A word of caution is needed: Plutarch emphatically was no naturalist. The zoological material is a hodge-podge of misinformation dredged up from various zoological sources, seasoned here and there with personal contributions, which are not necessarily correct. In the original sources, terms for specific types of animals were probably used with considerable precision. It is my impression that Plutarch often had only a vague idea of the meaning of such terms. For example, he consistently uses the specific term for a rock dove, but probably had in mind any type of domestic dove. Similarly, dorcas was used in Greece commonly as a term for the roedeer, but in Asia Minor for the common gazelle. In the original sources the word probably denoted specifically one or the other, depending on where the man lived; but Plutarch may well have used the term vaguely for any type of small deer, including gazelles and antelopes. Alfred C. Andrews

1. Mammals

Αἴλουρος: wild cat of Egypt ( Felis ocreata Gm.) and of Europe ( F. silvestris Schreb.) and domestic form ( F. domestica Briss.).

Αἴξ: domestic goat, Capra hircus L.

Ἀλώπηξ: fox, esp. Vulpes vulgaris Flem.

Ἄρκτος: bear, more esp. the European brown bear, Ursus arctos L.

Βοῦς: domestic ox, Bos taurus L.

Γαλέη ( γαλῆ): the weasel ( Putorius vulgaris Cuv.), and such similar animals as the marten ( Martes sp.) and the polecat or foumart ( Mustela putorius L.).

Δασύρους: hare (see Λαγωός).

Δελφίς: dolphin, esp. Delphinus delphis L.

Δορκάς: in Greece, usually a term for the roedeer, Capreolus capreolus L.; in Asia Minor, usually a term for the common gazelle, Gazella dorcas L.

* Ἔλαφος: in Greece, usually a term for the red-deer, Cervus elaphus L.; in Ionia, usually a term for the fallow-deer, C. dama L.

᾽Ελέφας: elephant, Elephas indicus L. and Ε. africanus Blumenb.

Ἔριφος: usually a kid (see Αἴξ); sometimes a very young lamb (see Ὄϊς).

᾽Εχῖνος ( χερσαῖος): common hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus L.

Ἡμίονος: mule, usually by mare and he-ass, sometimes by stallion and she-ass; in Syria, a term for the wild ass ( Asinus onager Sm.) or the dschigetai ( A. hemionus Sm.).

Ἵππος: horse, Caballus caballus L.

Ἵππος ποτάμιος: hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius L.

Ἰχνεύμων: ichneumon, Herpestes ichneumon L.

Κάμηλος: the Bactrian camel, Camelus bactrianus L., and the Arabian camel or dromedary, C. dromedarius L.

Κάπρος: wild boar, mostly Sus scrofa ferus Rütimeyer.

Κῆτος: in Plutarch usually whale, as in 980 F. See also Κῆτος under FISHES.

Κριός: ram (see Ὀϊς).

Κύων: dog, Canis familiaris L.

Λαγωός: hare, esp. the common European hare ( Lepus europaeus Pall.), to a lesser degree the variable hare ( L. timidus L.).

Λέων: lion, Felis leo L.

Λύνξ: lynx, Lynx lynx L.; caracal, Lynx caracal Güld.

Λύκος: wolf, Canis lupus L.

Ὄϊς: domestic sheep, Ovis aries L.

Ὄνος: domestic ass, Asinus domesticus Sm.

Ὀρεύς: mule (see Ἡμίονος).

Ὄρυξ: chiefly the scimitar-horned oryx ( Oryx leucoryx Pall.) and the straight-horned oryx ( O. beisa Rüppel).

Πάρδαλις: panther or leopard, Felis pardus antiquorum Smith.

Πρόβατον: sheep (see Ὄϊς).

Σύς: pig, Sus scrofa domesticus Rütimeyer.

Ταῦρος: bull (see Βοῦς).

Τίγρις: tiger, Felis tigris L.

Φώην: seal, including the common seal ( Phoca vitulina L.) and the monk seal ( P. monachus Herm.).

