ἵνα γένηται, πολλοῦ μὲν δεῖται χρόνου, πολλῆς δʼ ἐργασίας καὶ μεταβολῆς τῷ αἵματι. ὅτι δὲ καὶ τῷ ἄρτῳ k.v.2.p.22 καὶ πολὺ μᾶλλον θριδακίνῃ καὶ τεύτλῳ καὶ τοῖς ὁμοίοις παμπόλλης δεῖται τῆς ἀλλοιώσεως εἰς αἵματος γένεσιν, οὐδὲ τοῦτʼ ἄδηλον.

Ν̔ μὲν δὴ τοῦτʼ αἴτιον τοῦ πολλὰ γενέσθαι τὰ περὶ τὴν τῆς τροφῆς ἀλλοίωσιν ὄργανα. δεύτερον δʼ ἡ τῶν περιττωμάτων φύσις. ὡς γὰρ ὑπὸ βοτανῶν οὐδʼ ὅλως δυνάμεθα τρέφεσθαι, καίτοι τῶν βοσκημάτων τρεφομένων, οὕτως ὑπὸ Ῥαφανίδος τρεφόμεθα μέν, ἀλλʼ οὐχ ὡς ὑπὸ τῶν κρεῶν. τούτων μὲν γὰρ ὀλίγου δεῖν ὅλων ἡ φύσις ἡμῶν κρατεῖ καὶ μεταβάλλει καὶ ἀλλοιοῖ καὶ χρηστὸν ἐξ αὐτῶν αἷμα συνίστησιν· ἐν δὲ τῇ Ῥαφανίδι τὸ μὲν οἰκεῖόν τε καὶ μεταβληθῆναι δυνάμενον, μόγις καὶ τοῦτο καὶ σὺν πολλῇ τῇ κατεργασίᾳ, παντάπασιν ἐλάχιστον· ὅλη δʼ ὀλίγου δεῖν ἐστι περιττωματικὴ καὶ διεξέρχεται τὰ τῆς πέψεως ὄργανα, βραχέος ἐξ αὐτῆς εἰς τὰς φλέβας ἀναληφθέντος αἵματος καὶ οὐδὲ τούτου τελέως χρηστοῦ. δευτέρας οὖν αὖθις ἐδέησε διακρίσεως τῇ φύσει τῶν ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶ περιττωμάτων. καὶ χρεία καὶ k.v.2.p.23 τούτοις ὁδῶν τέ τινων ἑτέρων ἐπὶ τὰς ἐκκρίσεις αὐτὰ παραγουσῶν, ὡς μὴ λυμαίνοιτο τοῖς χρηστοῖς, ὑποδοχῶν τέ τινων οἷον δεξαμενῶν, ἐν αἷς ὅταν εἰς ἱκανὸν πλῆθος ἀφίκηται, τηνικαῦτʼ ἐκκριθήσεται.

δεύτερον δή σοι καὶ τοῦτο τὸ γένος τῶν ἐν τῷ σώματι μορίων ἐξεύρηται τοῖς περιττώμασι τῆς τροφῆς ἀνακείμενον. ἄλλο δὲ τρίτον ὑπὲρ τοῦ πάντη φέρεσθαι, καθάπερ τινὲς ὁδοὶ πολλαὶ διὰ τοῦ σώματος ὅλου κατατετμημέναι.

μία μὲν γὰρ εἴσοδος ἡ διὰ τοῦ στόματος ἅπασι τοῖς σιτίοις, οὐχ ἓν δὲ τὸ τρεφόμενον ἀλλὰ πάμπολλά τε καὶ πάμπολυ διεστῶτα. μὴ τοίνυν θαύμαζε τὸ πλῆθος τῶν ὀργάνων, ὅσα θρέψεως ἕνεκεν ἡ φύσις ἐδημιούργησε. τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀλλοιοῦντα προπαρασκευάζει τὴν ἐπιτήδειον ἑκάστῳ μορίῳ τροφήν, τὰ δὲ διακρίνει τὰ περιττώματα, τὰ δὲ παραπέμπει, τὰ δʼ ὑποδέχεται, τὰ δʼ ἐκκρίνει, τὰ δʼ ὁδοὶ τῆς πάντη φορᾶς εἰσι τῶν χρηστῶν χυμῶν, ὥστʼ, εἴπερ βούλει τὰς δυνάμεις τῆς φύσεως ἁπάσας ἐκμαθεῖν, ὑπὲρ ἑκάστου τούτων ἂν εἴη σοι τῶν ὀργάνων ἐπισκεπτέον.

k.v.2.p.24 Ἀρχὴ δʼ αὐτῶν τῆς διδασκαλίας, ὅσα τοῦ τέλους ἐγγὺς ἔργα τε τῆς φύσεώς ἐστι καὶ μόρια καὶ δυνάμεις αὐτῶν.

[11] αὐτοῦ δὲ δὴ πάλιν ἀναμνηστέον ἡμῖν τοῦ τέλους, οὗπερ ἕνεκα τοσαῦτά τε καὶ τοιαῦτα τῇ φύσει δεδημιούργηται μόρια. τὸ μὲν οὖν ὄνομα τοῦ πράγματος, ὥσπερ καὶ πρότερον εἴρηται, θρέψις· ὁ δὲ κατὰ τοὔνομα λόγος ὁμοίωσις τοῦ τρέφοντος τῷ τρεφομένῳ. ἵνα δʼ αὕτη γένηται, προηγήσασθαι χρὴ πρόσφυσιν, ἵνα δʼ ἐκείνη, πρόσθεσιν. ἐπειδὰν γὰρ ἐκπέσῃ τῶν ἀγγείων ὁ μέλλων θρέψειν ὁτιοῦν τῶν τοῦ ζῴου μορίων χυμός, εἰς ἅπαν αὐτὸ διασπείρεται πρῶτον, ἔπειτα προστίθεται κἄπειτα προσφύεται καὶ τελέως ὁμοιοῦται.

δηλοῦσι δʼ αἱ καλούμεναι λεῦκαι τὴν διαφορὰν ὁμοιώσεώς τε καὶ προσφύσεως, ὥσπερ τὸ γένος ἐκεῖνο τῶν ὑδέρων, ὅ τινες ὀνομάζουσιν ἀνὰ σάρκα, διορίζει σαφῶς πρόσθεσιν προσφύσεως. οὐ γὰρ ἐνδείᾳ δήπου τῆς ἐπιρρεούσης ὑγρότητος, ὡς ἔνιαι τῶν ἀτροφιῶν τε καὶ φθίσεων, ἡ τοῦ k.v.2.p.25 τοιούτου γένεσις ὑδέρου συντελεῖται. φαίνεται γὰρ ἱκανῶς ἥ τε σὰρξ ὑγρὰ καὶ διάβροχος ἕκαστόν τε τῶν στερεῶν τοῦ σώματος μορίων ὡσαύτως διακείμενον. ἀλλὰ πρόσθεσις μέν τις γίγνεται τῆς ἐπιφερομένης τροφῆς, ἅτε δʼ ὑδατωδεστέρας οὔσης ἔτι καὶ μὴ πάνυ τι κεχυμωμένης μηδὲ τὸ γλίσχρον ἐκεῖνο καὶ κολλῶδες, ὃ δὴ τῆς ἐμφύτου θερμασίας οἰκονομίᾳ προσγίγνεται, κεκτημένης ἡ πρόσφυσις ἀδύνατός ἐστιν ἐπιτελεῖσθαι πλήθει λεπτῆς ὑγρότητος ἀπέπτου διαρρεούσης τε καὶ Ῥᾳδίως ὀλισθαινούσης ἀπὸ τῶν στερεῶν τοῦ σωματος μορίων τῆς τροφῆς. ἐν δὲ ταῖς λεύκαις πρόσφυσις μέν τις γίγνεται τῆς τροφῆς, οὐ μὴν ἐξομοίωσίς γε. καὶ δῆλον ἐν τῷδε τὸ μικρῷ πρόσθεν Ῥηθὲν ὡς ὀρθῶς ἐλέγετο τὸ δεῖν πρόσθεσιν μὲν πρῶτον, ἐφεξῆς δὲ πρόσφύσιν, ἔπειτʼ ἐξομοίωσιν γενέσθαι τῷ μέλλοντι τρέφεσθαι.

κυρίως μὲν οὖν τὸ τρέφον ἤδη τροφή, τὸ δʼ οἷον μὲν τροφή, οὔπω δὲ τρέφον, ὁποῖόν ἐστι τὸ προσφυόμενον ἢ προστιθέμενον, τροφὴ μὲν οὐ κυρίως, ὁμωνύμως δὲ τροφή· τὸ δʼ ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶν k.v.2.p.26 ἔτι περιεχόμενον καὶ τούτου μᾶλλον ἔτι τὸ κατὰ τὴν γαστέρα τῷ μέλλειν ποτὲ θρέψειν, εἰ καλῶς κατεργασθείη, κέκληται τροφή. κατὰ ταὐτὰ δὲ καὶ τῶν ἐδεσμάτων ἕκαστον τροφὴν ὀνομάζομεν οὔτε τῷ τρέφειν ἤδη τὸ ζῷον οὔτε τῷ τοιοῦτον ὑπάρχειν οἷον τὸ τρέφον, ἀλλὰ τῷ δύνασθαί τε καὶ μέλλειν τρέφειν, εἰ καλῶς κατεργασθείη.

τοῦτο γὰρ ἦν καὶ τὸ πρὸς Ἱπποκράτους λεγόμενον· "Τροφὴ δὲ τὸ τρέφον, τροφὴ καὶ τὸ οἷον τροφὴ καὶ τὸ μέλλον." τὸ μὲν γὰρ ὁμοιούενον ἤδη τροφὴν ὠνόμασε, τὸ δʼ οἷον μὲν ἐκεῖνο προστιθέμενον ἢ προσφνόμενον οἷον τροφήν· τὸ δʼ ἄλλο πᾶν, ὅσον ἐν τῇ γαστρὶ καὶ ταῖς φλεψὶ περιέχεται, μέλλον.

[12] Ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἀναγκαῖον ὁμοίωσίν τινʼ εἶναι τοῦ τρέφοντος τῷ τρεφομένῳ τὴν θρέψιν, ἄντικρυς δῆλον. οὐ μὴν ὑπάρχουσάν γε ταύτην τὴν ὁμοίωσιν, ἀλλὰ φαινομένην μόνον εἶναί φασιν οἱ μήτε τεχνικὴν οἰόμενοι τὴν φύσιν εἶναι μήτε προνοητικὴν τοῦ ζῴου μήθʼ ὅλως τινὰς οἰκείας ἔχειν δυνάμεις, αἷς χρωμένη τὰ μὲν ἀλλοιοῖ, τὰ δʼ k.v.2.p.27 ἕλκει, τὰ δʼ ἐκκρίνει.

καὶ αὗται δύο γεγόνασιν αἱρέσεις κατὰ γένος ἐν ἰατρικῇ τε καὶ φιλοσοφίᾳ τῶν ἀποφηναμένων τι περὶ φύσεως ἀνδρῶν, ὅσοι γʼ αὐτῶν γιγνώσκουσιν, ὅ τι λέγουσι, καὶ τὴν ἀκολουθίαν ὧν ὑπέθεντο θεωροῦσι θʼ ἅμα καὶ διαφυλάττουσιν. ὅσοι δὲ μηδʼ αὐτὸ τοῦτο συνιᾶσιν, ἀλλʼ ἁπλῶς, ὅ τι ἂν ἐπὶ γλῶτταν ἔλθῃ, ληροῦσιν, ἐν οὐδετέρᾳ τῶν αἱρέσεων ἀκριβῶς καταμένοντες, οὐδὲ μεμνῆσθαι τῶν τοιούτων προσήκει.

τίνες οὖν αἱ δύο αἱρέσεις αὗται καὶ τίς ἡ τῶν ἐν αὐταῖς ὑποθέσεων ἀκολουθία; τὴν ὑποβεβλημένην οὐσίαν γενέσει καὶ φθορᾷ πᾶσαν ἡνωμένην θʼ ἅμα καὶ ἀλλοιοῦσθαι δυναμένην ὑπέθετο θάτερον γένος τῆς αἱρέσεως, ἀμετάβλητον δὲ καὶ ἀναλλοίωτον καὶ κατατετμημένην εἰς λεπτὰ καὶ κεναῖς ταῖς μεταξὺ χώραις διειλημμένην ἡ λοιπή.

καὶ τοίνυν ὅσοι γε τῆς ἀκολουθίας τῶν ὑποθέσεων αἰσθάνονται, κατὰ μὲν τὴν δευτέραν αἵρεσιν οὔτε φύσεως οὔτε ψυχῆς ἰδίαν τινὰ νομίζουσιν k.v.2.p.28 οὐσίαν ἢ δύναμιν ὑπάρχειν, ἀλλʼ ἐν τῇ ποιᾷ συνόδῳ τῶν πρώτων ἐκείνων σωμάτων τῶν ἀπαθῶν ἀποτελεῖσθαι. κατὰ δὲ τὴν προτέραν εἰρημένην αἵρεσιν οὐχ ὑστέρα τῶν σωμάτων ἡ φύσις, ἀλλὰ πολὺ προτέρα τε καὶ πρεσβυτέρα. καὶ τοίνυν κατὰ μὲν τούτους αὕτη τὰ σώματα τῶν τε φυτῶν καὶ τῶν ζῴων συνίστησι δυνάμεις τινὰς ἔχουσα τὰς μὲν ἑλκτικάς θʼ ἅμα καὶ ὁμοιωτικὰς τῶν οἰκείων, τὰς δʼ ἀποκριτικὰς τῶν ἀλλοτρίων, καὶ τεχνικῶς ἅπαντα διαπλάττει τε γεννῶσα καὶ προνοεῖται τῶν γεννωμένων ἑτέραις αὖθίς τισι δυνάμεσι, στερκτικῇ μέν τινι καὶ προνοητικῇ τῶν ἐγγόνων, κοινωνικῇ δὲ καὶ φιλικῇ τῶν ὁμογενῶν. κατὰ δʼ αὖ τοὺς ἑτέρους οὔτε τούτων οὐδὲν ὑπάρχει ταῖς φύσεσιν οὔτʼ ἔννοιά τίς ἐστι τῇ ψυχῇ σύμφυτος ἐξ ἀρχῆς οὐκ ἀκολουθίας οὐ μάχης, οὐ διαιρέσεως οὐ συνθέσεως, οὐ δικαίων οὐκ ἀδίκων, οὐ καλῶν οὐκ αἰσχρῶν, ἀλλʼ ἐξ αἰσθήσεώς τε καὶ διʼ αἰσθήσεως ἅπαντα τὰ τοιαῦθʼ ἡμῖν ἐγγίγνεσθαί φασι καὶ φαντασίαις τισὶ καὶ μνήμαις οἰακίζεσθαι τὰ ζῷα.

k.v.2.p.29 Ἔνιοι δʼ αὐτῶν καὶ ῥητῶς ἀπεφήναντο μηδεμίαν εἶναι τῆς ψυχῆς δύναμιν, ᾗ λογιζόμεθα, ἀλλʼ ὑπὸ τῶν αἰσθητῶν ἄγεσθαι παθῶν ἡμᾶς καθάπερ βοσκήματα πρὸς μηδὲν ἀνανεῦσαι μηδʼ ἀντειπεῖν δυναμένους. καθʼ οὓς δηλονότι καὶ ἀνδρεία καὶ φρόνησις καὶ σωφροσύνη καὶ ἐγκράτεια λῆρός ἐστι μακρὸς καὶ φιλοῦμεν οὔτʼ ἀλλήλους οὔτε τὰ ἔγγονα καὶ τοῖς θεοῖς οὐδὲν ἡμῶν μέλει. καταφρονοῦσι δὲ καὶ τῶν ὀνειράτων καὶ τῶν οἰωνῶν καὶ τῶν συμβόλων καὶ πάσης ἀστρολογίας, ὑπὲρ ὧν ἡμεῖς μὲν ἰδίᾳ διʼ ἑτέρων γραμμάτων ἐπὶ πλέον ἐσκεψάμεθα περὶ τῶν Ἀσκληπιάδου τοῦ ἰατροῦ σκοπούμενοι δογμάτων. ἔνεστι δὲ τοῖς βουλομένοις κἀκείνοις μὲν ὁμιλῆσαι τοῖς λόγοις καὶ νῦν δʼ ἤδη σκοπεῖν, ὥσπερ τινῶν δυοῖν ὁδῶν ἡμῖν προκειμένων, ὁποτέραν βέλτιόν ἐστι τρέπεσθαι. Ἱπποκράτης μὲν γὰρ τὴν προτέραν ῥηθεῖσαν ἐτράπετο, καθʼ ἣν ἥνωται μὲν ἡ οὐσία καὶ ἀλλοιοῦται καὶ σύμπνουν ὅλον ἐστὶ καὶ σύρρουν τὸ σῶμα καὶ ἡ φύσις ἅπαντα τεχνικῶς καὶ δικαίως πράττει δυνάμεις ἔχουσα, καθʼ ἃς ἕκαστον τῶν k.v.2.p.30 μορίων ἕλκει μὲν ἐφʼ ἑαυτὸ τὸν οἰκεῖον ἑαυτῷ χυμόν, ἕλξαν δὲ προσφύει τε παντὶ μέρει τῶν ἐν αὑτῷ καὶ τελέως ἐξομοιοῖ, τὸ δὲ μὴ κρατηθὲν ἐν τούτῳ μηδὲ τὴν παντελῆ δυνηθὲν ἀλλοίωσίν τε καὶ ὁμοιότητα τοῦ τρεφομένου καταδέξασθαι διʼ ἑτέρας αὖ τινος ἐκκριτικῆς δυνάμεως ἀποτρίβεται.

[13] μαθεῖν δʼ ἔνεστιν οὐ μόνον ἐξ ὧν οἱ τἀναντία τιθέμενοι διαφέρονται τοῖς ἐναργῶς φαινομένοις, εἰς ὅσον ὀρθότητός τε καὶ ἀληθείας ἥκει τὰ Ἱπποκράτους δόγματα, ἀλλὰ κἀξ αὐτῶν τῶν κατὰ μέρος ἐν τῇ φυσικῇ θεωρίᾳ ζητουμένων τῶν τʼ ἄλλων ἁπάντων καὶ τῶν ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις ἐνεργειῶν. ὅσοι γὰρ οὐδεμίαν οὐδενὶ μορίῳ νομίζουσιν ὑπάρχειν ἑλκτικὴν τῆς οἰκείας ποιότητος δύναμιν, ἀναγκάζονται πολλάκις ἐναντία λέγειν τοῖς ἐναργῶς φαινομένοις, ὥσπερ καὶ Ἀσκληπιάδης ὁ ἰατρὸς ἐπὶ τῶν νεφρῶν ἐποίησεν, οὓς οὐ μόνον Ἱπποκράτης ἢ Διοκλῆς ἢ Ἐρασίστρατος ἢ Πραξαγόρας ἤ τις ἄλλος ἰατρὸς ἄριστος ὄργανα διακριτικὰ τῶν οὔρων πεπιστεύκασιν ὑπάρχειν, k.v.2.p.31 ἀλλὰ καὶ οἱ μάγειροι σχεδὸν ἅπαντες ἴσασιν, ὁσημέραι θεώμενοι τήν τε θέσιν αὐτῶν καὶ τὸν ἀφʼ ἑκατέρου πόρον εἰς τὴν κύστιν ἐμβάλλοντα, τὸν οὐρητῆρα καλούμενον, ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς κατασκευῆς ἀναλογιζόμενοι τήν τε χρείαν αὐτῶν καὶ τὴν δύναμιν. καὶ πρό γε τῶν μαγείρων ἅπαντες ἄνθρωποι καὶ δυσουροῦντες πολλάκις καὶ παντάπασιν ἰσχουροῦντες, ὅταν ἀλγῶσι μὲν τὰ κατὰ τὰς ψόας, ψαμμώδη δʼ ἐξουρῶσιν, νεφριτικοὺς ὀνομάζουσι σφᾶς αὐτούς.

Ἀσκληπιάδην δʼ οἶμαι μηδὲ λίθον οὐρηθέντα ποτὲ θεάσασθαι πρὸς τῶν οὕτω πασχόντων μηδʼ ὡς προηγήσατο κατὰ τὴν μεταξὺ τῶν νεφρῶν καὶ τῆς κύστεως χώραν ὀδύνη τις ὀξεῖα διερχομένου τοῦ λίθου τὸν οὐρητῆρα μηδʼ ὡς οὐρηθέντος αὐτοῦ τά τε τῆς ὀδύνης καὶ τὰ τῆς ἰσχουρίας ἐπαύσατο παραχρῆμα. πῶς οὖν εἰς τὴν κύστιν τῷ λόγῳ παράγει τὸ οὖρον, ἄξιον ἀκοῦσαι καὶ θαυμάσαι τἀνδρὸς τὴν σοφίαν, ὅς καταλιπὼν οὕτως εὐρείας ὁδοὺς ἐναργῶς φαινομένας ἀφανεῖς k.v.2.p.32 καὶ στενὰς καὶ παντάπασιν ἀναισθήτους ὑπέθετο. βούλεται γὰρ εἰς ἀτμοὺς ἀναλυόμενον τὸ πινόμενον ὑγρὸν εἰς τὴν κύστιν διαδίδοσθαι κἄπειτʼ ἐξ ἐκείνων αὖθις ἀλλήλοις συνιόντων οὕτως ἀπολαμβάνειν αὐτὸ τὴν ἀρχαίαν ἰδέαν καὶ γίγνεσθαι πάλιν ὑγρὸν ἐξ ἀτμῶν ἀτεχνῶς ὡς περὶ σπογγιᾶς τινος ἢ ἐρίου τῆς κύστεως διανοούμενος, ἀλλʼ οὐ σώματος ἀκριβῶς πυκνοῦ καὶ στεγανοῦ δύο χιτῶνας ἰσχυροτάτους κεκτημένου, διʼ ὧν εἴπερ διέρχεσθαι φήσομεν τοὺς ἀτμούς, τί δήποτʼ οὐχὶ διὰ τοῦ περιτοναίου καὶ τῶν φρενῶν διελθόντες ἐνέπλησαν ὕδατος τό τʼ ἐπιγάστριον ἅπαν καὶ τὸν θώρακα; ἀλλὰ παχύτερος, φησίν, ἐστὶ δηλαδὴ καὶ στεγανώτερος ὁ περιτόναιος χιτὼν τῆς κύστεως καὶ διὰ τοῦτʼ ἐκεῖνος μὲν ἀποστέγει τοὺς ἀτμούς, ἡ δὲ κύστις παραδέχεται. ἀλλʼ εἴπερ ἀνατετμήκει ποτέ, τάχʼ ἂν ἠπίστατο τὸν μὲν ἔξωθεν χιτῶνα τῆς κύστεως ἀπὸ τοῦ περιτοναίου πεφυκότα τὴν αὐτὴν ἐκείνῳ φύσιν ἔχειν, τὸν δʼ ἔνδοθεν τὸν αὐτῆς τῆς κύστεως ἴδιον πλέον ἢ διπλάσιον ἐκείνου τὸ πάχος ὑπάρχειν.

k.v.2.p.33 Ἀλλʼ ἴσως οὔτε τὸ πάχος οὔθʼ ἡ λεπτότης τῶν χιτώνων, ἀλλʼ ἡ θέσις τῆς κύστεως αἰτία τοῦ φέρεσθαι τοὺς ἀτμοὺς εἰς αὐτήν. καὶ μὴν εἰ καὶ διὰ τἆλλα πάντα πιθανὸν ἦν αὐτοὺς ἐνταυθοῖ συναθροίζεσθαι, τό γε τῆς θέσεως μόνης αὔταρκες κωλῦσαι. κάτω μὲν γὰρ ἡ κύστις κεῖται, τοῖς δʼ ἀτμοῖς σύμφυτος ἡ πρὸς τὸ μετέωρον φορά, ὥστε πολὺ πρότερον ἂν ἔπλησαν ἅπαντα τὰ κατὰ τὸν θώρακά τε καὶ τὸν πνεύμονα, πρὶν ἐπὶ τὴν κύστιν ἀφικέσθαι.

καίτοι τί θέσεως κύστεως καὶ περιτοναίου καὶ θώρακος μνημονεύω; διεκπεσόντες γὰρ δήπου τούς τε τῆς κοιλίας καὶ τῶν ἐντέρων χιτῶνας οἱ ἀτμοὶ κατὰ τὴν μεταξὺ χώραν αὐτῶν τε τούτων καὶ τοῦ περιτοναίου συναθροισθήσονται καὶ ὑγρὸν ἐνταυθοῖ γενήσονται, ὥσπερ καὶ τοῖς ὑδερικοῖς ἐν τούτῳ τῷ χωρίῳ τὸ πλεῖστον ἀθροίζεται τοῦ ὕδατος, ἢ πάντως αὐτοὺς χρὴ φέρεσθαι πρόσω διὰ πάντων τῶν ὁπωσοῦν ὁμιλούντων καὶ μηδέποθʼ ἵστασθαι. ἀλλʼ εἰ καὶ τοῦτό τις ὑπόθοιτο, διεκπεσόντες ἂν οὕτως οὐ τὸ περιτόναιον μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ ἐπιγάστριον, εἰς τὸ περιέχον k.v.2.p.34 σκεδασθεῖεν ἢ πάντως ἂν ὑπὸ τῷ δέρματι συναθροισθεῖεν.

ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς ταῦτʼ ἀντιλέγειν οἱ νῦν Ἀσκληπιάδειοι πειρῶνται, καίτοι πρὸς ἁπάντων ἀεὶ τῶν παρατυγχανόντων αὐτοῖς, ὅταν περὶ τούτων ἐρίζωσι, καταγελώμενοι. οὕτως ἄρα δυσαπότριπτόν τι κακόν ἐστιν ἡ περὶ τὰς αἱρέσεις φιλοτιμία καὶ δυσέκνιπτον ἐν τοῖς μάλιστα καὶ ψώρας ἁπάσης δυσιατότερον.

τῶν γοῦν καθʼ ἡμᾶς τις σοφιστῶν τά τʼ ἄλλα καὶ περὶ τοὺς ἐριστικοὺς λόγους ἱκανῶς συγκεκροτημένος καὶ δεινὸς εἰπεῖν, εἴπερ τις ἄλλος, ἀφικόμενος ἐμοί ποθʼ ὑπὲρ τούτων εἰς λόγους, τοσοῦτον ἀπέδει τοῦ δυσωπεῖσθαι πρός τινος τῶν εἰρημένων, ὥστε καὶ θαυμάζειν ἔφασκεν ἐμοῦ τὰ σαφῶς φαινόμενα λόγοις ληρώδεσιν ἀνατρέπειν ἐπιχειροῦντος. ἐναργῶς γὰρ ὁσημέραι θεωρεῖσθαι τὰς κύστεις ἁπάσας, εἴ τις αὐτὰς ἐμπλήσειεν ὕδατος ἢ ἀέρος, εἶτα δήσας τὸν τράχηλον πιέζοι πανταχόθεν, οὐδαμόθεν μεθιείσας οὐδέν, ἀλλʼ ἀκριβῶς ἅπαν ἐντὸς ἑαυτῶν στεγούσας. καίτοι γʼ εἴπερ ἦσάν τινες ἐκ τῶν νεφρῶν εἰς αὐτὰς ἥκοντες αἰσθητοὶ καὶ μεγάλοι πόροι, πάντως ἄν, ἔφη, διʼ ἐκείνων, ὥσπερ εἰσῄει k.v.2.p.35 τὸ ὑγρὸν εἰς αὐτάς, οὕτω καὶ θλιβόντων ἐξεκρίνετο. ταῦτα καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτʼ εἰπὼν ἐξαίφνης ἀπταίστῳ καὶ σαφεῖ τῷ στόματι τελευτῶν ἀναπηδήσας ἀπῄει καταλιπὼν ἡμᾶς ὡς οὐδὲ πιθανῆς τινος ἀντιλογίας εὐπορῆσαι δυναμένους.

οὕτως οὐ μόνον ὑγιὲς οὐδὲν ἴσασιν οἱ ταῖς αἱρέσεσι δουλεύοιτες, ἀλλʼ οὐδὲ μαθεῖν ὑπομένουσι. δέον γὰρ ἀκοῦσαι τὴν αἰτίαν, διʼ ἣν εἰσιέναι μὲν δύναται διὰ τῶν οὐρητήρων εἰς τὴν κύστιν τὸ ὑγρόν, ἐξιέναι δʼ αὖθις ὀπίσω τὴν αὐτὴν ὁδὸν οὐκέθʼ οἷόν τε, καὶ θαυμάσαι τὴν τέχνην τῆς φύσεως, οὔτε μαθεῖν ἐθέλουσι καὶ λοιδοροῦνται προσέτι μάτην ὑπʼ αὐτῆς ἄλλα τε πολλὰ καὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς γεγονέναι φάσκοντες. εἰσὶ δʼ οἳ καὶ δειχθῆναι παρόντων αὐτῶν τοὺς ἀπὸ τῶν νεφρῶν εἰς τὴν κύστιν ἐμφυομένους οὐρητῆρας ὑπομείναντες ἐτόλμησαν εἰπεῖν οἱ μέν, ὅτι μάτην καὶ οὗτοι γεγόνασιν, οἱ δʼ, ὅτι σπερματικοί τινές εἰσι πόροι καὶ διὰ τοῦτο κατὰ τὸν τράχηλον αὐτῆς, οὐκ εἰς τὸ κῦτος ἐμφύονται. δείξαντες οὖν ἡμεῖς αὐτοῖς τοὺς ὡς ἀληθῶς σπερματικοὺς πόρους κατωτέρω τῶν οὐρητήρων k.v.2.p.36 ἐμβάλλοντας εἰς τὸν τράχηλον, νῦν γοῦν, εἰ καὶ μὴ πρότερον, ᾠήθημεν ἀπάξειν τε τῶν ψευδῶς ὑπειλημμένων ἐπί τε τἀναντία μεταστήσειν αὐτίκα. οἱ δὲ καὶ πρὸς τοῦτʼ ἀντιλέγειν ἐτόλμων οὐδὲν εἶναι θαυμαστὸν εἰπόντες, ἐν ἐκείνοις μὲν ὡς ἂν στεγανωτέροις οὖσιν ἐπὶ πλέον ὑπομένειν τὸ σπέρμα, κατὰ δὲ τοὺς ἀπὸ τῶν νεφρῶν ὡς ἂν ἱκανῶς ἀνευρυσμένους ἐκρεῖν διὰ ταχέων. ἡμεῖς οὖν ἠναγκάσθημεν αὐτοῖς τοῦ λοιποῦ δεικνύειν εἰσρέον τῇ κύστει διὰ τῶν οὐρητήρων τὸ οὖρον ἐναργῶς ἐπὶ ζῶντος ἔτι τοῦ ζῴου, μόγις ἂν οὕτω ποτὲ τὴν φλυαρίαν αὐτῶν ἐπισχήσειν ἐλπίζοντες.