2. Birds

Ἀετός: eagle, esp. Aquila sp.

Ἀηδών: nightingale, chiefly Luscinia megarhyncha Brehm.

Ἀλεκτρυών: domestic cock, Gallus domesticus Briss.

Ἀλκυών: kingfisher, Alcedo ispida L.

Γέρανος: common crane, Grus grus L.

Ἐρωδιός: heron, including the common heron ( Ardea cinerea L.), the greater European egret ( Herodias alba Gray), the lesser European egret ( Garzetta garzetta L.), and the bittern ( Botaurus stellaris L.).

Ἶβις: ibis, including the sacred white ibis ( Ibis aethiopica Ill.) and the black ibis ( Plegades falcinellus Kaup.).

Ἱεραξ: smaller hawks and falcons generically.

Ἰκτῖνος: kite, including the common kite ( Milvus ictinus Sav.) and the black kite ( Μ. ater Gm.).

Κίττα: jay, Garrulus glandarius L.; sometimes the magpie, Pica caudata L.

Κολοιός: jackdaw, Corvus monedula L.

Κόραξ: raven, Corvus corax L.

Κορώνη: crow ( Corvus corone L.) and hooded crow ( C. cornix L.).

Κύκνος: swan, Cygnus olor Gra. and C. musicus Bkst.

Μέροψ: bee-eater, Merops apiaster L.

Πελαργός: stork, esp. Ciconia alba L.

Πέρδιξ: partridge, esp. the Greek partridge, Alectoris graeca Kaup; in Italy also the red-legged partridge, A. rufa Kaup.

Περιστερά: rock-dove, Columba livia L.; domestic rock-dove, C. livia domestica L.

Τροχίλος: Egyptian plover, Pluvianus aegyptius Viell.; elsewhere also the common European wren, Troglodytes troglodytes L.

Χελιδών: swallow, including the chimney swallow ( Chelidon rustica L.) and the house-martin ( Chelidon urbica Boie).

Χήν: as a wild type, the gray or graylag goose ( Anser cinereus Meyer) and the bean goose ( Anser segetum Bonn.), often the domestic type of the gray goose.

Ψάρ: starling, Sturnus vulgaris L.

Ψιττακός: parrot, perhaps esp. Psittacus alexandri L. and P. torquatus Gm.

Ὠτίς: bustard, Otis tarda L.

Ὦτος: a horned or eared owl, not more specifically identifiable.

3. REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA

Βάτραχος: frog, Rana sp. and allied genera.

Κροκόδειλος: Nile crocodile, Crocodilus niloticus Laur.

Ὄφις: serpent generically.

Χαμαιλέων: the African chameleon, Chameleo vulgaris Latr.

Χελώνη ( χερσαία): tortoise, Testudo graeca L. and Τ. marginata Schoepff.; ( θαλαττία): sea-turtle, Thalassochelys corticata Rondel.

4. FISHES

Ἁλιεύς: fishing-frog, Lophius piscatorius L.

Ἀλώπηξ: fox-shark, Alopecias vulpes Bp.

Ἀμία: bonito, more esp. the pelamid or belted bonito, Sarda sarda Cuv., to a lesser degree the bonito or striped-bellied tunny, Katsuwonus pelamis Kish.

Ἀνθίας: in 977 c probably the Mediterranean barbier, Serranus anthias C. V.; sometimes spoken of as a much larger fish, then of uncertain identity.

Βελόνη: usually the pipefish ( Syngnathus rubescens Risso and S. acus L.) and the garfish ( Belone imperialis Vincig. and Strongylura acus Lacép.); in 983 C indeterminable.

Γαλεός: generic term for sharks and dogfishes, more esp. Scyllium canicula Cuv., S. catulus Cuv., and Mustelus vulgaris Müll.

Γαλῆ: principally the hake and rockling, Phycis sp. and Motella sp.

Γόγγρος: conger-eel, Conger vulgaris Cuv.