ὁ δὲ τρόπος τῆς δείξεώς ἐστι τοιόσδε. διελεῖν χρὴ τὸ πρὸ τῶν οὐρητήρων περιτόναιον, εἶτα βρόχοις αὐτοὺς ἐκλαβεῖν κἄπειτʼ ἐπιδήσαντας ἐᾶσαι τὸ ζῷον· οὐ γὰρ ἂν οὐρήσειεν ἔτι. μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα λύειν μὲν τοὺς ἔξωθεν δεσμούς, δεικνύναι δὲ κενὴν μὲν τὴν κύστιν, μεστοὺς δʼ ἱκανῶς καὶ διατεταμένους τοὺς οὐρητῆρας καὶ κινδυνεύοντας Ῥαγῆναι κἄπειτα τοὺς βρόχους αὐτῶν ἀφελόντας ἐναργῶς ὁρᾶν ἤδη πληρουμένην οὔρου τὴν κύστιν.

k.v.2.p.37 Ἐπὶ δὲ τούτω φανέντι, πρὶν οὐρῆσαι τὸ ζῷον, βρόχον αὐτοῦ περιβαλεῖν χρὴ τῷ αἰδοίῳ κἄπειτα θλίβειν πανταχόθεν τὴν κύστιν. οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν οὐδὲν ἔτι διὰ τῶν οὐρητήρων ἐπανέλθοι πρὸς τοὺς νεφρούς. κἀν τούτῳ δῆλον γίγνεται τὸ μὴ μόνον ἐπὶ τεθνεῶτος ἀλλὰ καὶ περιόντος ἔτι τοῦ ζῴου κωλύεσθαι μεταλαμβάνειν αὖθις ἐκ τῆς κύστεως τοὺς οὐρητῆρας τὸ οὖρον. ἐπὶ τούτοις ὀφθεῖσιν ἐπιτρέπειν ἤδη τὸ ζῷον οὐρεῖν λύοντας αὐτοῦ τὸν ἐπὶ τῷ αἰδοίῳ βρόχον, εἶτʼ αὖθις ἐπιβαλεῖν μὲν θατέρῳ τῶν οὐρητήρων, ἐᾶσαι δὲ τὸν ἕτερον εἰς τὴν κύστιν συρρεῖν καί τινα διαλιπόντας χρόνον ἐπιδεικνύειν ἤδη, πῶς ὁ μὲν ἕτερος αὐτῶν ὁ δεδεμένος μεστὸς καὶ διατεταμένος κατὰ τὰ πρὸς τῶν νεφρῶν μέρη φαίνεται, ὁ δʼ ἕτερος ὁ λελυμένος αὐτὸς μὲν χαλαρός ἐστι, πεπλήρωκε δʼ οὔρου τὴν κύστιν. εἶτʼ αὖθις διατεμεῖν πρῶτον μὲν τὸν πλήρη καὶ δεῖξαι, πῶς ἐξακοντίζεται τὸ οὖρον ἐξ αὐτοῦ, καθάπερ ἐν ταῖς φλεβοτομίαις τὸ αἷμα, μετὰ ταῦτα δὲ καὶ τὸν ἕτερον αὖθις διατεμεῖν κἄπειτʼ ἐπιδῆσαι τὸ ζῷον ἔξωθεν, k.v.2.p.38 ἀμφοτέρων διῃρημένων, εἶθʼ ὅταν ἱκανῶς ἔχειν δοκῇ, λῦσαι τὸν δεσμόν. εὑρεθήσεται γὰρ ἡ μὲν κύστις κενή, πλῆρες δʼ οὔρου τὸ μεταξὺ τῶν ἐντέρων τε καὶ τοῦ περιτοναίου χωρίον ἅπαν, ὡς ἂν εἰ καὶ ὑδερικὸν ἦν τὸ ζῷον. ταῦτʼ οὖν εἴ τις αὐτὸς καθʼ ἑαυτὸν βουληθείη βασανίζειν ἐπὶ ζῴου, μεγάλως μοι δοκεῖ καταγνώσεσθαι τῆς Ἀσκληπιάδου προπετείας. εἰ δὲ δὴ καὶ τὴν αἰτίαν μάθοι, διʼ ἣν οὐδὲν ἐκ τῆς κύστεως εἰς τοὺς οὐρητῆρας ἀντεκρεῖ, πεισθῆναι ἄν μοι δοκεῖ καὶ διὰ τοῦδε τὴν εἰς τὰ ζῷα πρόνοιάν τε καὶ τέχνην τῆς φύσεως.

Ἱπποκράτης μὲν οὖν ὧν ἴσμεν ἰατρῶν τε καὶ φιλοσόφων πρῶτος ἁπάντων, ὡς ἂν καὶ πρῶτος ἐπιγνοὺς τὰ τῆς φύσεως ἔργα, θαυμάζει τε καὶ διὰ παντὸς αὐτὴν ὑμνεῖ δικαίαν ὀνομάζων καὶ μόνην ἐξαρκεῖν εἰς ἅπαντα τοῖς ζῴοις φησίν, αὐτὴν ἐξ αὑτῆς ἀδιδάκτως πράττουσαν ἅπαντα τὰ δέοντα· τοιαύτην δʼ οὖσαν αὐτὴν εὐθέως καὶ δυνάμεις ὑπέλαβεν ἔχειν ἑλκτικὴν μὲν τῶν οἰκείων, ἀποκριτικὴν δὲ τῶν ἀλλοτρίων καὶ k.v.2.p.39 τρέφειν τε καὶ αὔξειν αὐτὴν τὰ ζῷα καὶ κρίνειν τὰ νοσήματα· καὶ διὰ τοῦτʼ ἐν τοῖς σώμασιν ἡμῶν σύμπνοιάν τε μίαν εἶναί φησι καὶ σύρροιαν καὶ πάντα συμπαθέα. κατὰ δὲ τὸν Ἀσκληπιάδην οὐδὲν οὐδενὶ συμπαθές ἐστι φύσει, διῃρημένης τε καὶ κατατεθραυσμένης εἰς ἄναρμα στοιχεῖα καὶ ληρώδεις ὄγκους ἁπάσης τῆς οὐσίας. ἐξ ἀνάγκης οὖν ἄλλα τε μυρία τοῖς ἐναργῶς φαινομένοις ἐναντίως ἀπεφήνατο καὶ τῆς φύσεως ἠγνόησε τήν τε τῶν οἰκείων ἐπισπαστικὴν δύναμιν καὶ τὴν τῶν ἀλλοτρίων ἀποκριτικήν. ἐπὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς ἐξαιματώσεώς τε καὶ ἀναδόσεως ἐξεῦρέ τινα ψυχρὰν ἀδολεσχίαν· εἰς δὲ τὴν τῶν περιττωμάτων κάθαρσιν οὐδὲν ὅλως εὑρὼν εἰπεῖν οὐκ ὤκνησεν ὁμόσε χωρῆσαι τοῖς φαινομένοις, ἐπὶ μὲν τῆς τῶν οὔρων διακρίσεως ἀποστερήσας μὲν τῶν τε νεφρῶν καὶ τῶν οὐρητήρων τὴν ἐνέργειαν, ἀδήλους δέ τινας πόρους εἰς τὴν κύστιν ὑποθέμενος· τοῦτο γὰρ ἦν δηλαδὴ μέγα καὶ σεμνὸν ἀπιστήσαντα τοῖς φαινομένοις πιστεῦσαι τοῖς ἀδήλοις.

k.v.2.p.40 Ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς ξανθῆς χολῆς ἔτι μεῖζον αὐτῷ καὶ νεανικώτερόν ἐστι τὸ τόλμημα· γεννᾶσθαι γὰρ αὐτὴν ἐν τοῖς χοληδόχοις ἀγγείοις, οὐ διακρίνεσθαι λέγει.

πῶς οὖν τοῖς ἰκτερικοῖς ἅμʼ ἄμφω συμπίπτει, τὰ μὲν διαχωρήματα μηδὲν ὅλως ἐν αὑτοῖς ἔχοντα χολῆς, ἀνάπλεων δʼ αὐτοῖς γιγνόμενον ὅλον τὸ σῶμα; ληρεῖν πάλιν ἐνταῦθʼ ἀναγκάζεται τοῖς ἐπὶ τῶν οὔρων εἰρημένοις παραπλησίως. ληρεῖ δʼ οὐδὲν ἧττον καὶ περὶ τῆς μελαίνης χολῆς καὶ τοῦ σπληνὸς οὔτε τί ποθʼ ὑφʼ Ἱπποκράτους εἴρηται συνιεὶς ἀντιλέγειν τʼ ἐπιχειρῶν οἷς οὐκ οἶδεν ἐμπλήκτῳ τινὶ καὶ μανικῷ στόματι. Τί δὴ τὸ κέρδος ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων δογμάτων εἰς τὰς θεραπείας ἐκτήσατο; μήτε νεφριτικόν τι νόσημα δύνασθαι θεραπεῦσαι μήτʼ ἰκτερικὸν μήτε μελαγχολικόν, ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ τοῦ πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις οὐχ Ἱπποκράτει μόνον ὁμολογουμένου τοῦ καθαίρειν τῶν φαρμάκων ἔνια μὲν τὴν ξανθὴν χολήν, ἔνια δὲ τὴν μέλαιναν, ἄλλα δέ τινα φλέγμα καί τινα τὸ λεπτὸν καὶ ὑδατῶδες περιττωμα, μηδὲ περὶ τούτων συγχωρεῖν, ἀλλʼ ὑπʼ αὐτῶν τῶν φαρμάκων γίγνεσθαι λέγειν τοιοῦτον ἕκαστον k.v.2.p.41 τῶν κενουμένων, ὥσπερ ὑπὸ τῶν χοληδόχων πόρων τὴν χολήν· καὶ μηδὲν διαφέρειν κατὰ τὸν θαυμαστὸν Ἀσκληπιάδην ἢ ὑδραγωγὸν διδόναι τοῖς ὑδεριῶσιν ἢ χολαγωγὸν φάρμακον· ἅπαντα γὰρ ὁμοίως κενοῦν καὶ συντήκειν τὸ σῶμα καὶ τὸ σύντηγμα τοιόνδε τι φαίνεσθαι ποιεῖν, μὴ πρότερον ὑπάρχον τοιοῦτον.

ἆρʼ οὖν οὐ μαίνεσθαι νομιστέον αὐτὸν ἢ παντάπασιν ἄπειρον εἶναι τῶν ἔργων τῆς τέχνης; τίς γὰρ οὐκ οἶδεν, ὡς, εἰ μὲν φλέγματος ἀγωγὸν δοθείη φάρμακον τοῖς ἰκτεριῶσιν, οὐκ ἂν οὐδὲ τέτταρας κυάθους καθαρθεῖεν· οὕτω δʼ οὐδʼ εἰ τῶν ὑδραγωγῶν τι· χολαγωγῷ δὲ φαρμάκῳ πλεῖστον μὲν ἐκκενοῦται χολῆς, αὐτίκα δὲ καθαρὸς τοῖς οὕτω καθαρθεῖσιν ὁ χρὼς γίγνεται. πολλοὺς γοῦν ἡμεῖς μετὰ τὸ θεραπεῦσαι τὴν ἐν τῷ ἥπατι διάθεσιν ἅπαξ καθήραντες ἀπηλλάξαμεν τοῦ παθήματος. οὐ μὴν οὐδʼ εἰ φλέγματος ἀγωγῷ καθαίροις φαρμάκῳ, πλέον ἄν τι διαπράξαιο.

καὶ ταῦτʼ οὐχ Ἱπποκράτης μὲν οὕτως οἶδε γιγνόμενα, τοῖς δʼ ἀπὸ τῆς ἐμπειρίας μόνης k.v.2.p.42 ὁρμωμένοις ἑτέρως ἔγνωσται, ἀλλὰ κἀκείνοις ὡσαύτως καὶ πᾶσιν ἰατροῖς, οἷς μέλει τῶν ἔργων τῆς τέχνης, οὕτω δοκεῖ πλὴν Ἀσκληπιάδου. προδοσίαν γὰρ εἶναι νενόμικε τῶν στοιχείων ὧν ὑπέθετο τὴν ἀληθῆ περὶ τῶν τοιούτων ὁμολογίαν. εἰ γὰρ ὅλως εὑρεθείη τι φάρμακον ἑλκτικὸν τοῦδέ τινος τοῦ χυμοῦ μόνου, κίνδυνος κρατεῖν δηλαδὴ τῷ λόγῳ τὸ ἐν ἑκάστῳ τῶν σωμάτων εἶναί τινα δύναμιν ἐπισπαστικὴν τῆς οἰκείας ποιότητος. διὰ τοῦτο κνῆκον μὲν καὶ κόκκον τὸν κνίδιον καὶ ἱπποφαὲς οὐχ ἕλκειν ἐκ τοῦ σώματος ἀλλὰ ποιεῖν τὸ φλέγμα φησίν· ἄνθος δὲ χαλκοῦ καὶ λεπίδα καὶ αὐτὸν τὸν κεκαυμένον χαλκὸν καὶ χαμαίδρυν καὶ χαμαιλέοντα εἰς ὕδωρ ἀναλύειν τὸ σῶμα καὶ τοὺς ὑδερικοὺς ὑπὸ τούτων οὐ καθαιρομένους ὀνίνασθαι ἀλλὰ κενουμένους συναυξόντων δηλαδὴ τὸ πάθος. εἰ γὰρ οὐ κενοῖ τὸ περιεχόμενον ἐν τοῖς σώμασιν ὑδατῶδες ὑγρὸν ἀλλʼ αὐτὸ γεννᾷ, τῷ νοσήματι προστιμωρεῖται. καὶ μέν γε καὶ ἡ σκαμμωνία πρὸς τῷ μὴ κενοῦν ἐκ τοῦ σώματος τῶν ἰκτερικῶν τὴν χολὴν ἔτι καὶ τὸ χρηστὸν αἷμα k.v.2.p.43 χολὴν ἐργαζομένη καὶ συντήκουσα τὸ σῶμα καὶ τηλικαῦτα κακὰ δρῶσα καὶ τὸ πάθος ἐπαύξουσα κατά γε τὸν Ἀσκληπιάδου λόγον.

ὅμως ἐναργῶς ὁρᾶται πολλοὺς ὠφελοῦσα. ναί, φησίν, ὀνίνανται μέν, ἀλλʼ αὐτῷ μόνῳ τῷ λόγῳ τῆς κενώσεως. καὶ μὴν εἰ φλέγματος ἀγωγὸν αὐτοῖς δοίης φάρμακον, οὐκ ὀνήσονται. καὶ τοῦθʼ οὕτως ἐναργές ἐστιν, ὥστε καὶ οἱ ἀπὸ μόνης τῆς ἐμπειρίας ὁρμώμενοι γιγνώσκουσιν αὐτό. καίτοι τούτοις γε τοῖς ἀνδράσιν αὐτὸ δὴ τοῦτʼ ἔστι φιλοσόφημα, τὸ μηδενὶ λόγῳ πιστεύειν ἀλλὰ μόνοις τοῖς ἐναργῶς φαινομένοις. ἐκεῖνοι μὲν οὖν σωφρονοῦσιν· Ἀσκληπιάδης δὲ παραπαίει ταῖς αἰσθήσεσιν ἡμᾶς ἀπιστεῖν κελεύων, ἔνθα τὸ φαινόμενον ἀνατρέπει σαφῶς αὐτοῦ τὰς ὑποθέσεις. καίτοι μακρῷ γʼ ἦν ἄμεινον οὐχ ὁμόσε χωρεῖν τοῖς φαινομένοις ἀλλʼ ἐκείνοις ἀναθέσθαι τὸ πᾶν.

ἆρʼ οὖν ταῦτα μόνον ἐναργῶς μάχεται τοῖς Ἀσκληπιάδου δόγμασιν ἢ καὶ τὸ θέρους μὲν πλείονα κενοῦσθαι τὴν ξανθὴν χολὴν ὑπὸ τῶν αὐτῶν φαρμάκων, χειμῶνος δὲ τὸ φλέγμα, καὶ νεανίσκῳ μὲν πλείονα τὴν χολήν, πρεσβύτῃ δὲ τὸ k.v.2.p.44 φλέγμα; φαίνεται γὰρ ἕκαστον ἕλκειν τὴν οὖσαν, οὐκ αὐτὸ γεννᾶν τὴν οὐκ οὖσαν. εἰ γοῦν ἐθελήσαις νεανίσκῳ τινὶ τῶν ἰσχνῶν καὶ θερμῶν ὥρᾳ θέρους μήτʼ ἀργῶς βεβιωκότι μήτʼ ἐν πλησμονῇ φλέγματος ἀγωγὸν δοῦναι φάρμακον, ὀλίγιστον μὲν καὶ μετὰ βίας πολλῆς ἐκκενώσεις τοῦ χυμοῦ, βλάψεις δʼ ἐσχάτως τὸν ἄνθρωπον· ἔμπαλιν δʼ εἰ χολαγωγὸν δοίης, καὶ πάμπολυ κενώσεις καὶ βλάψεις οὐδέν.

ἆρʼ ἀπιστοῦμεν ἔτι τῷ μὴ οὐχ ἕκαστον τῶν φαρμάκων ἐπάγεσθαι τὸν οἰκεῖον ἑαυτῷ χυμόν; ἴσως φήσουσιν οἱ ἀπʼ Ἀσκληπιάδου, μᾶλλον δʼ οὐκ ἴσως, ἀλλὰ πάντως ἀπιστεῖν ἐροῦσιν, ἵνα μὴ προδῶσι τὰ φίλτατα.

[14] πάλιν οὖν καὶ ἡμεῖς ἐφʼ ἑτέραν μεταβῶμεν ἀδολεσχίαν· οὐ γὰρ ἐπιτρέπουσιν οἱ σοφισταὶ τῶν ἀξίων τι ζητημάτων προχειρίζεσθαι καίτοι παμπόλλων ὑπαρχόντων, ἀλλὰ κατατρίβειν ἀναγκάζουσι τὸν χρόνον εἰς τὴν τῶν σοφισμάτων, ὧν προβάλλουσι, λύσιν.

τίς οὖν ἡ ἀδολεσχία; ἡ ἔνδοξος αὕτη καὶ k.v.2.p.45 πολυθρύλητος λίθος ἡ τὸν σίδηρον ἐπισπωμένη. τάχα γὰρ ἂν αὕτη ποτὲ τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτῶν ἐπισπάσαιτο πιστεύειν εἶναί τινας ἐν ἑκάστῳ τῶν σωμάτων ἑλκτικὰς τῶν οἰκείων ποιοτήτων δυνάμεις.

Ἐπίκουρος μὲν οὖν καίτοι παραπλησίοις Ἀσκληπιάδῃ στοιχείοις πρὸς τὴν φυσιολογίαν χρώμενος ὅμως ὁμολογεῖ, πρὸς μὲν τῆς ἡρακλείας λίθου τὸν σίδηρον ἕλκεσθαι, πρὸς δὲ τῶν ἠλέκτρων τὰ κυρήβια καὶ πειρᾶταί γε καὶ τὴν αἰτίαν ἀποδιδόναι τοῦ φαινομένου. τὰς γὰρ ἀπορρεούσας ἀτόμους ἀπὸ τῆς λίθου ταῖς ἀπορρεούσαις ἀπὸ τοῦ σιδήρου τοῖς σχήμασιν οἰκείας εἶναί φησιν, ὥστε περιπλέκεσθαι Ῥᾳδίως. προσκρουούσας οὖν αὐτὰς τοῖς συγκρίμασιν ἑκατέροις τῆς τε λίθου καὶ τοῦ σιδήρου κἄπειτʼ εἰς τὸ μέσον ἀποπαλλομένας οὕτως ἀλλήλαις τε περιπλέκεσθαι καὶ συνεπισπᾶσθαι τὸν σίδηρον. τὸ μὲν οὖν τῶν ὑποθέσεων εἰς τὴν αἰτιολογίαν ἀπίθανον ἄντικρυς δῆλον, ὅμως δʼ οὖν ὁμολογεῖ τὴν ὁλκήν. καὶ οὕτω γε καὶ κατὰ τὰ σώματα τῶν ζῴων φησὶ γίγνεσθαι τάς τʼ ἀναδόσεις καὶ τὰς διακρίσεις τῶν περιττωμάτων καὶ τὰς τῶν καθαιρόντων φαρμάκων ἐνεργείας.

Ἀσκληπιάδης δὴ τό τε τῆς εἰρημένης αἰτίας k.v.2.p.46 ἀπίθανον ὑπιδόμενος καὶ μηδεμίαν ἄλλην ἐφʼ οἷς ὑπέθετο στοιχείοις ἐξευρίσκων πιθανὴν ἐπὶ τὸ μηδʼ ὅλως ἕλκεσθαι λέγειν ὑπὸ μηδενὸς μηδὲν ἀναισχυντήσας ἐτράπετο, δέον, εἰ μήθʼ οἷς Ἐπίκουρος εἶπεν ἠρέσκετο μήτʼ ἄλλα βελτίω λέγειν εἶχεν, ἀποστῆναι τῶν ὑποθέσεων καὶ τήν τε φύσιν εἰπεῖν τεχνικὴν καὶ τὴν οὐσίαν τῶν ὄντων ἑνουμένην τε πρὸς ἑαυτὴν ἀεὶ καὶ ἀλλοιουμένην ὑπὸ τῶν ἑαυτῆς μορίων εἰς ἄλληλα δρώντων τε καὶ πασχόντων. εἰ γὰρ ταῦθʼ ὑπέθετο, χαλεπὸν οὐδὲν ἦν τὴν τεχνικὴν ἐκείνην φύσιν ὁμολογῆσαι δύναμεις ἔχειν ἐπισπαστικὴν μὲν τῶν οἰκείων, ἀποκριτικὴν δὲ τῶν ἀλλοτρίων. οὐ γὰρ διʼ ἄλλο τί γʼ ἦν αὐτῇ τὸ τεχνικῇ τʼ εἶναι καὶ τοῦ ζῴου διασωστικῇ καὶ τῶν νοσημάτων κριτικῇ παρὰ τὸ προσίεσθαι μὲν καὶ φυλάττειν τὸ οἰκεῖον, ἀποκρίνειν δὲ τὸ ἀλλότριον.

ἀλλʼ Ἀσκληπιάδης κἀνταῦθα τὸ μὲν ἀκόλουθον ταῖς ἀρχαῖς αἷς ὑπέθετο συνεῖδεν, οὐ μὴν τήν γε πρὸς τὸ φαινόμενον ἐναργῶς ᾐδέσθη μάχην, k.v.2.p.47 ἀλλʼ ὁμόσε χωρεῖ καὶ περὶ τούτου πᾶσιν οὐκ ἰατροῖς μόνον ἀλλʼ ἤδη καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἀνθρώποις οὔτε κρίσιν εἶναί τινα λέγων οὔθʼ ἡμέραν κρίσιμον οὔθʼ ὅλως οὐδὲν ἐπὶ σωτηρίᾳ τοῦ ζῴου πραγματεύσασθαι τὴν φύσιν. ἀεὶ γὰρ τὸ μὲν ἀκόλουθον φυλάττειν βούλεται, τὸ δʼ ἐναργῶς φαινόμενον ἀνατρέπειν ἔμπαλιν Ἐπικούρῳ. τιθεὶς γὰρ ἐκεῖνος ἀεὶ τὸ φαινόμενον αἰτίαν αὐτοῦ ψυχρὰν ἀποδίδωσι. τὰ γὰρ ἀποπαλλόμενα σμικρὰ σώματα τῆς ἡρακλείας λίθου τοιούτοις ἑτέροις περιπλέκεσθαι μορίοις τοῦ σιδήρου κἄπειτα διὰ τῆς περιπλοκῆς ταύτης μηδαμοῦ φαινομένης ἐπισπᾶσθαι βαρεῖαν οὕτως οὐσίαν οὐκ οἶδʼ ὅπως ἄν τις πεισθείη. καὶ γὰρ εἰ τοῦτο συγχωρήσομεν, τό γε τῷ σιδήρῳ πάλιν ἕτερον προστεθέν τι συνάπτεσθαι τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν οὐκέτι προσίεται.

τί γὰρ ἐροῦμεν; ἢ δηλαδὴ τῶν ἀπορρεόντων τῆς λίθου μορίων ἔνια μὲν προσκρούσαντα τῷ σιδήρῳ πάλιν ἀποπάλλεσθαι καὶ ταῦτα μὲν εἶναι, διʼ ὧν κρεμάννυσθαι συμβαίνει τὸν σίδηρον, τὰ δʼ k.v.2.p.48 εἰς αὐτὸν εἰσδυόμενα διὰ τῶν κενῶν πόρων διεξέρχεσθαι τάχιστα κἄπειτα τῷ παρακειμένῳ σιδήρῳ προσκρούοντα μήτʼ ἐκεῖνον διαδῦναι δύνασθαι, καίτοι τόν γε πρῶτον διαδύντα, παλινδρομοῦντα δʼ αὖθις ἐπὶ τὸν πρότερον ἑτέρας αὖθις ἐργάζεσθαι ταῖς προτέραις ὁμοίας περιπλοκάς;

ἐναργῶς γὰρ ἐνταῦθα τὸ ληρῶδες τῆς αἰτίας ἐλέγχεται. γραφεῖα γοῦν οἶδά ποτε σιδηρᾶ πέντε κατὰ τὸ συνεχὲς ἀλλήλοις συναφθέντα, τοῦ πρώτου μὲν μόνου τῆς λίθου ψαύσαντος, ἐξ ἐκείνου δʼ εἰς τἆλλα τῆς δυνάμεως διαδοθείσης· καὶ οὐκ ἔστιν εἰπεῖν, ὡς, εἰ μὲν τῷ κάτω τοῦ γραφείου πέρατι προσάγοις ἕτερον, ἔχεταί τε καὶ συνάπτεται καὶ κρέμαται τὸ προσενεχθέν· εἰ δʼ ἄλλῳ τινὶ μέρει τῶν πλαγίων προσθείης, οὐ συνάπτεται. πάντη γὰρ ὁμοίως ἡ τῆς λίθου διαδίδοται δύναμις, εἰ μόνον ἅψαιτο κατά τι τοῦ πρώτου γραφείου. καὶ μέντοι κἀκ τούτου πάλιν εἰς τὸ δεύτερον ὅλον ἡ δύναμις ἅμα νοήματι διαρρεῖ κἀξ ἐκείνου πάλιν εἰς τὸ τρίτον ὅλον. εἰ δὴ νοήσαις σμικράν τινα λίθον ἡρακλείαν ἐν οἴκῳ τινὶ κρεμαμένην, εἶτʼ ἐν κύκλῳ ψαύοντα πάμπολλα σιδήρια κἀκείνων πάλιν ἕτερα κἀκείνων ἄλλα καὶ τοῦτʼ ἄχρι k.v.2.p.49 πλείονος, ἅπαντα δήπου πίμπλασθαι δεῖ τὰ σιδήρια τῶν ἀπορρεόντων τῆς λίθου σωμάτων. καὶ κινδυνεύει διαφορηθῆναι τὸ σμικρὸν ἐκεῖνο λιθίδιον εἰς τὰς ἀπορροὰς διαλυθέν. καίτοι, κἂν εἰ μηδὲν παρακέοιτʼ αὐτῷ σιδήριον, εἰς τὸν ἀέρα σκεδάννυται, μάλιστʼ εἰ καὶ θερμὸς ὑπάρχοι.

ναί, φησί, σμικρὰ γὰρ αὐτὰ χρὴ πάνυ νοεῖν, ὥστε τῶν ἐμφερομένων τῷ ἀέρι ψηγμάτων τούτων δὴ τῶν σμικροτάτων ἐκείνων ἔνια μυριοστὸν εἶναι μέρος. εἶτʼ ἐξ οὕτω σμικρῶν τολμᾶτε λέγειν κρεμάννυσθαι βάρη τηλικαῦτα σιδήρου; εἰ γὰρ ἕκαστον αὐτῶν μυριοστόν ἐστι μέρος τῶν ἐν τῷ ἀέρι φερομένων ψηγμάτων, πηλίκον χρὴ νοῆσαι τὸ πέρας αὐτῶν τὸ ἀγκιστροειδές, ᾧ περιπλέκεται πρὸς ἄλληλα; πάντως γὰρ δήπου τοῦτο σμικρότατόν ἐστιν ὅλου τοῦ ψήγματος.

εἶτα μικρὸν μικρῷ, κινούμενον κινουμένῳ περιπλακὲν οὐκ εὐθὺς ἀποπάλλεται. καὶ γὰρ δὴ καὶ ἄλλʼ ἄττα πάντως αὐτοῖς, τὰ μὲν ἄνωθεν, τὰ δὲ κάτωθεν, καὶ τὰ μὲν ἔμπροσθεν, τὰ δʼ ὄπισθεν, τὰ δʼ ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν, τὰ δʼ ἐκ τῶν ἀριστερῶν k.v.2.p.50 ἐκρηγνύμενα σείει τε καὶ βράττει καὶ μένειν οὐκ ἐᾷ. καὶ μέντοι καὶ πολλὰ χρὴ νοεῖν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἕκαστον ἐκείνων τῶν σμικρῶν σωμάτων ἔχειν ἀγκιστρώδη πέρατα. διʼ ἑνὸς μὲν γὰρ ἀλλήλοις συνάπτεται, διʼ ἑτέρου δʼ ἑνὸς τοῦ μὲν ὑπερκειμένου τῇ λίθῳ, τοῦ δʼ ὑποκειμένου τῷ σιδήρῳ. εἰ γὰρ ἄνω μὲν ἐξαφθείη τῆς λίθου, κάτω δὲ τῷ σιδήρῳ μὴ συμπλακείη, πλέον οὐδέν. ὥστε τοῦ μὲν ὑπερκειμένου τὸ ἄνω μέρος ἐκκρέμασθαι χρὴ τῆς λίθου, τοῦ δʼ ὑποκειμένου τῷ κάτω πέρατι συνῆφθαι τὸν σίδηρον. ἐπεὶ δὲ κἀκ τῶν πλαγίων ἀλλήλοις περιπλέκεται, πάντως που κἀνταῦθα ἔχει τὰ ἄγκιστρα. καὶ μέμνησό μοι πρὸ πάντων, ὅπως ὄντα σμικρὰ τὰς τοιαύτας καὶ τοσαύτας ἀποφύσεις ἔχει. καὶ τούτου μᾶλλον ἔτι, πῶς, ἵνα τὸ δεύτερον σιδήριον συναφθῇ τῷ πρώτῳ καὶ τῷ δευτέρῳ τὸ τρίτον κἀκείνῳ τὸ τέταρτον, ἅμα μὲν διεξέρχεσθαι χρὴ τοὺς πόρους ταυτὶ τὰ σμικρὰ καὶ ληρώδη ψήγματα, ἅμα δʼ ἀποπάλλεσθαι τοῦ k.v.2.p.51 μετʼ αὐτὸ τεταγμένου, καίτοι κατὰ πᾶν ὁμοίου τὴν φύσιν ὑπάρχοντος.

οὐδὲ γὰρ ἡ τοιαύτη πάλιν ὑπόθεσις ἄτολμος, ἀλλʼ, εἰ χρὴ τἀληθὲς εἰπεῖν, μακρῷ τῶν ἔμπροσθεν ἀναισχυντοτέρα, πέντε σιδηρίων ὁμοίων ἀλλήλοις ἐφεξῆς τεταγμένων διὰ τοῦ πρώτου διαδυόμενα Ῥᾳδίως τῆς λίθου τὰ μόρια κατὰ τὸ δὲύτερον ἀποπάλλεσθαι καὶ μὴ διὰ τούτου κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον ἑτοίμως διεξέρχεσθαι. καὶ μὴν ἑκατέρως ἄτοπον. εἰ μὲν γὰρ ἀποπάλλεται, πῶς εἰς τὸ τρίτον ὠκέως διεξέρχεται; εἰ δʼ οὐκ ἀποπάλλεται, πῶς κρεμάννυται τὸ δεύτερον ἐκ τοῦ πρώτου; τὴν γὰρ ἀπόπαλσιν αὐτὸς ὑπέθετο δημιουργὸν τῆς ὁλκῆς.