Ἔλλοψ: probably mostly the common sturgeon, Acipenser sturio L.

Ἡγεμών: usually the pilot-fish, Naucrates ductor Cuv.; in 980 F apparently also one of the globe-fishes, such as Diodon hystrix L.

Θρίσσα: probably the shad, Alosa vulgaris C. V., or the sardinelle, Sardinella aurita C. V.

Θύννος: tunny, mostly the common tunny, Thunnus thynnus L.

Ἱερός: sacred, an epithet applied to several fish, more especially the Ἀμθίας, the gilthead, the sturgeon, the dolphin, and the pilotfish.

Ἰουλίς: rainbow-wrasse, Coris iulis Gth.

Κεστρεύς: the gray mullet in general, sometimes the common gray mullet, Mugil capito Cuv., in particular.

Κῆτος: sometimes a large sea monster (as in 981 D), in other authors sometimes a huge fish (such as a large tunny), but more commonly, and usually in Plutarch, a whale.

Κολίας: coly-mackerel, Pneumatophorus colias Gm.

Κωβιός: goby, chiefly the black goby, Gobius niger L.

Λάβραξ: sea-bass, Labrax lupus Cuv.

Μορμύρος: type of sea bream, the mormyrus, Pagellus mormyrus C. V.

Μύραινα: moray or murry, Muraena helena L.

Νάρκη: torpedo or electric ray, esp. Torpedo marmorata Risso, less commonly Τ. narce Nardo and Τ. hebetans Löwe.

Περαίας: a type of gray mullet ( Mugil sp.).

Πηλαμύς: year-old tunny (see Θύννος).

Σαργός: sargue, esp. Sargus vulgaris Geoff.

Σκάρος: parrot-fish, Scarus cretensis C. V.

Σκορίος: sculpin, Scorpaena scrofa L. and S. porcus L.

Τρίγλα: the red or plain surmullet, Mullus barbatus L., and the striped or common surmullet, Μ. surmuletus L.

Φυκίς: a wrasse, probably specifically Crenilabrus pavo C. V.

Χρυσωρός: gilthead, Chrysophrys aurata C. V.

5. MOLLUSCS

Κόγχη: mussels in general, including oysters.

Λαγωός ( θαλάττιος): sea-hare, Aplysia depilans L.

Ὄστρεον: sometimes a generic term for mussels; more commonly a specific term for the common European oyster, Ostrea edulis L.; occasionally a term for other species of oyster, such as O. lamellosa Brocchi and O. cristata Lam.

Πίννη: pinna, especially Pinna nobilis L.; but also P. rudis L., P. rotundata L., and P. pectinata L.

Πολύπους: octopus, Octopus vulgaris Lam.

Πορφύρα: purplefish, Murex trunculus L., Μ. brandaris L., and Thais haemastoma Lam.

Σηπία: cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis L.

6. CRUSTACEA

Κάραβος: rock lobster, Palinurus vulgaris Latr.

Καρκίνος: crab, Decapoda brachyura Lam.

Πάγουρος: probably the common edible crab, Cancer pagurus L.

Πιννοτήρης: pinna-guard, Pinnoteres veterum L.

Σπογγοτήρης: sponge-guard, Typton spongicola Costa.

7. INSECTS AND SPIDERS

Ἀράχνης: spider (class Arachnoidea, order Araneida).

Μέλιττα: bee generically, but mostly domestic honeybee, Apis mellifera L.

Μύρμηξ: ant generically (family Formicidae).

Τέττιξ: cicada, esp. Cicada plebeia Scop, and C. orni L.

8. ECHINODERMS

Ἀστήρ: starfish generically, Asterias sp.

Ἐχῖνος ( θαλάττιος): sea-urchin, especially Echinus esculentus Lam. and Strongylocentrotus lividus Brdt.

9. PORIFERA

Σπόγγος: sponge, chiefly Euspongia officinalis Bronn. and Hippospongia equina Schmidt.