ἀλλʼ, ὅπερ ἔφην, εἰς ἀδολεσχίαν ἀναγκαῖον ἐμπίπτειν, ἐπειδάν τις τοιούτοις ἀνδράσι διαλέγηται. σύντομον οὖν τινα καὶ κεφαλαιώδη λόγον εἰπὼν ἀπαλλάττεσθαι βούλομαι. τοῖς Ἀσκληπιάδου γράμμασιν εἴ τις ἐπιμελῶς ὁμιλήσειε, τήν τε πρὸς τὰς ἀρχὰς ἀκολουθίαν τῶν τοιούτων δογμάτων ἀκριβῶς ἂν ἐκμάθοι καὶ τὴν πρὸς τὰ φαινόμενα μάχην. ὁ μὲν οὖν Ἐπίκουρος τὰ k.v.2.p.52 φαινόμενα φυλάττειν βουλόμενος ἀσχημονεῖ φιλοτιμούμενος ἐπιδεικνύειν αὐτὰ ταῖς ἀρχαῖς ὁμολογοῦντα· ὁ δʼ Ἀσκληπιάδης τὸ μὲν ἀκόλουθον ταῖς ἀρχαῖς φυλάττει, τοῦ φαινομένου δʼ οὐδὲν αὐτῷ μέλει. ὅστις οὖν βούλεται τὴν ἀτοπίαν ἐξελέγχειν τῶν ὑποθέσεων, εἰ μὲν πρὸς Ἀσκληπιάδην ὁ λόγος αὐτῷ γίγνοιτο, τῆς πρὸς τὸ φαινόμενον ὑπομιμνησκέτω μάχης· εἰ δὲ πρὸς Ἐπίκουρον, τῆς πρὸς τὰς ἀρχὰς διαφωνίας. αἱ δʼ ἄλλαι σχεδὸν αἱρέσεις αἱ τῶν ὁμοίων ἀρχῶν ἐχόμεναι τελέως ἀπέσβησαν, αὗται δʼ ἔτι μόναι διαρκοῦσιν οὐκ ἀγεννῶς. καίτοι τὰ μὲν Ἀσκληπιάδου Μη όδοτος ὁ ἐμπειρικὸς ἀφύκτως ἐξελέγχει, τήν τε πρὸς τὰ φαινόμενα μάχην ὑπομιμνήσκων αὐτὸν καὶ τὴν πρὸς ἄλληλα· τὰ δʼ Ἐπικούρου πάλιν ὁ Ἀσκληπιάδης ἐχόμενος ἀεὶ τῆς ἀκολουθίας, ἧς ἐκεῖνος οὐ πάνυ τι φαίνεται φροντίζων.

ἀλλʼ οἱ νῦν ἄνθρωποι, πρὶν καὶ ταύτας ἐκμαθεῖν τὰς αἱρέσεις καὶ τὰς ἄλλας τὰς βελτίους κἄπειτα χρόνῳ πολλῷ κρῖναί τε καὶ βασανίσαι τὸ καθʼ ἑκάστην αὐτῶν ἀληθές τε καὶ ψεῦδος, οἱ μὲν ἰατροὺς ἑαυτούς, οἱ δὲ φιλοσόφους k.v.2.p.53 ὀνομάζουσι μηδὲν εἰδότες. οὐδὲν οὖν θαυμαστὸν ἐπίσης τοῖς ἀληθέσι τὰ ψευδῆ τετιμῆσθαι. ὅτῳ γὰρ ἂν ἕκαστος πρώτῳ περιτύχῃ διδασκάλῳ, τοιοῦτος ἐγένετο, μὴ περιμείνας μηδὲν ἔτι παρʼ ἄλλου μαθεῖν. ἔνιοι δʼ αὐτῶν, εἰ καὶ πλείοσιν ἐντύχοιεν, ἀλλʼ οὕτω γʼ εἰσὶν ἀσύνετοί τε καὶ βραδεῖς τὴν διάνοιαν, ὥστε καὶ γεγηρακότες οὔπω συνιᾶσιν ἀκολουθίαν λόγου. πάλαι δὲ τοὺς τοιούτους ἐπὶ τὰς βαναύσους ἀπέλυον τέχνας. ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν ἐς ὅ τι τελευτήσει θεὸς οἶδεν.

ἡμεῖς δʼ ἐπειδή, καίτοι φεύγοντες ἀντιλέγειν τοῖς ἐν αὐταῖς ταῖς ἀρχαῖς εὐθὺς ἐσφαλμένοις, ὅμως ἠναγκάσθημεν ὑπʼ αὐτῆς τῶν πραγμάτων τῆς ἀκολουθίας εἰπεῖν τινα καὶ διαλεχθῆναι πρὸς αὐτούς, ἔτι καὶ τοῦτο προσθήσομεν τοῖς εἰρημένοις, ὡς οὐ μόνον τὰ καθαίροντα φάρμακα πέφυκεν ἐπισπᾶσθαι τὰς οἰκείας ποιότητας ἀλλὰ καὶ τὰ τοὺς σκόλοπας ἀνάγοντα καὶ τὰς τῶν βελῶν ἀκίδας εἰς πολὺ βάθος σαρκὸς ἐμπεπαρμένας ἐνίοτε. καὶ μέντοι καὶ ὅσα τοὺς ἰοὺς τῶν θηρίων ἢ τοὺς ἐμπεφαρμαγμένους τοῖς βέλεσιν ἀνέλκει, καὶ ταῦτα τὴν αὐτὴν ταῖς ἡρακλείαις k.v.2.p.54 λίθοις ἐπιδείκνυται δύναμιν. ἔγωγʼ οὖν οἶδά ποτε καταπεπαρμένον ἐν ποδὶ νεανίσκου σκόλοπα τοῖς μὲν δακτύλοις ἕλκουσιν ἡμῖν βιαίως οὐκ ἀκολουθήσαντα, φαρμάκου δʼ ἐπιτεθέντος ἀλύπως τε καὶ διὰ ταχέων ἀνελθόντα. καίτοι καὶ πρὸς τοῦτό τινες ἀντιλέγουσι φάσκοντες, ὅταν ἡ φλεγμονὴ λυθῇ τοῦ μέρους, αὐτόματον ἐξιέναι τὸν σκόλοπα πρὸς οὐδενὸς ἀνελκόμενον. ἀλλʼ οὗτοί γε πρῶτον μὲν ἀγνοεῖν ἐοίκασιν, ὡς ἄλλα μέν ἐστι φλεγμονῆς, ἄλλα δὲ τῶν οὕτω καταπεπαρμένων ἑλκτικὰ φάρμακα· καίτοι γʼ εἴπερ ἀφλεγμάντων γενομένων ἐξεκρίνετο τὰ παρὰ φύσιν, ὅσα φλεγμονῆς ἐστι λυτικά, ταῦτʼ εὐθὺς ἂν ἦν κἀκείνων ἑλκτικά.

δεύτερον δʼ, ὃ καὶ μᾶλλον ἄν τις θαυμάσειεν, ὡς οὐ μόνον ἄλλα μὲν τοὺς σκόλοπας, ἄλλα δὲ τοὺς ἰοὺς ἐξάγει φάρμακα, ἀλλὰ καὶ αὐτῶν τῶν τοὺς ἰοὺς ἑλκόντων τὰ μὲν τὸν τῆς ἐχίδνης, τὰ δὲ τὸν τῆς τρυγόνος, τὰ δʼ ἄλλου τινὸς ἐπισπᾶται καὶ σαφῶς ἔστιν ἰδεῖν τοῖς φαρμάκοις ἐπικειμένους αὐτούς. ἐνταῦθʼ οὖν Ἐπίκουρον μὲν k.v.2.p.55 ἐπαινεῖν χρὴ τῆς πρὸς τὸ φαινόμενον αἰδοῦς, μέμφεσθαι δὲ τὸν λόγον τῆς αἰτίας. ὃν γὰρ ἡμεῖς ἕλκοντες τοῖς δακτύλοις οὐκ ἀνηγάγομεν σκόλοπα, τοῦτον ὑπὸ τῶν σμικρῶν ἐκείνων ἀνέλκεσθαι ψηγμάτων, πῶς οὐ παντάπασιν ἄτοπον εἶναι χρὴ νομίζειν;

ἆρʼ οὖν ἤδη πεπείσμεθα τῶν ὄντων ἑκάστῳ δύναμίν τινʼ ὑπάρχειν, ᾗ τὴν οἰκείαν ἕλκει ποιότητα, τὸ μὲν μᾶλλον, τὸ δʼ ἧττον;

ἢ καὶ τὸ τῶν πυρῶν ἔτι παράδειγμα προχειρισόμεθα τῷ λόγῳ; φανήσονται γὰρ οἶμαι καὶ τῶν γεωργῶν αὐτῶν ἀμαθέστεροι περὶ τὴν φύσιν οἱ μηδὲν ὅλως ὑπὸ μηδενὸς ἕλκεσθαι συγχωροῦντες· ὡς ἔγωγε πρῶτον, μὲν ἀκούσας τὸ γιγνόμενον ἐθαύμασα καὶ αὐτὸς ἠβουλήθην αὐτόπτης αὐτοῦ καταστῆναι. μετὰ ταῦτα δέ, ὡς καὶ τὰ τῆς πείρας ὡμολόγει, τὴν αἰτίαν σκοπούμενος ἐν παμπόλλῳ χρόνῳ κατὰ πάσας τὰς αἱρέσεις οὐδεμίαν ἄλλην εὑρεῖν οἷός τʼ ἦν οὐδʼ ἄχρι τοῦ πιθανοῦ προϊοῦσαν ἀλλὰ καταγελάστους τε καὶ σαφῶς ἐξελεγχομένας τὰς ἄλλας ἁπάσας πλὴν τῆς τὴν ὁλκὴν πρεσβευούσης.

ἔστι δὲ τὸ γιγνόμενον τοιόνδε. k.v.2.p.56 κατακομίζοντες οἱ παρʼ ἡμῖν γεωργοὶ τοὺς ἐκ τῶν ἀγρῶν πυροὺς εἰς τὴν πόλιν ἐν ἁμάξαις τισίν, ὅταν ὑφελέσθαι βουληθῶσιν, ὥστε μὴ φωραθῆναι, κεράμιʼ ἄττα πληρώσαντες ὕδατος μέσοις αὐτοῖς ἐνιστᾶσιν. ἕλκοντες οὖν ἐκεῖνοι διὰ τοῦ κεραμίου τὸ ὑγρὸν εἰς αὑτοὺς ὄγκον μὲν καὶ βάρος προσκτῶνται, κατάδηλοι δʼ οὐ πάνυ γίγνονται τοῖς ὁρῶσιν, εἰ μή τις προπεπυσμένος ἤδη περιεργότερον ἐπισκοποῖτο. καίτοι γʼ εἰ βουληθείης ἐν ἡλίῳ καταθεῖναι πάνυ θερμῷ ταὐτὸν ἀγγεῖον, ἐλάχιστον παντελῶς εὑρήσεις τὸ δαπανώμενον ἐφʼ ἑκάστης ἡμέρας. οὕτως ἄρα καὶ τῆς ἡλιακῆς θερμασίας τῆς σφοδρᾶς ἰσχυροτέραν οἱ πυροὶ δύναμιν ἔχουσιν ἕλκειν εἰς ἑαυτοὺς τὴν πλησιάζουσαν ὑγρότητα. λῆρος οὖν ἐνταῦθα μακρὸς ἡ πρὸς τὸ λεπτομερὲς φορὰ τοῦ περιέχοντος ἡμᾶς ἀέρος καὶ μάλισθʼ ὅταν ἱκανῶς ᾖ θερμός, πολὺ μὲν ὑπάρχοντος ἢ κατὰ τοὺς πυροὺς λεπτομερεστέρου, δεχομένου δʼ οὐδὲ τὸ δέκατον μέρος τῆς εἰς ἐκείνους μεταλαμβανομένης ὑγρότητος.

[15] ἐπεὶ δʼ ἱκανῶς ἠδολεσχήσαμεν οὐχ ἑκόντες, ἀλλʼ, ὡς ἡ παροιμία φησί, μαινομένοις k.v.2.p.57 ἀναγκασθέντες συμμανῆναι, πάλιν ἐπὶ τὴν τῶν οὔρων ἐπανέλθωμεν διάκρισιν, ἐν ᾗ τῶν μὲν Ἀσκληπιάδου λήρων ἐπιλαθώμεθα, μετὰ δὲ τῶν πεπεισμένων διηθεῖσθαι τὰ οὖρα διὰ τῶν νεφρῶν, τίς ὁ τρόπος τῆς ἐνεργείας ἐστίν, ἐπισκεψώμεθα· πάντως γὰρ ἢ ἐξ αὑτῶν ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς φέρεται τὰ οὖρα τοῦτο βέλτιον εἶναι νομίζοντα, καθάπερ ἡμεῖς, ὁπόταν εἰς τὴν ἀγορὰν ἀπίωμεν· ἤ, εἰ τοῦτʼ ἀδύνατον, ἕτερόν τι χρὴ τῆς φορᾶς αὐτῶν ἐξευρεῖν αἴτιον. τί δὴ τοῦτʼ ἔστιν; εἰ γὰρ μὴ τοῖς νεφροῖς δώσομέν τινα δύναμιν ἑλκτικὴν τῆς τοιαύτης ποιότητος, ὡς Ἱπποκράτης ἐνόμιζεν, οὐδὲν ἕτερον ἐξευρήσομεν. ὅτι μὲν γὰρ ἤτοι τούτους ἕλκειν αὐτὸ προσῆκεν ἢ τὰς φλέβας πέμπειν, εἴπερ γε μὴ ἐξ ἑαυτοῦ φέρεται, παντί που δῆλον. ἀλλʼ εἰ μὲν αἱ φλέβες περιστελλόμεναι προωθοῖεν, οὐκ ἐκεῖνο μόνον, ἀλλὰ σὺν αὐτῷ καὶ τὸ πᾶν αἷμα τὸ περιεχόμενον ἐν ἑαυταῖς εἰς τοὺς νεφροὺς ἐκθλίψουσιν· εἰ δὲ τοῦτʼ ἀδύνατον, ὡς δείξομεν, λείπεται τοὺς νεφροὺς ἕλκειν.

πῶς οὖν ἀδύνατον τοῦτο; τῶν νεφρῶν ἡ θέσις ἀντιβαίνει. οὐ γὰρ δὴ οὕτω γʼ ὑπόκεινται τῇ k.v.2.p.58 κοίλῃ φλεβὶ καθάπερ τοῖς ἐξ ἐγκεφάλου περιττώμασιν ἔν τε τῇ Ῥινὶ καὶ κατὰ τὴν ὑπερῴαν οἱ τοῖς ἠθμοῖς ὅμοιοι πόροι, ἀλλʼ ἑκατέρωθεν αὐτῇ παράκεινται. καὶ μήν, εἴπερ ὁμοίως τοῖς ἠθμοῖς ὅσον ἂν ᾖ λεπτότερον καὶ τελέως ὀρρῶδες, τοῦτο μὲν ἑτοίμως διαπέμπουσι, τὸ δὲ παχύτερον ἀποστέγουσιν, ἅπαν ἐπʼ αὐτοὺς ἰέναι χρὴ τὸ αἷμα τὸ περιεχόμενον ἐν τῇ κοίλῃ φλεβί, καθάπερ εἰς τοὺς τρυγητοὺς ὁ πᾶς οἶνος ἐμβάλλεται. καὶ μέν γε καὶ τὸ τοῦ γάλακτος τοῦ τυρουμένου παράδειγμα σαφῶς ἄν, ὃ βούλομαι λέγειν, ἐνδείξαιτο. καὶ γὰρ καὶ τοῦτο πᾶν ἐμβληθὲν εἰς τοὺς ταλάρους οὐ πᾶν διηθεῖται, ἀλλʼ ὅσον μὲν ἂν ᾖ λεπτότερον τῆς εὐρύτητος τῶν πλοκάμων, εἰς τὸ κάταντες φέρεται καὶ τοῦτο μὲν ὀρρὸς ἐπονομάζεται· τὸ λοιπὸν δὲ τὸ παχὺ τὸ μέλλον ἔσεσθαι τυρός, ὡς ἂν οὐ παραδεχομένων αὐτὸ τῶν ἐν τοῖς ταλάροις πόρων, οὐ διεκπίπτει κάτω. καὶ τοίνυν, εἴπερ οὕτω μέλλει διηθεῖσθαι τῶν νεφρῶν ὁ τοῦ αἵματος ὀρρός, ἅπαν ἐπʼ αὐτοὺς ἥκειν χρὴ τὸ αἷμα καὶ μὴ τὸ μὲν ναί, τὸ δʼ οὔ.

k.v.2.p.59 Πῶς οὖν ἔχει τὸ φαινόμενον ἐκ τῆς ἀνατομῆς;

τὸ μὲν ἕτερον μέρος τῆς κοίλης ἄνω πρὸς τὴν καρδίαν ἀναφέρεται, τὸ λοιπὸν δʼ ἐπιβαίνει τῇ Ῥάχει καθʼ ὅλης αὐτῆς ἐκτεινόμενον ἄχρι τῶν σκελῶν, ὥστε τὸ μὲν ἕτερον οὐδʼ ἐγγὺς ἀφικνεῖται τῶν νεφρῶν, τὸ λοιπὸν δὲ πλησιάζει μέν, οὐ μὴν εἰς αὐτούς γε καταφύεται. ἐχρῆν δʼ, εἴπερ ἔμελλεν ὡς διʼ ἠθμῶν αὐτῶν καθαρθήσεσθαι τὸ αἷμα, πᾶν ἐμπίπτειν εἰς αὐτοὺς κἄπειτα κάτω μὲν φέρεσθαι τὸ λεπτόν, ἴσχεσθαι δʼ ἄνω τὸ παχύ. νυνὶ δʼ οὐχ οὕτως ἔχει· πλάγιοι γὰρ ἑκατέρωθεν τῆς κοίλης φλεβὸς οἱ νεφροὶ κεῖνται. οὔκουν ὡς ἠθμοὶ διηθοῦσι, πεμπούσης μὲν ἐκείνης, αὐτοὶ δʼ οὐδεμίαν εἰσφερόμενοι δύναμιν, ἀλλʼ ἕλκουσι δηλονότι· τοῦτο γὰρ ἔτι λείπεται.

πῶς οὖν ἕλκουσιν; εἰ μέν, ὡς Ἐπίκουρος οἴεται τὰς ὁλκὰς ἁπάσας γίγνεσθαι κατὰ τὰς τῶν ἀτόμων ἀποπάλσεις τε καὶ περιπλοκάς, ἄμεινον ἦν ὄντως εἰπεῖν αὐτοὺς μηδʼ ἕλκειν ὅλως· πολὺ γὰρ ἂν οὕτω γε τῶν ἐπὶ τῆς ἡρακλείας λίθου k.v.2.p.60 μικρῷ πρόσθεν εἰρημένων ὁ λόγος ἐξεταζόμενος εὑρεθείη γελοιότερος· ἀλλʼ ὡς Ἱπποκράτης ἠβούλετο. λεχθήσεται δὲ σαφέστερον ἐπὶ προήκοντι τῷ λόγῳ. νυνὶ γὰρ οὐ τοῦτο πρόκειται διδάσκειν, ἀλλʼ ὡς οὔτʼ ἄλλο τι δυνατὸν εἰπεῖν αἴτιον εἶναι τῆς τῶν οὔρων διακρίσεως πλὴν τῆς ὁλκῆς τῶν νεφρῶν οὔθʼ οὕτω γίγνεσθαι τὴν ὁλκήν, ὡς οἱ μἠδεμίαν οἰκείαν διδόντες τῇ φύσει δύναμιν οἴονται γίγνεσθαι.

τούτου γὰρ ὁμολογηθέντος, ὡς ἔστιν ὅλως τις ἐν τοῖς ὑπὸ φύσεως διοικουμένοις δύναμις ἑλκτική, ληρώδης νομίζοιτʼ ἂν ὁ περὶ ἀναδόσεως τροφῆς ἄλλο τι λέγειν ἐπιχειρῶν.

[16] Ἐρασίστρατος δʼ οὐκ οἶδʼ ὅπως ἑτέραις μέν τισι δόξαις εὐήθεσιν ἀντεῖπε διὰ μακρῶν, ὑπερέβη δὲ τελέως τὴν Ἱπποκράτους, οὐδʼ ἄχρι τοῦ μνημονεῦσαι μόνον αὐτῆς, ὡς ἐν τοῖς περὶ καταπόσεως ἐποίησεν, ἀξιώσας. ἐν ἐκείνοις μὲν γὰρ ἄχρι τοσούτου φαίνεται μνημονεύων, ὡς τοὔνομʼ εἰπεῖν τῆς ὁλκῆς μόνον ὧδέ πως γράφων·

"Ὁλκὴ μὲν οὖν τῆς κοιλίας οὐδεμία φαίνεται k.v.2.p.61 εἶναι"· περὶ δὲ τῆς ἀναδόσεως τὸν λόγον ποιούμενος οὐδʼ ἄχρι συλλαβῆς μιᾶς ἐμνημόνευσε τῆς Ἱπποκρατείου δόξης. καίτοι γʼ ἐπήρκεσεν ἂν ἡμῖν, εἰ καὶ τοῦτʼ ἔγραψε μόνον, ὡς Ἱπποκράτης εἰπὼν "Σάρκες ὁλκοὶ καὶ ἐκ κοιλίης καὶ ἔξωθεν" ψεύδεται· οὔτε γὰρ ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας οὔτʼ ἔξωθεν ἕλκειν δύνανται. εἰ δὲ καὶ ὅτι μήτρας αἰτιώμενος ἄρρωστον αὐχένα κακῶς εἶπεν "Οὐ γὰρ δύναται αὐτέης ὁ στόμαχος εἰρύσαι τὴν γονήν," ἢ εἰ καί τι τοιοῦτον ἄλλο γράφειν ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος ἠξίωσε, τότʼ ἂν καὶ ἡμεῖς πρὸς αὐτὸν ἀπολογούμενοι εἴπομεν·

ὦ γενναῖε, μὴ Ῥητορικῶς ἡμῶν κατάτρεχε χωρὶς ἀποδείξεως, ἀλλʼ εἰπέ τινα κατηγορίαν τοῦ δόγματος, ἵνʼ ἢ πεισθῶμέν σοι ὡς καλῶς ἐξέλεγχοντι τὸν παλαιὸν λόγον ἢ μεταπείσωμεν ὡς ἀγνοοῦντα. καίτοι τί λέγω Ῥητορικῶς; μὴ γάρ, ἐπειδή τινες τῶν Ῥητόρων, ἃ μάλιστʼ ἀδυνατοῦσι διαλύεσθαι, ταῦτα διαγελάσαντες οὐδʼ ἐπιχειροῦσιν ἀντιλέγειν, ἤδη που τοῦτο καὶ ἡμεῖς ἡγώμεθʼ εἶναι τὸ Ῥητορικῶς· τὸ γὰρ διὰ λόγου k.v.2.p.62 πιθανοῦ ἐστι τὸ Ῥητορικῶς, τὸ δʼ ἄνευ λόγου βωμολοχικόν, οὐ Ῥητορικόν. οὔκουν οὔτε Ῥητορικῶς οὔτε διαλεκτικῶς ἀντεῖπεν ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος ἐν τῷ περὶ τῆς καταπόσεως λόγῳ. τί γάρ φησιν; "Ὁλκὴ μὲν οὖν τῆς κοιλίας οὐδεμία φαίνεται εἶναι." πάλιν οὖν αὐτῷ παρʼ ἡμῶν ἀντιμαρτυρῶν ὁ αὐτὸς λόγος ἀντιπαραβαλλέσθω· περιστολὴ μὲν οὖν τοῦ στομάχου οὐδεμία φαίνεται εἶναι. καὶ πῶς οὐ φαίνεται; τάχʼ ἂν ἴσως εἴποι τις τῶν ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ· τὸ γὰρ ἀεὶ τῶν ἄνωθεν αὐτοῦ μερῶν συστελλομένων διαστέλλεσθαι τὰ κάτω πῶς οὐκ ἔστι τῆς περιστολῆς ἐνδεικτικόν; αὖθις οὖν ἡμεῖς, καὶ πῶς οὐ φαίνεται, φήσομεν, ἡ τῆς κοιλίας ὁλκή; τὸ γὰρ ἀεὶ τῶν κάτωθεν μερῶν τοῦ στομάχου διαστελλομένων συστέλλεσθαι τὰ ἄνω πῶς οὐκ ἔστι τῆς ὁλκῆς ἐνδεικτικόν; εἰ δὲ σωφρονήσειέ ποτε καὶ γνοίη τὸ φαινόμενον τοῦτο μηδὲν μᾶλλον τῆς ἑτέρας τῶν δοξῶν ὑπάρχειν ἐνδεικτικὸν ἀλλʼ ἀμφοτέρων εἶναι κοινόν, οὕτως ἂν ἤδη δείξαιμεν αὐτῷ τὴν ὀρθὴν ὁδὸν τῆς τοῦ ἀληθοῦς εὑρέσεως.

ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τῆς κοιλίας αὖθις. ἡ δὲ τῆς k.v.2.p.63 τροφῆς ἀνάδοσις οὐδὲν δεῖται τῆς πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον ἀκολουθίας ἅπαξ γε τῆς ἑλκτικῆς δυνάμεως ἐπὶ τῶν νεφρῶν ὡμολογημένης, ἣν καίτοι πάνυ σαφῶς ἀληθῆ γιγνώσκων ὑπάρχειν ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος οὔτʼ ἐμνημόνευσεν οὔτʼ ἀντεῖπεν οὔθʼ ὅλως ἀπεφήνατο, τίνʼ ἔχει δόξαν ὑπὲρ τῆς τῶν οὔρων διακρίσεως.

ἢ διὰ τί προειπὼν εὐθὺς κατʼ ἀρχὰς τῶν καθʼ ὅλου λόγων, ὡς ὑπὲρ τῶν φυσικῶν ἐνεργειῶν ἐρεῖ, πρῶτον τίνες τʼ εἰσὶ καὶ πῶς γίγνονται καὶ διὰ τίνων τόπων, ἐπὶ τῆς τῶν οὔρων διακρίσεως, ὅτι μὲν διὰ νεφρῶν, ἀπεφήνατο, τὸ δʼ ὅπως γίγνεται παρέλιπε; μάτην οὖν ἡμᾶς καὶ περὶ τῆς πέψεως ἐδίδαξεν, ὅπως γίγνεται, καὶ περὶ τῆς τοῦ χολώδους περιττώματος διακρίσεως κατατρίβει. ἤρκει γὰρ εἰπεῖν κἀνταῦθα τὰ μόρια, διʼ ὧν γίγνεται, τὸ δʼ ὅπως παραλιπεῖν. ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν ἐκείνων εἶχε λέγειν, οὐ μόνον διʼ ὧν ὀργάνων ἀλλὰ καὶ καθʼ ὅντινα γίγνεται τρόπον, ὥσπερ οἶμαι καὶ περὶ τῆς ἀναδόσεως· οὐ γὰρ ἤρκεσεν εἰπεῖν αὐτῷ μόνον, ὅτι διὰ φλεβῶν, ἀλλὰ καὶ πῶς ἐπεξῆλθεν, ὅτι τῇ k.v.2.p.64 πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον ἀκολουθίᾳ· περὶ δὲ τῶν οὔρων τῆς διακρίσεως, ὅτι μὲν διὰ νεφρῶν γίγνεται, γράφει, τὸ δʼ ὅπως οὐκέτι προστίθησιν. οὐδὲ γὰρ οἶμαι τῇ πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον ἀκολουθίᾳ ἦν εἰπεῖν· οὕτω γὰρ ἂν οὐδεὶς ὑπʼ ἰσχουρίας ἀπέθανεν οὐδέποτε μὴ δυναμένου πλείονος ἐπιρρυῆναί ποτε παρὰ τὸ κενούμενον· ἄλλης γὰρ αἰτίας μηδεμιᾶς προστεθείσης, ἀλλὰ μόνης τῆς πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον ἀκολουθίας ποδηγούσης τὸ συνεχές, οὐκ ἐγχωρεῖ πλέον ἐπιρρυῆναί ποτε τοῦ κενουμένου. ἀλλʼ οὐδʼ ἄλλην τινὰ προσθεῖναι πιθανὴν αἰτίαν εἶχεν, ὡς ἐπὶ τῆς ἀναδόσεως τὴν ἔκθλιψιν τῆς γαστρός. ἀλλʼ αὕτη γʼ ἐπὶ τοῦ κατὰ τὴν κοίλην αἵματος ἀπωλώλει τελέως, οὐ τῷ μήκει μόνον τῆς ἀποστάσεως ἐκλυθεῖσα, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῷ τὴν καρδίαν ὑπερκειμένην ἐξαρπάζειν αὐτῆς σφοδρῶς καθʼ ἑκάστην διαστολὴν οὐκ ὀλίγον αἷμα.

μόνη δή τις ἔτι καὶ πάντων ἔρημος ἀπελείπετο τῶν σοφισμάτων ἐν τοῖς κάτω τῆς κοίης ἡ πρὸς k.v.2.p.65 τὸ κενούμενον ἀκολουθία, διά τε τοὺς ἐπὶ ταῖς ἰσχουρίαις ἀποθνήσκοντας ἀπολωλεκυῖα τὴν πιθανότητα καὶ διὰ τὴν τῶν νεφρῶν θέσιν οὐδὲν ἧττον. εἰ μὲν γὰρ ἅπαν ἐπʼ αὐτοὺς ἐφέρετο τὸ αἷμα, δεόντως ἄν τις ἅπαν ἔφασκεν αὐτὸ καθαίρεσθαι. νυνὶ δέ, οὐ γὰρ ὅλον ἀλλὰ τοσοῦτον αὐτοῦ μέρος, ὅσον αἱ μέχρι νεφρῶν δέχονται φλέβες, ἐπʼ αὐτοὺς ἔρχεται, μόνον ἐκεῖνο καθαρθήσεται. καὶ τὸ μὲν ὀρρῶδες αὐτοῦ καὶ λεπτὸν οἷον διʼ ἠθμῶν τινων τῶν νεφρῶν διαδύσεται· τὸ δʼ αἱματῶδές τε καὶ παχὺ κατὰ τὰς φλέβας ὑπομένον ἐμποδὼν στήσεται τῷ κατόπιν ἐπιρρέοντι. παλινδρομεῖν οὖν αὐτὸ πρότερον ἐπὶ τὴν κοίλην ἀναγκαῖον καὶ κενὰς οὕτως ἐργάζεσθαι τὰς ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς ἰούσας φλέβας, αἳ δεύτερον οὐκέτι παρακομιοῦσιν ἐπʼ αὐτοὺς ἀκάθαρτον αἷμα· κατειληφότος γὰρ αὐτὰς τοῦ προτέρου πάροδος οὐδεμία λέλειπται. τίς οὖν ἡμῖν ἡ δύναμις ἀπάξει πάλιν ὀπίσω τῶν νεφρῶν τὸ καθαρὸν αἷμα; τίς δὲ τοῦτο μὲν διαδεξαμένη κελεύσει πάλιν πρὸς τὸ κάτω μέρος ἰέναι τῆς κοίλης, ἑτέρῳ δʼ ἄνωθεν k.v.2.p.66 ἐπιφερομένῳ προστάξει, πρὶν ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς ἀπελθεῖν, μὴ φέρεσθαι κάτω;

ταῦτʼ οὖν ἅπαντα συνιδὼν ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος ἀποριῶν μεστὰ καὶ μίαν μόνην δόξαν εὔπορον εὑρὼν ἐν ἅπασι τὴν τῆς ὁλκῆς, οὔτʼ ἀπορεῖσθαι βουλόμενος οὔτε τὴν Ἱπποκράτους ἐθέλων λέγειν ἄμεινον ὑπέλαβε σιωπητέον εἶναι περὶ τοῦ τρόπου τῆς διακρίσεως.

ἀλλʼ εἰ κἀκεῖνος ἐσίγησεν, ἡμεῖς οὐ σιωπήσομεν· ἴσμεν γάρ, ὡς οὐκ ἐνδέχεται παρελθόντα τὴν Ἱπποκράτειον δόξαν, εἶθʼ ἕτερόν τι περὶ νεφρῶν ἐνεργείας εἰπόντα μὴ οὐ καταγέλαστον εἶναι παντάπασι. διὰ τοῦτʼ Ἐρασίστρατος μὲν ἐσιώπησεν, Ἀσκληπιάδης δʼ ἐψεύσατο παραπλησίως οἰκέταις λάλοις μὲν τὰ πρόσθεν τοῦ βίου καὶ πολλὰ πολλάκις ἐγκλήματα διαλυσαμένοις ὑπὸ περιττῆς πανουργίας, ἐπʼ αὐτοφώρῳ δέ ποτε κατειλημμένοις, εἶτʼ οὐδὲν ἐξευρίσκουσι σόφισμα κἄπειτʼ ἐνταῦθα τοῦ μὲν αἰδημονεστέρου σιωπῶντος, οἷον ἀποπληξίᾳ τινὶ κατειλημμένου, τοῦ δʼ ἀναισχυντοτέρου κρύπτοντος μὲν ἔθʼ ὑπὸ μάλης τὸ ζητούμενον, ἐξομνυμένου δὲ καὶ μηδʼ ἑωρακέναι πώποτε φάσκοντος. οὕτω γάρ τοι καὶ ὁ k.v.2.p.67 Ἀσκληπιάδης ἐπιλειπόντων αὐτὸν τῶν τῆς πανουργίας σοφισμάτων καὶ μήτε τῆς πρὸς τὸ λεπτομερὲς φορᾶς ἐχούσης ἔτι χώραν ἐνταυθοῖ ληρεῖσθαι μήθʼ ὡς ὑπὸ τῶν νεφρῶν γεννᾶται τουτὶ τὸ περίττωμα, καθάπερ ὑπὸ τῶν ἐν ἥπατι πόρων ἡ χολή, δυνατὸν ὂν εἰπόντα μὴ οὐ μέγιστον ὀφλεῖν γέλωτα, ἐξόμνυταί τε καὶ ψεύδεται φανερῶς, οὐ διήκειν λέγων ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς τὸ οὖρον ἀλλʼ ἀτμοειδῶς εὐθὺς ἐκ τῶν κατὰ τὴν κοίλην μερῶν εἰς τὴν κύστιν ἀθροίζεσθαι.

οὗτοι μὲν οὖν τοῖς ἐπʼ αὐτοφώρῳ κατειλημμένοις οἰκέταις ὁμοίως ἐκπλαγέντες ὁ μὲν ἐσιώπησεν, ὁ δʼ ἀναισχύντως ψεύδεται.

[17] τῶν δὲ νεωτέρων ὅσοι τοῖς τούτων ὀνόμασιν ἑαυτοὺς ἐσέμνυναν Ἐρασιστρατείους τε καὶ Ἀσκληπιαδείους ἐπονομάσαντες, ὁμοίως τοῖς ὑπὸ τοῦ βελτίστου Μενάνδρου κατὰ τὰς κωμῳδίας εἰσαγομένοις οἰκέταις, Δάοις τέ τισι καὶ Γέταις, οὐδὲν ἡγουμένοις σφίσι πεπρᾶχθαι γενναῖον, εἰ μὴ τρὶς ἐξαπατήσειαν τὸν δεσπότην, οὕτω καὶ αὐτοὶ κατὰ πολλὴν σχολὴν ἀναίσχυντα σοφίσματα συνέθεσαν, οἱ μέν, ἵνα μηδʼ ὅλως ἐξελεγχθείη ποτʼ k.v.2.p.68 Ἀσκληπιάδης ψευδόμενος, οἱ δʼ, ἵνα κακῶς εἴπωσιν, ἃ καλῶς ἐσιώπησεν Ἐρασίστρατος.

ἀλλὰ τῶν μὲν Ἀσκληπιαδείων ἅλις. οἱ δʼ Ἐρασιστράτειοι λέγειν ἐπιχειροῦντες, ὅπως οἱ νεφροὶ διηθοῦσι τὸ οὖρον, ἅπαντα δρῶσί τε καὶ πάσχουσι καὶ παντοῖοι γίγνονται πιθανὸν ἐξευρεῖν τι ζητοῦντες αἴτιον ὁλκῆς μὴ δεόμενον.

οἱ μὲν δὴ πλησίον Ἐρασιστράτου τοῖς χρόνοις γενόμενοι τὰ μὲν ἄνω τῶν νεφρῶν μόρια καθαρὸν αἷμα λαμβάνειν φασί, τῷ δὲ βάρος ἔχειν τὸ ὑδατῶδες περίττωμα βρίθειν τε καὶ ὑπορρεῖν κάτω· διηθούμενον δʼ ἐνταῦθα κατὰ τοὺς νεφροὺς αὐτοὺς χρηστὸν οὕτω γενόμενον ἅπασι τοῖς κάτω τῶν νεφρῶν ἐπιπέμπεσθαι τὸ αἷμα.

καὶ μέχρι γέ τινος εὐδοκίμησεν ἥδε ἡ δόξα καὶ ἤκμασε καὶ ἀληθὴς ἐνομίσθη· χρόνῳ δʼ ὕστερον καὶ αὐτοῖς τοῖς Ἐρασιστρατείοις ὕποπτος ἐφάνη καὶ τελευτῶντες ἀπέστησαν αὐτῆς. αἰτεῖσθαι γὰρ ἐδόκουν δύο ταῦτα μήτε συγχωρούμενα πρός τινος ἀλλʼ οὐδʼ ἀποδειχθῆναι δυνάμενα, πρῶτον μὲν τὸ βάρος τῆς ὀρρώδους ὑγρότητος ἐν τῇ k.v.2.p.69 κοίλῃ φλεβὶ γεννώενον, ὥσπερ οὐκ ἐξ ἀρχῆς ὑπάρχον, ὁπότʼ ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας εἰς ἧπαρ ἀνεφέρετο. τί δὴ οὖν οὐκ εὐθὺς ἐν ἐκείνοις τοῖς χωρίοις ὑπέρρει κάτω; πῶς δʼ ἄν τῳ δόξειεν εὐλόγως εἰρῆσθαι συντελεῖν εἰς τὴν ἀνάδοσιν ἡ ὑδατώδης ὑγρότης, εἴπερ οὕτως ἐστὶ βαρεῖα;

δεύτερον δʼ ἄτοπον, ὅτι κἂν κάτω συγχωρηθῇ φέρεσθαι πᾶσα καὶ μὴ κατʼ ἄλλο χωρίον ἢ τὴν κοίλην φλέβα, τίνα τρόπον εἰς τοὺς νεφροὺς ἐμπεσεῖται, χαλεπόν, μᾶλλον δʼ ἀδύνατον εἰπεῖν, μήτʼ ἐν τοῖς κάτω μέρεσι κειμένων αὐτῶν τῆς φλεβὸς ἀλλʼ ἐκ τῶν πλαγίων μήτʼ ἐμφυομένης εἰς αὐτοὺς τῆς κοίλης ἀλλʼ ἀπόφυσίν τινα μόνον εἰς ἑκάτερον πεμπούσης, ὥσπερ καὶ εἰς τἆλλα πάντα μόρια.

τίς οὖν ἡ διαδεξαμένη ταύτην δόξα καταγνωσθεῖσαν; ἐμοὶ μὲν ἠλιθιωτέρα μακρῷ φαίνεται τῆς προτέρας. ἤκμασε δʼ οὖν καὶ αὕτη ποτέ. φασὶ γάρ, εἰ κατὰ τῆς γῆς ἐκχυθείη μεμιγμένον ἔλαιον ὕδατι, διάφορον ἑκάτερον ὁδὸν βαδιεῖσθαι καὶ Ῥυήσεσθαι τὸ μὲν τῇδε, τὸ δὲ τῇδε. θαυμαστὸν οὖν οὐδὲν εἶναί φασιν, εἰ τὸ μὲν ὑδατῶδες ὑγρὸν k.v.2.p.70 εἰς τοὺς νεφροὺς Ῥεῖ, τὸ δʼ αἷμα διὰ τῆς κοίλης φέρεται κάτω. κατέγνωσται οὖν ἤδη καὶ ἥδε ἡ δόξα. διὰ τί γὰρ ἀπὸ τῆς κοίλης μυρίων ἐκπεφυκυιῶν φλεβῶν αἷμα μὲν εἰς τὰς ἄλλας ἁπάσας, ἡ δʼ ὀρρώδης ὑγρότης εἰς τὰς ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς φερομένας ἐκτρέπεται; τοῦτʼ αὐτὸ τὸ ζητούμενον οὐκ εἰρήκασιν, ἀλλὰ τὸ γιγνόμενον εἰπόντες μόνον οἴονται τὴν αἰτίαν ἀποδεδωκέναι.

πάλιν οὖν, τὸ τρίτον τῷ σωτῆρι, τὴν χειρίστην ἁπασῶν δόξαν ἐξευρημένην νῦν ὑπὸ Λύκου τοῦ Μακεδόνος, εὐδοκιμοῦσαν δὲ διὰ τὸ καινὸν ἤδη λέγωμεν. ἀπεφήνατο γὰρ δὴ ὁ Λύκος οὗτος, ὥσπερ ἐξ ἀδύτου τινὸς χρησμὸν ἀποφθεγγόμενος, περίττωμα τῆς τῶν νεφρῶν θρέψεως εἶναι τὸ οὖρον. ὅτι μὲν οὖν αὐτὸ τὸ πινόμενον ἅπαν οὖρον γίγνεται, πλὴν εἴ τι μετὰ τῶν διαχωρημάτων ὑπῆλθεν ἢ εἰς ἱδρῶτας ἀπεχώρησεν ἢ εἰς τὴν ἄδηλον διαπνοήν, ἐναργῶς ἐνδείκνυται τὸ πλῆθος τῶν καθʼ ἑκάστην ἡμέραν οὐρουμένων. ἐν χειμῶνι δὲ μάλιστα μαθεῖν ἔστιν ἐπὶ τῶν ἀργούντων μέν, κωθωνιζομένων δέ, καὶ μάλιστʼ k.v.2.p.71 εἰ λεπτὸς ὁ οἶνος εἴη καὶ πόριμος. οὐροῦσι γὰρ οὗτοι διὰ ταχέων ὀλίγου δεῖν, ὅσονπερ καὶ πίνουσιν. ὅτι δὲ καὶ ὁ Ἐρασίστρατος οὕτως ἐγίγνωσκεν, οἱ τὸ πρῶτον ἀνεγνωκότες αὐτοῦ σύγγραμμα τῶν καθόλου λόγων ἐπίστανται. ὥσθʼ ὁ Λύκος οὔτʼ ἀληθῆ φαίνεται λέγων οὔτʼ Ἐρασιστράτεια, δῆλον δʼ ὡς οὐδʼ Ἀσκληπιάδεια, πολὺ δὲ μᾶλλον οὐδʼ Ἱπποκράτεια. λευκῷ τοίνυν κατὰ τὴν παροιμίαν ἔοικε κόρακι μήτʼ αὐτοῖς τοῖς κόραξιν ἀναμιχθῆναι δυναμένῳ διὰ τὴν χρόαν μήτε ταῖς περιστεραῖς διὰ τὸ μέγεθος, ἀλλʼ οὔτι που τούτου γʼ ἕνεκα παροπτέος· ἴσως γάρ τι λέγει θαυμαστόν, ὃ μηδεὶς τῶν ἔμπροσθεν ἔγνω.

τὸ μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα τὰ τρεφόμενα μόρια ποιεῖν τι περίττωμα συγχωρούμενον, τὸ δὲ τοὺς νεφροὺς μόνους, οὕτω σμικρὰ σώματα, χόας ὅλους τέτταρας ἢ καὶ πλείους ἴσχειν ἐνίοτε περιττώματος οὔθʼ ὁμολογούμενον οὔτε λόγον ἔχον· τὸ γὰρ ἑκάστου τῶν μειζόνων σπλάγχνων περίττωμα πλεῖον ἀναγκαῖον ὑπάρχειν. οἷον αὐτίκα τὸ τοῦ πνεύμονος, εἴπερ ἀνάλογον τῷ μεγέθει τοῦ k.v.2.p.72 σπλάγχνου γίγνοιτο, πολλαπλάσιον ἔσται δήπου τοῦ κατὰ τοὺς νεφρούς, ὥσθʼ ὅλος μὲν ὁ θώραξ ἐμπλησθήσεται, πνιγήσεται δʼ αὐτίκα τὸ ζῷον. ἀλλʼ εἰ ἴσον φήσει τις γίγνεσθαι τὸ καθʼ ἕκαστον τῶν ἄλλων μορίων περίττωμα, διὰ ποίων κύστεων ἐκκρίνεται; εἰ γὰρ οἱ νεφροὶ τοῖς κωθωνιζομένοις τρεῖς ἢ τέτταρας ἐνίοτε χόας ποιοῦσι περιττώματος, ἑκάστου τῶν ἄλλων σπλάγχνων πολλῷ πλείους ἔσονται καὶ πίθου τινὸς οὕτω μεγίστου δεήσει τοῦ δεξομένου τὰ πάντων περιττώματα. καίτοι πολλάκις, ὅσον ἔπιέ τις, ὀλίγου δεῖν οὔρησεν ἅπαν, ὡς ἂν ἐπὶ τοὺς νεφροὺς φερομένου τοῦ πόματος ἅπαντος.

ἔοικεν οὖν ὁ τὸ τρίτον ἐξαπατῶν οὗτος οὐδὲν ἀνύειν ἀλλʼ εὐθὺς γεγονέναι κατάφωρος καὶ μένειν ἔτι τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἄπορον Ἐρασιστράτῳ τε καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἅπασι πλὴν Ἱπποκράτους. διατρίβω δʼ ἑκὼν ἐν τῷ τόπῳ σαφῶς εἰδώς, ὅτι μηδὲν εἰπεῖν ἔχει μηδεὶς ἄλλος περὶ τῆς τῶν νεφρῶν ἐνεργείας, ἀλλʼ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τῶν μαγείρων ἀμαθεστέρους φαίνεσθαι μηδʼ ὅτι διηθεῖται διʼ αὐτῶν τὸ οὖρον k.v.2.p.73 ὁμολογοῦντας ἢ τοῦτο συγχωρήσαντας μηδὲν ἔτʼ ἔχειν εἰπεῖν ἕτερον αἴτιον τῆς διακρίσεως πλὴν τῆς ὁλκῆς.

ἀλλʼ εἰ μὴ τῶν οὔρων ἡ φορὰ τῇ πρὸς τὸ κενούμενον ἀκολουθίᾳ γίγνεται, δῆλον, ὡς οὐδʼ ἡ τοῦ αἵματος οὐδʼ ἡ τῆς χολῆς ἢ εἴπερ ἐκείνων καὶ τούτου· πάντα γὰρ ὡσαύτως ἀναγκαῖον ἐπιτελεῖσθαι καὶ κατʼ αὐτὸν τὸν Ἐρασίστρατον.

εἰρήσεται δʼ ἐπὶ πλέον ὑπὲρ αὐτῶν ἐν τῷ μετὰ ταῦτα γράμματι.

Notes on the current edition

On the Natural Faculties.

1. Ergon, here rendered an effect, is literally a work or deed; strictly speaking, it is something done, completed, as distinguished from energia, which is the actual doing, the activity which produces this ergon. cf. p. 13., and Introduction, p.xxx.

2. Gk. psyche, Lat. anima

3. Gk. physis, Lat. natura

4. Motion (kinesis) is Aristotle's general term for what we would rather call change. It includes various kinds of change, as well as movement proper. cf. Introduction, p. xxix.

5. Conveyance, transport, transit; purely mechanical or passive motion, as distinguished from ateration (qualitative change).

6. Waxing and waning, the latter literally phthisis, a wasting or decline; cf. Scotch dwining, Dutch verdwijnen.

7. Becoming and perishing: Latin generation et corruptio.

8. Ad substantiam productio seu ad formam processus (Linacre).

9. Preformationist doctrine of Anaxagoras. To him the apparent alteration in qualities took place when a number of minute pre-existing bodies, all bearing the same quality, came together in sufficient numbers to impress that quality on the senses. The factor which united the minute quality-bearers was Nous. In the beginning, says Anaxagoras, all things existed together-then came Nous and brought them into order.

10. De ea alteratione quae per totam fi substantiam (Linacre).

11. The systematizer of Stoicism and successor of Zeno.

12. Note characteristic impatience with metaphysics. To Galen, as to Hippocrates and Aristotle, it sufficed to look on the qualitative differences apprehended by the senses as fundamental. Zeno of Citium was the founder of the Stoic school; on the further analysis by this school of the qualities into bodies cf. p. 144, note 3.

13. A rallying-ground: lit. a place where two glens meet.

14. Thus according to Gomperz ( Greek Thinkers ), the hypothesis of Anaxagoras was that the bread...already contained the countless forms of matter as such which the human body displays. Their minuteness of size would withdraw them from our perception. For the defect or 'weakness' of the senses is the narrowness of their receptive area. These elusive particles are rendered visible and tangible by the process of nutrition, which combines them.

15. Therefore the blood must have come from the bread. The food from the alimentary canal was supposed by Galenn to be converted into blood in and by the portal veins. cf. p. 17.

16. By elements is meant all homogenous, amorphous substances, such as metals, &c., as well as the elementary tissues.

17. Work or product. Lat. opus. cf. p. 3, note 2.

18. Operation, activiation, or functioning. Lat. actio. cf. loc cit.

19. i.e.. a concomitant (secondary) or passive affection. Galen is contrasting active and passive motion. cf. p. 6, note 1.

20. As already indicated, there is no exact English equivalent for the Greek term physis, which is a principle immanent in the animal itself, whereas our term Nature suggests someting more transcendent; we are forced often, however, to employ it in default of a better word. cf. p. 2, note 1.

21. In Greek anadosis. This process includes two stages: (1) transmission of food from alimentary canal to liver (rather more than our absorption); (2) further transmission from liver to tissues. Anadosis is lit. a yielding-up, a delivery; it may sometimes be rendered dispersal. Distribution ( diadosis) is a further stage; cf. p. 163, note 4.

22. cf. p. 9.

23. Since heat and cold tend to cause diffusion and condensation respectively

24. Lit. haematopoietic. cf. p. 11, note 3.

25. Lit. peptic.

26. Lit. sphygmic.

27. Genesis corresponds to the intrauterine life, or what we may call embrogeny. Alteration here means histogeness or tissue-production; shaping or moulding (in Greek diaplasis)means the ordering of these tissues into organs (organogenesis).

28. cf. p. 25, note 4.

29. Note inadequate analogy of semen with fertilised seeds of plants ( i.e.. of gamete with zygote). Strictly speaking, of course, semen corresponds to pollen. cf. p. 130, note 2.

30. i.e. the four primary qualities; cf. chap. iii. supra

31. Various secondary or derivative differences in the tissues. Note pre-eminence of sense of touch.

32. De Anima, ii. et seq.

33. Lit. homoeomerous =of similar parts throughout, the same all through. He refers to the elementary tissues, conceived as not being susceptible of further analysis.

34. That is, by the bodily eye, and not by the mind's eye. The observer is here called an autoptes or eye-witness. Our medical term autopsy thus means literally a persona inspection of internal parts, ordinarily hidden.

35. i.e.. alteration is the earlier of the two stages which constitute embryogeny or genesis. cf. p. 18, note 1.

36. The terms Galen actually uses are: ostopoietic, neuropoietic, chondropoietic.

37. As we should say, parenchyma (a term used by Erasistratus).

38. These were all the elementary tissues that Aristotle, for example, had recognized; other tissues ( e.g. flesh or muscle)he believed to be complexes of these.

39. Or tunics.

40. i.e.. issues.

41. As, for example, Aristotle had held; cf. p. 23, note 3. Galen added many new tissues to those described by Aristotle.

42. Lit. snythesis.

43. By this is meant the duodenum, considered as an outgrowth or prolongation of the stomach towards the intestines.

44. cf. p. 19, note 2.

45. Lit. the auxetic or incremental faculty.

46. i.e.. to the alterative and shaping faculties (histogenetic and organogenetic).

47. If the reading is correct we can only suppose that Galen meant the embryo.

48. i.e.. not the pre-natal development of tissue already described. cf. chap. vi.

49. The activation or functioning of this faculty, the faculty in actual operation. cf. p. 3, note 2.

50. Un rapport commun et une affinitè (Daremberg). Societatem aliquam cognationemque in qualitatibus (Linacre). cf. p. 36, note 2.

51. Lit. necessity; more restrictive, however, than our law of Nature. cf. p. 314, note 1.

52. His point is that no great change, in coours or in anything else, can take place at one step.

53. Not quite our waste products, since these are considered as being partly synthetic, whereas the Greek perittomata were simply superfluous substances which could not be used and were thrown aside.

54. Note our natures, cf. p. 12, note 4; p. 47, note 1.

55. Ther term οἰκεῖος, here rendered appropriate, is explained on p. 33. cf. also footnote on same page. Linacre often translated it conveniens, and it may usually be rendered proper, peculiar, own special, or own particular in English. Sometimes it is almost equal to akin, cognate, related : cf. p. 319, note 2. With Galen's οἰκεῖος and ἀλλότριοv we may compare the German terms eigen and fremd used by Aberthalden in connection with his theory of defensive ferments in the blood-serum

56. Transit, cf. p. 6, note 1.

57. i.e.. of the living organism, cf. p. 2, note 1.

58. i.e.. with nutrition.

59. We might perhaps say, more shortly, assimilation of food to feeder, or, of food to fed; Linacre reanders, nutrimenti cum nutrito assimilatio.

60. Lit. prosphysis, i.e. attachment, implantation.

61. Lit. prosthesis, apposition. One is almost tempted to retain the terms prosthesis and prosphysis in translation, as they obviously correspond much more closely to Galen's physiological conceptions than any English or semi-English words can.

62. Lit. phthisis. cf. p. 6, note 2. Now means tuberculosis only.

63. More literally, chymified. In anasarca the subcutaneous tissue is soft, and pits on pressure. In the white disease referred to here (by which is probably meant modular leprosy ) the same tissues are indurated and brawny. The principle of certain diseases being best explained as cases of arrest at various stages of the metabolic path is recognized in modern pathology, although of course the instances given by Galen are too crude to stand.

64. The effects of oxidation attributed to the heat which accompanies it? cf. p. 141, note 1; p. 254, note1.

65. Here follows a contrast between the Vitalists and the Epicurean Atomists. cf. p. 153 et seq.

66. A unity or continuum, an individuum.

67. Lit. to the physis or the psyche; that is, a denial of the autonomy of physiology and psychology.

68. Lit. somata.

69. A lost work.

70. For Asclepiades v. p. 49, note 5.

71.

Le corps tout entier a unité de souffle ( perspiration et expiration ) et unité de flux ( courants, cirulation des liquides )

(Daremberg).

Conspirabile et confluxile corpus esse

(Linacre). Apparently Galen refers to the pneuma and the various humours. cf. p. 293, note 2.

72. i.e.. Appropriated; very nearly assimilated.

73. Attractricem convenientis qualitatis vim (Linacre). cf. p. 36, note 2.

74. Lit. obvious phenomena.

75. Asclepiades of Bithynia, who flourished in the first half of the first century B.C., was an adherent of the atomistic philosophy of Democritus, and is the typical representative of the Mechanistic school in Graeco-Roman medicine; he disbelieved in any principle of individuality ( nature) in the organism, and his methods of tratment, in accordance with his pathology, were mechano-therapeutical. cf. p. 64, note 3.

76. Diocles of Carystus was the chief representtive of the Dogmatic or Hippocratic school in the first half of the fourth century B.C. Praxagoras was his disciple, and followed him in the leadership of the school. For Erasistratus, cf. p. 95 et seq.

77. Sufferers from kidney-trouble.

78. The ureters.

79. Unless otherwise stated, peritoneum stands for parietal peritoneum alone

80. In the peritoneal cavity.

81. Contrast, however, anasarca, p. 41.

82. Regurgitaion, however, is prevented by the fact that the ureter runs for nearly one inch obliquely through the bladder wall before opening in to its cavity, and thus an efficient valve is produced.

83. On the τέχνη (artistic or creative skill) shown by the living organism ( φύσιv) v pp. 25, 45, 47; Introduction, p. xxix.

84. Direct denial of Aristotle's dictum that Nature does nothing in vain. We are reminded of the view of certain modern laboratory physicians and surgeons that the colon is a useless organ. cf. Erasistratus, p. 143.

85. The vasa deferentia.

86. De l'habileté et de la prévoyance de la nature à l'égard des animaux (Daremberg). cf. p. 56, note 1.

87. cf. p. 36, note 2.

88. The morbid material passed successively through the stages of crudity, coction ( pepsis ) and elimination ( crisis ). For critical days cf. p. 74, note 1.

89. This was the process by which nutriment was taken up from the alimentary canal; absoprtion, dispersal; cf. p. 13, note 5. The subject is dealt with more fully in chap. xvi.

90. Lit. catharsis.

91. i.e.. urine.

92. On use of κενόω v. p. 67, note 9.

93. i.e.. bile and phlegm had no existence as such before the drugs were given; they are the products of dissolved tissue. Asclepiades did not believe that diseases were due to a materia peccans, but to disturbances in the movements of the molecules ( ὄρκοι) which constitute the body; thus, in opposition to the humoralists such as Galen, he had no use for drugs. cf. p. 49, note 5.

94. About 4 oz., or one-third of a pint.

95. The Empiricists. cf. Introduction, p. xiii.

96. His ὄρκοι or momlecules.

97. he does not say organized or living body; inanimate things were also thougth to posses natures; cf. p. 2, note 1.

98. Carthamus tinctorius.

99. Daphne Gnidium.

100. Euphorbia acanthothamnos.

101. Teucrium chamaedrys.

102. Atractylis gummifera.

103. On use of κενόω cf. p. 98, note 1.

104. Empiricist physicians

105. Note that drugs also have natures; cf. p. 66, note 3, and pp. 83-84.

106. Pun here.;

107. Lit. physiology, i.e. nature-lore, almost our Natural Philosophy; cf. Introduction, p. xxvi.

108. The ultimate particle of Epicurus was the ἄτομοv or atom (lit. non-divisible), of Asclepiades, the ὄρκοv or molecule. Asclepiades took his atomic theory from Epicurus, and he again from Democritus; cf. p. 49, note 5.

109. Lit. Herculean stone.

110. Lit. aetiology.

111. Anadosis; cf. p. 62, note 1.

112. cf. p. 45.

113. The vis conservatrix et medicatrix Naturae.

114. cf. p. 61, note 3. The crisis or resolution in fevers was observed to take place with a certain regularity; hence arose the doctrine of critical days.

115. These were hypothetical spaces or channels between the atoms; cf. Introduction, p. xiv.

116. He means the specific drawing power or faculty of the lodestone.

117. cf. our modern radium-emanations.

118. cf. Ehrlich's hypothesis of receptors in explanation of the affinities of animal cells.

119. i.e.. from the point of view of the theory.

120. cf. p. 69, note 2.

121. That is to say, the two properties should bo together in all cases — which they do not.

122. Trygon pastinaca..

123. cf. p. 66, note 3.

124. The way that corn can attract moisture.

125. Specific attraction of the proper quality; cfr. p. 85, note 3.

126. Theory of evaporation insufficient to account for it. cf. p. 104, note 1.

127. Playful suggestion of free-will in the urine.

128. Specific attraction. cf. p. 87, note 2.

129. i.e.. there would be no selective action.

130. Nasal mucus was supposed to be the non-utilizable part of the nutriment conveyed to the brain. cf. p. 214, note 3.

131. He means from its origin in th liver ( i.e..in the three hepatic veins). His idea was that the upper division took nutriment to heart, lungs, head, etc., and the lower division to lower part of body. On the relation of right auricle to vena cava and right ventricle, cf. p. 321, notes 4 and 5.

132. We arrive at our belief by excluding other possibilities.

133. i.e..the mechanistic physicists. cf. pp. 45-47.

134. cf. p. 85, note 3.

135. The subject of anadosis is taken up in the next chapter. cf. also p. 62, note 1.

136. On Erasistratus v. Introd. p. xii.

137. Erasistatus' view that the stomach exerts no holké, or attraction, is dealt with more fully in Book III., chap. viii.

138. i.e.. the tissues.

139. cf. p. 291.

140. Peristalsis may be used here to translate Gk. peristolé, meaning the contraction and dilation of muscle-fibres circularly round a lumen cf.p. 263, note 2.

141. For a demonstration that this phenomenon is a conclusive proof neither of peristolé nor of real vital attraction, but is found even in dead bodies v. p. 267.

142. This was Erasistratus's favourite principle, known in Latin as the horror vacui and in English as Nature's abhorrence of a vacuum, although these terms are not an exact translation of the Greek. τὸ κενούμενον probably means the vacuum, not the matter evacuated, although Galen elsewhere uses κενόω in the latter (non-classical) sense, e.g. pp. 67, 215. Akolouthia is a following-up, a sequence, almost a consequence.

143. v. p. 123.

144. cf. Book II., chap. i.

145. Vital factor necessary over and above the mechanical.

146. cf. p. 199, note 2.

147. pp. 91, 93.

148. i.e.. the part below the liver; cf. p. 91, note 2.

149. Renal veins.

150. cf. p. 87, note 3

151. κοίλην: the usual reading is λοιλίαν, which would make it from the region of the alimentary canal. cf. p. 118, note 1.

152. Not at an earlier stage, when it is still on its way from the alimentary canal to the liver.

153. i.e.. a renal vein.

154. In a toast, the third cup was drunk to Zeus Soter (the Saviour).

155. An anatomist of the Alexandrian school.

156. cf. nasal mucus, p. 90, note 1.

157. Sur l'Ensemble des Choses (Daremberg).

158. About twelve quarts. This is about five times as much as the average daily excretion, and could only be passed if a very large amount of wine were drunk.

159. cf. p. 51.

160. Horror vacui. Note analogical reasoning; cf. p. 289, note 1.

Galen De naturalibus facultatibus 1

Arthur John Brock (Translator)

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ON THE NATURAL FACULTIES Book I

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ΓΑΛΗΝΟΥ ΠΕΡΙ ΔΥΝΑΜΕΩΝ ΦΥΣΙΚΩΝ ΒΙΒΛΙΟΝ ΠΡΩΤΟΝ.

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ΒΙΒΛΙΟΝ ΠΡΩΤΟΝ.